Biodiversity and Land Biodiversity and Land UseUse

Saving Species from UsSaving Species from Us

I. Dilemmas of Land Use I. Dilemmas of Land Use PolicyPolicy

A.A. Types of land use in the United StatesTypes of land use in the United States1.1. UrbanUrban

a.a. Small proportion of land (about 3%) but Small proportion of land (about 3%) but growing rapidly due to urban/suburban sprawlgrowing rapidly due to urban/suburban sprawl

b.b. Most of US population housed in urban areas Most of US population housed in urban areas (about five-sixths)(about five-sixths)

c.c. Key policies = urban growth initiatives Key policies = urban growth initiatives limit limit growth into surrounding low-density land (and growth into surrounding low-density land (and thereby increase property values and exclude thereby increase property values and exclude low-income residents)low-income residents)

2. Agriculture2. Agriculture

a.a. Largest single land use: 36% of US land Largest single land use: 36% of US land more than 50% if grazed woodlands and more than 50% if grazed woodlands and rural ponds, roads, and homesteads are rural ponds, roads, and homesteads are included (and more than 60% of lower 48)included (and more than 60% of lower 48)

b.b. Divided about evenly between cropland Divided about evenly between cropland and pasture (rangeland), with smaller and pasture (rangeland), with smaller amounts of grazed woodlandamounts of grazed woodland

c.c. Effects: Pesticide and fertilizer runoff, Effects: Pesticide and fertilizer runoff, water use, loss of biodiversitywater use, loss of biodiversity

d.d. Key policies: regulation of pesticides, Key policies: regulation of pesticides, incentives to leave land fallow, water incentives to leave land fallow, water subsidiessubsidies

3. Forests3. Forests

a.a. About one fourth of the USAbout one fourth of the US

b.b. Relatively high biodiversity, very Relatively high biodiversity, very low population densitylow population density

c.c. Key policies: Timber, mining, road Key policies: Timber, mining, road construction, fire controlconstruction, fire control

4. Wilderness: About 20% of 4. Wilderness: About 20% of US (only 10% of lower 48)US (only 10% of lower 48)

a.a. WetlandsWetlandsi.i. Importance: Natural pollution filters, Importance: Natural pollution filters,

flood control, replenishment of aquifers, flood control, replenishment of aquifers, biodiversitybiodiversity

ii.ii. Threats: Expansion of agriculture Threats: Expansion of agriculture accounts for most wetlands loss since accounts for most wetlands loss since 19501950

iii.iii. Rate of loss has slowed since 1970sRate of loss has slowed since 1970s

iv.iv. Key policies = Clean Water Act, “no net Key policies = Clean Water Act, “no net loss” ruleloss” rule

b. Desertsb. Deserts

i.i. Moderate biodiversity – lower than forests Moderate biodiversity – lower than forests or wetlands but greater than tundraor wetlands but greater than tundra

ii.ii. Threat: Damage is easiest to marginal Threat: Damage is easiest to marginal ecosystems. Examples = walking or ecosystems. Examples = walking or driving that disturbs biotic desert crust driving that disturbs biotic desert crust invasive grasses, loss of nitrogen-fixing invasive grasses, loss of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, loss of biodiversitybacteria, loss of biodiversity

iii.iii. Key policy = protected status of individual Key policy = protected status of individual deserts (little damage can be absorbed deserts (little damage can be absorbed multiple-use difficult to reconcile with multiple-use difficult to reconcile with environmental protection)environmental protection)

c. Tundra (Alaska)c. Tundra (Alaska)

i.i. Low biodiversity on land Low biodiversity on land extremely fragileextremely fragile

ii.ii. Threats: Energy exploitation Threats: Energy exploitation (drilling, roads, oil spills, pollution)(drilling, roads, oil spills, pollution)

iii.iii. Key policies: Status of ANWR (see Key policies: Status of ANWR (see textbook), National Petroleum textbook), National Petroleum Reserve (est. 1957), tanker/export Reserve (est. 1957), tanker/export regulations on Alaskan crude oilregulations on Alaskan crude oil

5. Protection Status5. Protection Status

a.a. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) – very Bureau of Land Management (BLM) – very friendly to mining and ranching interests friendly to mining and ranching interests multiple usemultiple use..

b.b. Forest Service (USFS) -- less friendly to Forest Service (USFS) -- less friendly to business interests than BLM business interests than BLM multiple use multiple use modifiedmodified by sustainable yield, conservation by sustainable yield, conservation

c.c. Fish & Wildlife Service: political football due Fish & Wildlife Service: political football due to role in Endangered Species Act (ESA) to role in Endangered Species Act (ESA) conflict between scientists and managers. conflict between scientists and managers. Lands are Lands are moderately-restricted usemoderately-restricted use (Dept. of (Dept. of Interior permission required for exploitation)Interior permission required for exploitation)

d.d. National Park Service: most land protected National Park Service: most land protected from development, major threat is tourism. from development, major threat is tourism. Restricted useRestricted use..

Locations of Parks, Locations of Parks, Preserves, Forests and Preserves, Forests and

RefugesRefuges

6. Sea: The Outer Continental 6. Sea: The Outer Continental ShelfShelf

a.a. Key dilemma = energy (risk of Key dilemma = energy (risk of spills) and sewage vs. biodiversityspills) and sewage vs. biodiversity

b.b. Other dilemma = fisheries vs. Other dilemma = fisheries vs. biodiversity (over-harvesting)biodiversity (over-harvesting)

c.c. Key policy = Outer Continental Key policy = Outer Continental Shelf Lands ActShelf Lands Act

B. Property Rights and B. Property Rights and PoliciesPolicies

1.1. Multiple Use vs. Preservation: Multiple Multiple Use vs. Preservation: Multiple uses conflict with each other, reducing uses conflict with each other, reducing environmental protectionenvironmental protection

2.2. Federal vs. State: States desire control, Federal vs. State: States desire control, not necessarily development (but states not necessarily development (but states with powerful ranching, mining, with powerful ranching, mining, agriculture interests will probably use the agriculture interests will probably use the land for those interests)land for those interests)

3.3. Private vs. Public: Confused by varying Private vs. Public: Confused by varying degrees of “privateness” – i.e. Forest degrees of “privateness” – i.e. Forest Service building roads for private Service building roads for private harvesting of timberharvesting of timber

4.4. Regulation and Rights: The Wise Use Regulation and Rights: The Wise Use Movement (more later in the Movement (more later in the environmental law unit)environmental law unit)

C. Input Trade-OffsC. Input Trade-Offs

Limit land Limit land more intensive use of more intensive use of other resources other resources more damage to more damage to environmentenvironment– Example: Limit farmland = incentives to Example: Limit farmland = incentives to

use fertilizers, grow strains of maximal use fertilizers, grow strains of maximal efficiency (leading to monoculture), efficiency (leading to monoculture), cultivate land more instensivelycultivate land more instensively

II. BiodiversityII. Biodiversity

A.A. Definition: Number of distinct species Definition: Number of distinct species in an area (not necessarily number of in an area (not necessarily number of individual plants or animals)individual plants or animals)

B.B. Why do we care? Why do we care? 1.1. Species extinction = irreversible loss of Species extinction = irreversible loss of

unique genetic codes that may lead to unique genetic codes that may lead to development of medicines, foods, and jobsdevelopment of medicines, foods, and jobs

2.2. Genetic diversity useful for agriculture – Genetic diversity useful for agriculture – creates pool of potential hybrids, esp. creates pool of potential hybrids, esp. when new plant diseases strike (example: when new plant diseases strike (example: banana)banana)

C. Is C. Is Biodiversity Biodiversity Decreasing?Decreasing?

1.1. Speciation is slow – Speciation is slow – Evolution works on Evolution works on long time scaleslong time scales

2.2. Species extinction Species extinction is occurring – is occurring – implies that implies that biodiversity is biodiversity is decreasing, since decreasing, since speciation is so speciation is so slowslow

3.3. Rate of decrease is Rate of decrease is disputeddisputed

a. Definitions affect a. Definitions affect conclusions (shift to 50-year conclusions (shift to 50-year standard in 1990s decreases standard in 1990s decreases

extinctions until 2040s)extinctions until 2040s)

b. Most studies show b. Most studies show increasing extinction rateincreasing extinction rate

c. Known Species c. Known Species ExtinctionsExtinctions

d. Species at Riskd. Species at Risk

D. Strategies to conserve D. Strategies to conserve biodiversitybiodiversity

1.1. Habitat protection – usual cause of Habitat protection – usual cause of extinction is not direct killing but extinction is not direct killing but loss of habitatloss of habitat

SPECIES-AREA RELATIONSHIPDiminishing returns to area Important issue for conservation: the loss of biodiversity occurs at an increasing rate as area gets smaller

D. Strategies to conserve D. Strategies to conserve biodiversitybiodiversity

1.1. Habitat protection – usual cause of Habitat protection – usual cause of extinction is not direct killing but extinction is not direct killing but loss of habitatloss of habitat

2.2. Identifying critical species – Identifying critical species – different strategies compete for different strategies compete for policy implementationpolicy implementation

a. Flagship Species

•Species that are selected to attract attention and funding from the public for conservation projects.

•“ …animals that are huge, ferocious, cuddly, cute, or of direct benefit to humans; they are the charismatic animals most likely to make people smile, feel goose-bumps, and write a check for conservation.” (Mills)

•Flagship species might not be good surrogates for broader biodiversity or ecosystem protection.

•What happens if the flagship sinks? Will public emotional investment in species turn to disenchantment with conservation in general? (Simberloff)

Charismatic Flagship Species

(Mills)

b. Umbrella Species•Species whose conservation provides protections for many co-occurring species.

•Traditionally, umbrella species have had large area requirements (large animals and carnivores).

•Idea is that if we conserve enough habitat for the umbrella species, then other species should be covered as well. Concept has been applied to selecting nature reserves.

•Little scientific evidence policy appears to be “precautionary principle” applied to species BUT some evidence indicates that range sufficient for large animals can actually be too small for many other animals

c. Indicator Species• “…Organism whose characteristics (presence or absence, population density, dispersion, reproductive success) are used as an index of attributes too difficult, inconvenient, or expensive to measure for other species or environmental conditions of interest.”

•Analogy: Canary in the coal mine

•Typical examples: amphibians, fish (both are highly sensitive to pollution)

d. Keystone Speciesi. Concept: Remove the keystone species and other

species will follow.ii. Criteria: species whose impact on ecosystem is large

and disproportionately large relative to its abundance or biomass.

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter:Sea Otter:

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins.

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Urchins eat kelp. Urchins eat kelp.

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Urchins eat kelp. When otters Urchins eat kelp. When otters decline, the urchin population decline, the urchin population explodes and eats all the kelp. explodes and eats all the kelp.

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Urchins eat kelp. When otters Urchins eat kelp. When otters decline, the urchin population decline, the urchin population explodes and eats all the kelp. Many explodes and eats all the kelp. Many species use the kelp forest for cover; species use the kelp forest for cover; absence of kelp is similar to absence of kelp is similar to transformation from forest to desert transformation from forest to desert ecosystem.ecosystem.

Kelp Kelp Forests Forests

Urchin Urchin BarrensBarrens

iii. Examplesiii. Examples

Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Urchins Sea Otter: Otters eat urchins. Urchins eat kelp. When otters decline, the eat kelp. When otters decline, the urchin population explodes and eats urchin population explodes and eats all the kelp. Many species use the all the kelp. Many species use the kelp forest for cover; absence of kelp kelp forest for cover; absence of kelp is similar to transformation from forest is similar to transformation from forest to desert ecosystem.to desert ecosystem.– Bonus: Sea Otters are food for Orcas (but Bonus: Sea Otters are food for Orcas (but

this means too many Orcas too close to this means too many Orcas too close to shore can be a problem…)shore can be a problem…)

Another example: StarfishAnother example: StarfishStarfish eat the most competitive mussels, creating niches for less competitive ones (and thus higher biodiversity on rocky shores)

III. Policy DilemmasIII. Policy DilemmasA.A. Home on the range? Public grasslands Home on the range? Public grasslands

policy and ranching in Western statespolicy and ranching in Western states1.1. The problem: Grazing animals are The problem: Grazing animals are

selective, removing preferred species and selective, removing preferred species and leaving non-preferred species to survive leaving non-preferred species to survive and reproduce (leads to desiccation and and reproduce (leads to desiccation and desertification)desertification)

2. The context2. The contexta.a. About 60% of US rangeland is privately owned About 60% of US rangeland is privately owned

(usually managed sustainably for maximum profit, (usually managed sustainably for maximum profit, but with low biodiversity). Most productive but with low biodiversity). Most productive rangeland is actually in the East (i.e. where it rains rangeland is actually in the East (i.e. where it rains and food grows)and food grows)

b.b. A few ranchers control most federal range (2% of A few ranchers control most federal range (2% of livestock producers have allotments and 98% livestock producers have allotments and 98% don’t). 5% of allotment holders control 58% of the don’t). 5% of allotment holders control 58% of the herbiage.herbiage.

c.c. Vast areas required due to low food density: 90% Vast areas required due to low food density: 90% of BLM land is used for grazing BUT only 2% of of BLM land is used for grazing BUT only 2% of cattle and 10% of sheep graze on public land. cattle and 10% of sheep graze on public land.

d.d. Confusion of public and private lands due to “base Confusion of public and private lands due to “base area” requirements and management terms of area” requirements and management terms of permits. Arizona example: Average ranch has 7 permits. Arizona example: Average ranch has 7 public acres for each acre of privately-owned land. public acres for each acre of privately-owned land. (Is this really the rancher’s ranch?)(Is this really the rancher’s ranch?)

3. State of the Range3. State of the Range

a.a. Status: Natural Resource Defense Status: Natural Resource Defense Council claims 30% of public Council claims 30% of public rangelands are in fair condition, while rangelands are in fair condition, while 55% are in poor or very poor condition.55% are in poor or very poor condition.

b.b. Some groups regard cattle grazing as Some groups regard cattle grazing as the most ubiquitous form of ecosystem the most ubiquitous form of ecosystem degradation in the southwestern U.S. degradation in the southwestern U.S. Many call for a complete grazing ban Many call for a complete grazing ban on all public lands.on all public lands.

4. Grazing Fees4. Grazing Fees

a.a. Fees charged for grazing on public lands Fees charged for grazing on public lands are far below market value and represent are far below market value and represent an enormous “hidden subsidy” to an enormous “hidden subsidy” to western ranchers.western ranchers.

– 1999 minimum charge was $1.35 per cow per 1999 minimum charge was $1.35 per cow per month.month.

– Comparable private land fees were $11.10 Comparable private land fees were $11.10 per cow per month.per cow per month.

– Estimates are that administrative costs alone Estimates are that administrative costs alone are $3.21 per animal unit, i.e. the public loses are $3.21 per animal unit, i.e. the public loses money on the deal!money on the deal!

b.b. Half of fees are returned to fund for Half of fees are returned to fund for ranch developmentranch development

5. Solutions5. Solutions

a.a. Charge market rates – Most ranchers would Charge market rates – Most ranchers would probably pay the higher fees, since total costs probably pay the higher fees, since total costs dwarf fees anyway. Result = more money, dwarf fees anyway. Result = more money, but no change in ecology or biodiversitybut no change in ecology or biodiversity

b.b. Competitive bidding – Market is limited since Competitive bidding – Market is limited since a few ranchers control most adjacent land a few ranchers control most adjacent land little incentive for distant ranchers to bid highlittle incentive for distant ranchers to bid high

c.c. Ban ranching on public lands – Would Ban ranching on public lands – Would increase beef/lamb prices by a few percent increase beef/lamb prices by a few percent and generate local unemployment in rural and generate local unemployment in rural areas, but would increase biodiversity and areas, but would increase biodiversity and possibly save money over status quo.possibly save money over status quo.

d.d. Other ideas? Land transfer or privatization, Other ideas? Land transfer or privatization, shift land from BLM to other agencies, etc.shift land from BLM to other agencies, etc.

B. Forest ManagementB. Forest Management

1.1. Logging “Old Growth” in the Pacific Logging “Old Growth” in the Pacific NorthwestNorthwest

a.a. Value of ancient forestsValue of ancient forestsi.i. Temperate rainforests are second only to Temperate rainforests are second only to

tropical rainforests in terrestrial biodiversity.tropical rainforests in terrestrial biodiversity.ii.ii. Accumulate more biomass in standing Accumulate more biomass in standing

vegetation per unit area than any other vegetation per unit area than any other ecosystem on earth. Example: Redwoods can ecosystem on earth. Example: Redwoods can reach 3-4 m in diameter, 90 m in height and reach 3-4 m in diameter, 90 m in height and 1,000 years in age1,000 years in age

b.b. Less than 10% of virgin temperate Less than 10% of virgin temperate rainforest remain worldwide (80% rainforest remain worldwide (80% scheduled to be cut in the near future)scheduled to be cut in the near future)

c. Economic Interestsc. Economic Interests

i.i. Forest products industry: Employs Forest products industry: Employs about 150,000 people in the Pacific about 150,000 people in the Pacific NW, and adds nearly $7 billion annually NW, and adds nearly $7 billion annually to the economy.to the economy.

ii.ii. Impact of regulation: In 1989, USFS Impact of regulation: In 1989, USFS sued over plans to clear-cut remaining sued over plans to clear-cut remaining old-growth forests where endangered old-growth forests where endangered spotted owls were found. spotted owls were found. Timber Timber industry claims 40,000 jobs lost, while industry claims 40,000 jobs lost, while environmentalists dispute number.environmentalists dispute number.

2. Politics of the USFS2. Politics of the USFS

a.a. Goal: USFS has Goal: USFS has historicallyhistorically regarded regarded its primary job as providing a its primary job as providing a steady supply of cheap logs to the steady supply of cheap logs to the nation’s timber industry.nation’s timber industry.

b.b. Pricing: Timber prices are often too Pricing: Timber prices are often too low to repay management costs low to repay management costs (hidden subsidy to timber industry (hidden subsidy to timber industry -- USFS builds roads in order for -- USFS builds roads in order for timber companies to extract trees)timber companies to extract trees)

3. Fire Management3. Fire Management

a. Fire suppression: For more than 70 a. Fire suppression: For more than 70 years, firefighting has been a high years, firefighting has been a high priority for forest managers.priority for forest managers.

b. Fire suppression failedb. Fire suppression failed Suppression allows build-up of twigs Suppression allows build-up of twigs

and other dead matter. In dry and other dead matter. In dry climates, we call this stuff “tinder” climates, we call this stuff “tinder” and it makes fires inevitable – and and it makes fires inevitable – and very, very hot. very, very hot.

Example: Southern California. Example: Southern California. “Burns on a regular basis” should “Burns on a regular basis” should probably be in the sales brochures.probably be in the sales brochures.

c. Ecological consequences of c. Ecological consequences of suppressionsuppression

i.i. Eliminating fire has allowed shrubs Eliminating fire has allowed shrubs and small trees to fill some forest and small trees to fill some forest floors, crowding out grasses and ferns floors, crowding out grasses and ferns (changes composition of forests)(changes composition of forests)

ii.ii. Hotter fires become “crown fires” that Hotter fires become “crown fires” that leap from treetop to treetop, killing leap from treetop to treetop, killing normally fire-resistant speciesnormally fire-resistant species

iii.iii. Examples of areas that “need” regular Examples of areas that “need” regular fire to germinate seeds, etc:fire to germinate seeds, etc:

Southern Pine CommunitiesSouthern Pine Communities

Fire prepares the Fire prepares the soil for the seeds of soil for the seeds of Southern pine by Southern pine by removing litter and removing litter and releasing soil releasing soil nutrientsnutrients

Removes other Removes other competitive competitive species. species.

Jack Pine Communities of the Jack Pine Communities of the Great Lakes RegionGreat Lakes Region

Jack Pine has Jack Pine has Serotinous cones Serotinous cones which need fire to which need fire to release seedsrelease seeds

Benefits of fire in Alaska's Benefits of fire in Alaska's Boreal Forest and TundraBoreal Forest and Tundra

Fire returns Fire returns nutrients to the soil nutrients to the soil by breaking down by breaking down dead materials. dead materials.

This leads to a This leads to a rapid proliferation rapid proliferation of growth, of growth, benefiting both benefiting both plants and animals.plants and animals.

d. Approaches to Fire d. Approaches to Fire ManagementManagement

i.i. Status quo = allow small, natural fires to Status quo = allow small, natural fires to burn until they threaten property or livesburn until they threaten property or lives

ii.ii. ““Fire ecologists” favor small, prescribed Fire ecologists” favor small, prescribed burns and limits on human encroachment burns and limits on human encroachment on forestson forests

iii.iii. Logging industry advocates encourage Logging industry advocates encourage “salvage logging” -- removal of dead or “salvage logging” -- removal of dead or dying trees from fire-damaged forestsdying trees from fire-damaged forests

iv.iv. Selective deforestation is advocated by Selective deforestation is advocated by some home-builders and insurers (remove some home-builders and insurers (remove trees from 60-yard radius around houses)trees from 60-yard radius around houses)

4. Types of Forest 4. Types of Forest ManagementManagement

a. Even-aged managementa. Even-aged management– forest is cut down, and regrowth trees forest is cut down, and regrowth trees

are maintained at the same size and are maintained at the same size and ageage

– monoculturemonoculture– industrial forestryindustrial forestry– high industrial productivity / low high industrial productivity / low

biodiversitybiodiversity

b. Uneven-aged b. Uneven-aged managementmanagement

variety of tree species are maintained at variety of tree species are maintained at different sizes and agesdifferent sizes and ages

fosters natural regenerationfosters natural regeneration high diversityhigh diversity long term production of high quality long term production of high quality

timbertimber

Strategy decision is based upon return Strategy decision is based upon return timetable of money requiredtimetable of money required

c. Harvest Methodsc. Harvest Methods

i. Clear-Cuttingi. Clear-Cutting - Every tree in a given - Every tree in a given area is cut regardless of size.area is cut regardless of size.– Fast and efficient, but wastes small trees, Fast and efficient, but wastes small trees,

increases erosion, and eliminates wildlife increases erosion, and eliminates wildlife habitat.habitat. Early-successional species flourish.Early-successional species flourish.

– Variant = strip cutting, which cuts small Variant = strip cutting, which cuts small strips each year to allow forest to re-seed strips each year to allow forest to re-seed itself. Somewhat less destructive but itself. Somewhat less destructive but requires much larger areas of forestrequires much larger areas of forest

ii. Selective Cuttingii. Selective Cutting

A small percentage of A small percentage of mature trees are taken in mature trees are taken in 10-20 year rotation.10-20 year rotation.– Can retain many Can retain many

characteristics of mature, characteristics of mature, old-growth forests.old-growth forests.

Industry says it is Industry says it is unprofitable; unprofitable; environmentalists worry environmentalists worry other trees will be other trees will be damaged by cutting damaged by cutting selective onesselective ones

C. Mountaintop Removal C. Mountaintop Removal MiningMining

1. 1. Description: Remove the top of a mountain Description: Remove the top of a mountain to get at the coal seam. Dump the removed to get at the coal seam. Dump the removed material in neighboring streams and valleys.material in neighboring streams and valleys.

2. The 2. The controversy controversy

a.a. Environmental Environmental impact – filling impact – filling valleys with valleys with mining waste mining waste is bad for is bad for things that things that live therelive there

b.b. Health impact Health impact – destruction – destruction of clean water of clean water supplies with supplies with toxic slurrytoxic slurry

c. Floodingc. Flooding

Destruction of valleys Destruction of valleys diverts more water to diverts more water to remaining ones remaining ones (towns are located in (towns are located in the valleys)the valleys)

Bob White, WV Bob White, WV 7 floods since 7 floods since mountain-top mining mountain-top mining begun in 2000begun in 2000

3. Economic Interests3. Economic Interests

a.a. Mountaintop removal is cheaper Mountaintop removal is cheaper than other methods for coal seams than other methods for coal seams in mountainsin mountains

b.b. Coal is important (over half of US Coal is important (over half of US electricity production)electricity production)

c.c. Only 5% of coal is produced using Only 5% of coal is produced using this technique, but in a few states it this technique, but in a few states it is more (30% in WV) is more (30% in WV) concentrated interests in WV, KY, concentrated interests in WV, KY, and possibly TN and VA (by 2010)and possibly TN and VA (by 2010)

4. The Status Quo4. The Status Quoa.a. Key law = Surface Mining Control and Key law = Surface Mining Control and

Reclamation Act (1977)Reclamation Act (1977)b.b. Law requires restoration of mining areas to Law requires restoration of mining areas to

pre-mine condition but allows waivers pre-mine condition but allows waivers (Section 515-c-1) for mountaintop removal(Section 515-c-1) for mountaintop removal

c.c. Lobbyists for coal industry have Lobbyists for coal industry have successfully blocked most funds for successfully blocked most funds for enforcement anywayenforcement anyway

d.d. Also important = Clean Water Act. Bush Also important = Clean Water Act. Bush Administration reinterpreted mining waste Administration reinterpreted mining waste as inert “fill” rather than a pollutant, as inert “fill” rather than a pollutant, allowing dumping into valleys allowing dumping into valleys dramatic dramatic increase in use of technique, plans to increase in use of technique, plans to expand to other statesexpand to other states

IV. Proposals for Protecting IV. Proposals for Protecting Habitat: Biosphere ReservesHabitat: Biosphere Reserves

A.A. Division of reservesDivision of reserves1.1. Core area - no disturbanceCore area - no disturbance

2.2. Buffer zone - managed activitiesBuffer zone - managed activities

3.3. Transition zone - sustainable forestry Transition zone - sustainable forestry and conservationand conservation

B. Selection StrategiesB. Selection Strategies

AA BB CC DD

11

22

33

44

11

22

33

44

11

22

55

33

44

66

Hotspots: A & B have highest levels of biodiversityGreedy Algorithm: either A or B, then either C or DOptimal solution: C & D (protects all species)Highlights the importance of “complementarity”

Select two areas for reserves. Which strategy should you use?

C. Site vs. Budget Constrained C. Site vs. Budget Constrained ApproachApproach

Site constrained approach: for a Site constrained approach: for a given number of sites, choose the given number of sites, choose the combination that covers the combination that covers the maximum number of species (just use maximum number of species (just use species data, ignore cost)species data, ignore cost)

Budget constrained approach: for a Budget constrained approach: for a given budget, choose the combination given budget, choose the combination of sites that is affordable and covers of sites that is affordable and covers the maximum number of speciesthe maximum number of species

D. Application to the USD. Application to the US

1. Data: 1. Data: – Endangered species by county (US EPA)Endangered species by county (US EPA)– Average per acre value of agricultural Average per acre value of agricultural

land (USDA)land (USDA)

2. Cost-minimizing strategies are 2. Cost-minimizing strategies are usually more efficient in the US, usually more efficient in the US, especially if funds are quite limitedespecially if funds are quite limited

E. Conservation in Working E. Conservation in Working Landscapes: Landscapes:

Beyond Reserve Site SelectionBeyond Reserve Site Selection1. What about the 90% of land outside of 1. What about the 90% of land outside of

protected areas?protected areas?– Many biodiversity elements can tolerate at Many biodiversity elements can tolerate at

least some level of human disturbance and least some level of human disturbance and alteration of the landscapealteration of the landscape

– Does the entire landscape, including both Does the entire landscape, including both protected areas and working areas outside of protected areas and working areas outside of protected areas, provide a sufficient likelihood protected areas, provide a sufficient likelihood that elements of biodiversity will be sustained?that elements of biodiversity will be sustained?

2. Consequences of land use 2. Consequences of land use decisionsdecisions

a. Optimal land use: As a function of a. Optimal land use: As a function of land use decisions, Polasky et al land use decisions, Polasky et al (2005) track(2005) track– Species persistence for set of 97 Species persistence for set of 97

terrestrial vertebrates (Landscape terrestrial vertebrates (Landscape biological score: LB)biological score: LB)

– Value of commodity production for Value of commodity production for timber, agriculture (Landscape timber, agriculture (Landscape economic score: LE)economic score: LE)

70

75

80

85

90

0 250 500 750 1,000

LE (Millions of Dollars)

LB

(# o

f Spe

cies

)

Efficiency FrontierFigure 3eFigure 3dFigure 3cFigure 3bFigure 3a

Trade-offs and the “efficiency Trade-offs and the “efficiency frontier” determine optimal frontier” determine optimal

useuse

b. Optimal/Efficient Land Use b. Optimal/Efficient Land Use versus Actual Land Use versus Actual Land Use

Actual patterns of land use and land Actual patterns of land use and land management are quite different than management are quite different than what is shown as optimal by any of what is shown as optimal by any of these studies. Why? these studies. Why?

Externalities problemsExternalities problems– Failure to be rewarded for providing Failure to be rewarded for providing

public goods (biodiversity)public goods (biodiversity)– Failure to be punished for causing harm Failure to be punished for causing harm

to others (loss of biodiversity, pollution, to others (loss of biodiversity, pollution, etc.)etc.)

VI. ConclusionsVI. Conclusions Each area of land has its own Each area of land has its own

environmental dilemmas caused by distinct environmental dilemmas caused by distinct economic interest groupseconomic interest groups

Typical dilemma pits moderate damage to Typical dilemma pits moderate damage to concentrated economic interests (the few) concentrated economic interests (the few) against large damage spread across against large damage spread across multiple economic interests (the many)multiple economic interests (the many)

Dilemmas also involve growth-environment Dilemmas also involve growth-environment trade-offs BUT these are often trivial trade-offs BUT these are often trivial compared to the high salience/small compared to the high salience/small numbers vs. low salience/large numbers numbers vs. low salience/large numbers trade-offtrade-off

Far more consensus on problems than on Far more consensus on problems than on solutions, which remain under-studiedsolutions, which remain under-studied