biodiversity action plan · 2013. 9. 12. · 1.3 a biodiversity action plan for pakistan 4...

BIODIVERSITY A CTION PLAN FOR PAKISTAN

BIODIVERSITY A CTION PLAN FOR PAKISTAN

A F R A M E W O R K F O R C O N S E R V I N G O U R N A T U R A L W E A L T H

This publication was prepared by the Government of Pakistan,Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Developmentin collaboration with the World Wide Fund for Nature, Pakistan and IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Pakistan.

It was supported by the World Bank/Global Environment Facility.

Copyright: © 2000 by Government of Pakistan, World Wide Fund for Nature,Pakistan and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Pakistan.

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial proposes is authorised without prior permissionfrom the copyright holders.

Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibitedwithout the prior written permission of the copyright holders.

ISBN: 969-8141-35-9

Design: Creative Unit (Pvt) Ltd., Karachi.

Layout: Azhar Saeed, Communication Unit, IUCN Pakistan.

Cover photos: Amjad Virk, Anis Shahzad, Khushal Habibi, Nadeem A. Khan andWWF Pakistan.

Printed: Imprint (Pvt) Ltd., Rawalpindi Cantt., Pakistan

Executive Summary v

Introduction 11.1 Why is Biodiversity Important? 11.2 The Convention on Biological Diversity 21.3 A Biodiversity Action Plan For Pakistan 4

Biodiversity in Pakistan - A Review 52.1 Current Status 52.2 Current Trends 132.3 Direct Causes of Biodiversity Loss 172.4 Indirect Causes of Biodiversity Loss 23

Principles, Goals and Broad Aims 293.1 Goal 293.2 Broad Aims 30

Proposals For Action 314.1 Planning and Policies 314.2 Legislation 334.3 Identification and Monitoring 364.4 In-situ Conservation 374.5 Ex-situ Conservation 414.6 Sustainable Use 434.7 Incentive Measures 454.8 Research and Training 474.9 Public Education and Awareness 494.10 Environmental Impact Assessment 514.11 Access Issues 524.12 Information Exchange 534.13 Financial Resources 54

Coordinating Efforts 57

Implementation Measures 59

AppendicesAppendix 1 Stakeholder Participation 65Appendix 2 Biodiversity-related Conventions to which Pakistan is a Party 71

Acronyms and Abbreviations 73

References 75

CONTENTS

Biodiversity Action Plan iii

List of BoxesBox 1 Federal Biodiversity Steering Committee 59Box 2 Provincial Steering Committee 60Box 3 Biodiversity Working Group 60

List of FiguresFigure 1 Organogram for BAP Implementation 61

List of MapsMap 1 Pakistan 6Map 2 Land Cover 7

List of TablesTable 1 Species Richness/Endemism in Major Plant and Animal Groups in Pakistan 8Table 2 Critically Threatened Ecosystems in Pakistan 18Table 3 Human Use of Wildlife in Pakistan 20Table 4 Protected Areas in Pakistan, 1999 38Table 5 BAP Implementation Schedule 62

iv Biodiversity Action Plan

With its dramatic geological history, broadlatitudinal spread and immense altitudinalrange, Pakistan spans a remarkable num-

ber of the world’s ecological regions. These rangefrom the mangrove forests fringing the Arabian Seato the spectacular mountain tops where the westernHimalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakoram rangesmeet. These habitats support a rich variety of specieswhich contribute to the overall biological diversity, orbiodiversity, of the country.

Pakistan has a number of the world’s rarest ani-mals and plants but these are now in danger fromhabitat loss and overuse. While people are withoutdoubt a valuable resource, a high population growthrate has put ever-increasing pressure on the country’snatural resource base. Misguided economic policieshave widened income disparities and forced peopleto exploit biodiversity at rates that are no longer sus-tainable. As a result, processes such as deforestation,overgrazing, soil erosion, salinity and waterlogginghave become major threats to the remaining biodi-versity in Pakistan. One stark reminder of thedownslide is Pakistan’s ranking as the country withthe second highest rate of deforestation in the world.The continuing loss of forest habitat, with its associ-ated fauna and flora, will have serious implicationsfor the nation’s other natural ecosystems.

Just as people may be part of the problem, theyare also part of the solution. The key to protecting thebiological heritage of Pakistan lies in the involvementof local people and in the support provided by com-petent institutions in the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity. The Government of Pakistan hasrecognized the importance of these measures in thepreparation of the National Conservation Strategyand in becoming a signatory to, and ratifying, theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994.

The current Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan(BAP) is a first attempt to meet the planning require-ments of the Convention. It tries to roll into one thet h ree sequential processes called for under the

Convention – the country study, the national strategyand action plan. As such it provides a brief assess-ment of the status and trend of the nation’s biodiver-sity, outlines strategic goals and objectives, and iden-tifies a plan of action that includes coordinationa rrangements and implementation measure s .Preparation of the BAP has been carried out underan agreement between the Government of Pakistanand the World Bank under the Global EnvironmentF a c i l i t y. IUCN-The World Conservation Union,Pakistan was selected as the lead agency in collabo-ration with the World Wide Fund for Nature ,Pakistan.

The process leading up to preparation of the BAPhas involved broad participation from government,academia and civil society through national andregional level consultative workshops designed todevelop and review the draft document. Additionally,a number of background papers were prepared onsectoral and cross-cutting issues. Periodic supervisionof the process was provided by a nationalBiodiversity Working Group. Constituted by theMinistry of Environment, Local Government and RuralDevelopment (MELGRD), it consisted largely of gov-ernment representatives.

The Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan is madeup of 13 components which correspond to specificArticles of the CBD: planning and policies; legisla-tion; identification and monitoring; in-situ conserva-tion; ex-situ conservation; sustainable use; incentivemeasures; research and training; public educationand awareness; environmental impact assessment;access issues; exchange of information; and finan-cial resources. For each component, the issues rele-vant to Pakistan have been identified and a list ofobjectives and corresponding actions recommended.Slowing the rate of biodiversity loss in Pakistan willrequire policy and institutional reform as well as insti-tutional strengthening, to better understand the ele-ments of biodiversity and the most effective means forensuring the conservation and sustainable use of

Biodiversity Action Plan v

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

these elements. The Plan calls for greater collabora-tion between government agencies, local communi-ties and NGOs, and for them to work together aspartners in biodiversity conservation.

Overall responsibility for the implementation ofBAP will fall on MELGRD, which is also the nationalfocal point for implementing the Convention. ThePlan proposes establishing a small BiodiversitySecretariat within MELGRD, using existing resources,to coordinate implementation and foster linkagesbetween, and within, different sectors affecting bio-diversity. The location and structure of the Secretariatshould be finalized by the Ministry itself. The

S e c retariat will re p o rt to a federal BiodiversitySteering Committee and receive technical supportfrom a broad-based, renotified Biodiversity WorkingGroup. Since most implementation measures will betaken at the provincial level, the Plan also proposesthat provincial Steering Committees be constituted (ormerged with those created under the provincial con-servation strategies).

F i n a l l y, the Plan provides an implementationschedule that prioritises actions that could be imple-mented immediately and at low cost, following gov-ernment endorsement of the first Biodiversity ActionPlan for Pakistan.

vi Biodiversity Action Plan

“Biodiversity ... the variability among livingorganisms from all sources including inter alia,terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosys-tems and the ecological complexes of whichthey are part; this includes diversity withinspecies, between species, and of ecosystems.”

Convention on Biological Diversity

Diversity within species, or genetic diversity,refers to variability in the functional units of hereditypresent in any material of plant, animal, microbial orother origin. Species diversity is used to describe thevariety of species (whether wild or domesticated)within a geographical area. Estimates of the totalnumber of species (defined as a population of organ-isms which are able to interbreed freely under natur-al conditions) range from two million to 100 million,though less than 1.5 million have actually beendescribed. Ecosystem diversity refers to the enormousvariety of plant, animal and micro-organism commu-

nities and the ecological processes that make themfunction.

In short, biodiversity refers to the variety of life one a rth. This variety provides the building blocks thatallows adaption to changing environmental conditions.

1.1 WHY IS BIODIVERSITYIMPORTANT?

The richness of species in an area indicates the totalbiodiversity of that particular area. However, biodi-versity increases with the complexity of an ecosystemand vice versa. All species display genetic variationamong individuals and populations. This variationencourages natural selection and adaptability tochanges in the environment, which ultimately ensuresspecies survival. Genetic diversity in domesticspecies and their wild relatives enables researchers

Biodiversity Action Plan 1

INTRODUCTION

Endangered blind Indus dolphin.

to develop improved varieties of animals and plantsfor human needs: which serves as an insurance forfurther food security. Diversity in wild plant species isa major medicinal resource in yunani tibb (tradition-al medicine) and 40% of allopathic drugs were orig-inally made from wild medicinal plants.

Biodiversity provides free of charge serv i c e sworth billions of rupees every year that are crucial tothe well-being of Pakistani society. These servicesinclude clean water, pure air, pollination, soil formation and protection, crop pest control, and theprovision of food, fuel, fibres and drugs. As else-where, these services are not widely recognized, norare they properly valued in economic or even socialt e rms. Reduction in biodiversity (including localextinction of species) affects these ecosystem ser-vices. The sustainability of ecosystems depends to alarge extent on the buffering capacity provided byhaving a rich and healthy diversity of genes, speciesand habitats. In this respect, biodiversity is like eco-nomic diversity in a city; it is essential for long-termsurvival and is a sound investment in the future.

Conservation of biodiversity also makes goodenvironmental sense. The air we breathe, the waterwe drink and the soil that supports crop productionare all products of the complex interactions that occuramong various living organisms on earth. If thesevital ecological services are damaged, so are thephysical conditions maintained by the world’sspecies and ecosystems. Losing biodiversity is a bitlike losing the life support systems that we, and otherspecies, so desperately depend upon.

The conservation of biodiversity is fundamental toachieving sustainable development. It provides flexi-bility and options for our current (and future) use ofnatural resources. Almost 70% of the population inPakistan lives in rural areas, and a large part of thispopulation depends directly or indirectly on naturalresources. Conservation of biodiversity is crucial tothe sustainability of sectors as diverse as energy,a g r i c u l t u re, fore s t ry, fisheries, wildlife, industry,health, tourism, commerce, irrigation and power.Pakistan’s development in the future will continue todepend on the foundation provided by livingresources, and conserving the nation’s biodiversitywill ensure that this foundation is strong.

1.2 THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

The future of life on earth captured worldwide atten-tion at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992,when 155 nation states and the European Unionsigned the Convention on Biological Diversity. Thisact signalled their intention to form a global allianceto protect habitats, species and genes, to shift to sus-tainable modes of resource use, and to make the nec-essary policy, economic and managerial adjustmentsto guarantee that the benefits to be gained from theuse of components of biodiversity are equitablyshared across local, regional and global societies.The CBD was signed by Pakistan in 1992 and rati-fied by the Cabinet in 1994.

Pakistan and other nations at Rio also adopted ac o m p rehensive global workplan for sustainable devel-opment and environmental protection well into thetwenty-first century. Named Agenda 21, the plan con-tains 40 chapters of non-binding re c o m m e n d a t i o n s

2 Biodiversity Action Plan

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), a plant of great economic and medicinal value, is widely distributed in northern Pakistan.

spanning the full range of social, economic and envi-ronmental issues. Although one chapter is devoted tothe conservation of biodiversity, biodiversity-re l a t e dactivities are featured throughout the entire Plan.

Having agreed to conserve biodiversity, foster thesustainable use of forests, fisheries, agriculture andother resources, transfer related technologies, andshare in financial investments, Pakistan faces thequestion: how can the nation determine what steps totake? Article 6 of the Convention calls for parties to:“... (a) develop national strategies, plans or pro-grammes for the conservation and sustainable use ofbiological diversity ... (b) integrate, as far as possibleand as appropriate, the conservation and sustain-able use of biological diversity into relevant sectoralor cross-sectoral plans, programmes and policies.”

The preparation of conservation and developmentstrategies and action plans is not new to Pakistan. Ithas a well established pro c e d u re for the pre p a r a t i o nof Five-Year Plans and Annual Development Plans. Thec o u n t ry has a National Conservation Strategy adopt-ed as national policy; this Strategy has also beenaccepted by the World Bank in place of a NationalE n v i ronmental Action Plan. Provincial level conserv a-tion strategies are in place in the North West Fro n t i e rP rovince and Balochistan, and a strategy for theN o rt h e rn Areas is under preparation. There are also

a number of sectoral plans for biological re s o u rc e se.g. the 1992 Fore s t ry Sector Master Plan.

Pakistan has been involved in many aspects ofbiodiversity conservation including national parkplanning, endangered species protection and recov-ery, and plant and animal propagation and breed-ing. In some sectors, such as forestry, Pakistan hasworked at larger scales to manage watersheds.However, experience with planning and implement-ing biodiversity-related measures has been limited.Pakistan has not yet approached biodiversity plan-ning and implementation in the comprehensive, inte-grated manner required by the Convention.

The CBD calls for three sequential processes:country studies (biodiversity assessment), nationalstrategies (developing goals and operational objec-tives), and action plans (identifying actions andimplementation measures). All three are componentsof a larger and quite flexible process that can helpcountries build on existing institutions, programmes,investments and capabilities. This process is cyclical.It leads countries to periodically assess their biotaand capacity, identify an evolving set of prioritiesand actions for responding to new opportunities, andprepare different reports to government, society andthe Convention on their findings and conclusions. Theprocess is multi-sectoral, involving a wide range of


Desertification is an increasing threat to loss of biodiversity: desert sand dune ecosystem, Chagai, Balochistan.

government ministries, private resource-using indus-tries and civil society. And finally, it is adaptive. It isrevised and reformulated as new information arrives,and the results of previous activities and investmentsare continually assessed.

1.3 A BIODIVERSITY ACTIONPLAN FOR PAKISTAN

This Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan is a firstattempt to meet the planning requirements of theConvention. It rolls into one the three sequentialprocesses called for under the Convention. Pakistan’sBAP provides a brief assessment of the status andtrend of the nation’s biodiversity, outlines strategicgoals and objectives, and identifies a plan of actionthat includes coordination arrangements and imple-mentation measures.

P reparation of the BAP has been carried out underan agreement between the Government of Pakistanand the World Bank under the Global Enviro n m e n tF a c i l i t y. IUCN-The World Conservation Union,Pakistan was selected as the lead agency in collabo-ration with the World Wide Fund for Nature, Pakistan.

Broad participation has been sought through aconsultative process that included: periodic supervi-sion by the national Biodiversity Working Group con-stituted by the Ministry of Environment, UrbanAffairs, Forests and Wildlife (now the Ministry ofE n v i ronment, Local Government and RuralDevelopment); a national level consultative workshopattended by 87 scientists and managers concernedwith biodiversity issues; the preparation of a numberof background papers by experts on sectoral andcross-cutting issues; and distribution of a draft BAPand its review at five provincial consultative workshops attended by 172 participants. For adescription of the consultative process leading up tothe preparation of BAP, see Appendix 1.

While the BAP necessarily covers much of thesame ground covered by the national and pro v i n c i a lC o n s e rvation Strategies, it is more focused on biodi-versity and there f o re provides a new and import a n tperspective. Biodiversity conservation in Pakistan willbe better served, at least initially, by a distinctive andfocused action plan. Such a plan can promote aware-ness, unleash political will, and encourage funding.The planning exercise will also be the subject ofP a k i s t a n ’s first national re p o rt to the Conference of theP a rties on the implementation of the CBD.


2.1 CURRENT STATUS

Biogeography

Pakistan covers a land area of 88.2 million hectare s(Map 1), almost all of which might be considered partof the watershed of the river Indus. From the coast andthe mouth of the Indus near the tropic of Cancer,Pakistan extends some 1,700 kilometres nort h w a rd tothe origins of the Indus among the mountains of theHimalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum. Many oftheir peaks exceed 8,000 metres including K-2, at8,611 metres, the second highest in the world.Pakistan has a coastline of about 1,046 kilometre swith 22,820 square kilometres of territorial watersand an Exclusive Economic Zone of about 196,600s q u a re kilometres in the Arabian Sea.

The land mass of Pakistan originated in the conti-nent of Gondwanaland which is thought to have bro-ken off from Africa, drifted across the Indian Ocean,and joined mainland Asia some 50 million years ago.With the creation of a land-bridge betweenGondwanaland and south-east Asia, Indo-Malayanl i f e - f o rms are thought to have invaded the evolving sub-continent, and these now predominate in Pakistan eastof the river Indus. The north and west of the country isdominated by Palaearctic forms. Some Ethiopianf o rms have become established in the south-westernp a rt. About 20 million years ago, the gradual dry i n gand re t reat of the Sea of Tethys created the Indus low-lands, and a violent upheaval 13 million years agogave rise to the Himalayas. A series of Pleistocene ice-ages, the last ending just 10,000 years ago, gave riseto some unique floral and faunal associations.

With its dramatic geological history, broad lati-tudinal spread and immense altitudinal range,Pakistan spans a remarkable number of the world’secological regions. According to various classifica-tion systems, Pakistan includes examples of two of

the world’s eight biogeographic realms: the Indo-Malayan and Palaearctic (Udvardy 1975); four ofthe world’s ten biomes: desert, temperate grassland,t ropical seasonal forest and mountain (Cox andM o o re 1993).

Pakistan’s seas fall biogeographically within theArabian Seas Region 11 (Kelleher et al. 1995). Thecoastal area from Pakistan west to Somalia is con-sidered by Hayden et al. (1984) to be the coastal-margin realm, Eastern Monsoon (J). Regarding itsfauna, the Pakistani coast is considered the western-most extent of the vast Indo-Polynesian province.

Ecological Zones andAgro-ecosystems

Pakistan supports a wide array of ecosystems.H o w e v e r, any description of the natural ecological


BIODIVERSITY IN PAKISTAN – A REVIEW

Mountain ecosystems encompass diverse habitats in a small are a .

zones of Pakistan must be qualified by the statementthat these zones have been so widely affected byhuman activity that very few truly natural habitatsremain. To date, no systematic attempt has beenmade to define the ecological zones of Pakistan.R o b e rts (1991) has provided an initial classificationof natural terrestrial ecosystems. These range from thep e rmanent snowfields and cold deserts of the moun-tainous north to the arid sub-tropical zones of Sindhand Balochistan; from the dry temperate conifero u sf o rests of the inner Himalayas to the tropical decidu-

ous forests of the Himalayan foothills, from the steppef o rests of the Sulaiman Range to the thorn forests ofthe Indus plains; and from the swamps and riverinecommunities of the Indus and its tributaries to the man-g rove forests lining the Indus Delta and Arabian Sea.Map 2 classifies Pakistan’s land cover based on satel-lite imagery; it also reflects human-wrought changes.

The coast of Pakistan forms the nort h e rn bound-a ry of the Arabian Sea, where oceanographic influ-ences dominate over those of the continent, which isessentially a sub-tropical desert. Most freshwater is


Map 1 Pakistan

f rom the Indus, at the eastern extre m i t y, which dis-c h a rges some 200 cubic kilometres of water and450 million tonnes of suspended sediment annually.This creates the Indus Cone, a 2,500 metres deeppile of loose sediment on the floor of the ArabianSea which fans away from the mouth of the river asa vast, sub-aqueous delta.

Coastal ecosystems include: numerous deltas andestuaries with extensive intertidal mudflats and theirassociated wetlands (the Indus Delta has an estimat-ed 3,000 square kilometres of delta marshes);

sandy beaches; rocky shores; mangroves (fourspecies); and seagrasses (as yet not well described).The area around Pakistan is the richest in phyto-plankton and zooplankton in the Arabian Searegion (Pernetta 1993).

Through the conversion of natural habitats to agri-cultural use, a number of distinct agro-ecosystemshave been created in Pakistan. The 1992 ForestrySector Master Plan identifies nine main agro-ecolog-ical zones. The irrigated plains of Pakistan constitutethe largest irrigated system in the world. Here, agro-


Map 2 Land Cover

ecosystems have almost entirely replaced the originaltropical thorn forests, swamps and riverain communi-ties of the Indus plains.

Species Richness and Endemism

Species richness is only one measure of biodiversitybut the use of this parameter to assess biodiversity islimited by the fact that many species, particularlyinsects, fungi and micro-organisms, remain to beidentified. Little work has yet been done to evaluateother measures of biodiversity in Pakistan, includingtaxonomic and functional diversity, and the amountof genetic variability within species and their sub-divided populations.

Because Pakistan is largely bounded by man-made borders and does not comprise an isolatedentity in biogeographic terms, relatively few speciesare found only in this country (Table 1). Thus,Pakistan has relatively low rates of endemism forsome species – about 7% for flowering plants andreptiles, and 3% for mammals – but higher for fresh-water fish, 15%. However, the proportion of ‘restrict-ed range’ species occurring in Pakistan is much high-er, and for many of these species, Pakistan containsthe bulk of the global population.

Mammals

Up to 174 mammal species have been re p o rted tooccur in the country. Of these, there are at leastt h ree endemic species and a number of endemic


TOTAL REPORTED ENDEMICS THREATENED

Mammals 1741 62 203

Birds 6684 ? 253

Reptiles 1771 135 66

Amphibians 227 98 17

Fish Freshwater 1981 291 16

Marine 7889 - 59

Invertebrates

Echinoderms 2510 - 210

Marine Molluscs 76911 - 811

Marine Crustaceans 28712 - 612

Marine Annelids 10113 - 113

Insects >50001 - -

Plants

Angiosperms 570014 38015 ?

Gymnosperms 2114 - ?

Pteridophytes 18916 - ?

Fungi >450018 218 ?

Algae 77517 2017 ?

1 Unpublished PMNH data 7 Fahmida Iffat, ZSD 13 Javed Mustaquim, KU2 T. J. Roberts 1997 8 M. S. Khan, Herpetological Lab 14 S. I. Ali, KU3 Mallon 1991 9 M. Farooq Ahmad 1998 15 Rubina Rafiq, National Herbarium4 Z. B. Mirza, CERC 10 Qaseem Tahira, Karachi Univ. 16 Fraser-Jenkins 19915 Hafizur Rehman, ZSD 11 Itrat Zehra, KU 17 Mustafa Shameel, KU6 IUCN Red List 1996 12 Naseem Ghani, Sabahat KU 18 A. Naseem

Table 1 Species Richness/Endemism in Major Plant and Animal Groups in Pakistan

and near-endemic sub-species. Species belongingto the Palaearctic realm occur largely in theHimalayan and Balochistan uplands; those belong-ing to the Indo-Malayan realm occur primarily inthe Indus plains including the Thar Desert and theHimalayan foothills. In addition, species with aff i n i-ties to the Ethiopian region occur in the dry south-west,along the Makran coast and in the Thar Desert( R o b e rts 1997).

Birds

At least 668 species of birds have been recorded inPakistan, of which 375 are recorded as breeding(Roberts 1991, Z.B. Mirza, pers. com.). A high per-centage of Pakistan’s bird fauna is migratory, with ahuge invasion of Palaearctic winter visitors that is,over 30% of recorded species (Roberts 1991).

One-third of Pakistan’s bird species have Indo-Malayan affinities, and the remaining Palaearctic.Of the latter, about one-third are more specificallySino-Himalayan in distribution (Roberts 1991). TheSulaiman Range, the Hindu Kush, and the Himalayasin the NWFP and Azad Kashmir comprise part of theWestern Himalayan Endemic Bird Area; this is aglobal centre of bird endemism with 10 restrictedrange species in Pakistan. The Indus Valley wetlandsconstitute a secondary area of endemism, with onerestricted range species.

Reptiles and Amphibians

Over 177 species of reptiles are known in Pakistan:14 turtles, 1 crocodile, 90 lizards and 65 species ofsnakes. Of these, 13 species are believed to beendemic. As with other groups, these are a blend ofPalaearctic, Indo-Malayan and Ethiopian forms. Onegenus, the monospecific Teratolepsis, is endemic,while another, Eristicophis, is near-endemic. TheChagai Desert is of particular interest for reptiles,with six species endemic to Pakistan and a further sixspecies found only here and in bordering parts ofIran. Important populations of marine turtles nest onPakistan’s southern beaches. As Pakistan is a pre-dominantly arid and semi-arid country, it is not sur-prising that only 22 species of amphibians havebeen recorded, of which 9 are endemic.

Fish

Pakistan has 198 freshwater fish species, includingintroduced species. This fish fauna is predominantlysouth Asian, with some west Asian and high Asianelements. There are 29 endemic species. Amongthese are the 9 species of snow trout (sub-familySchizothoracinae) that occur in the rivers of the north-ern mountains; they are representatives of an eco-logically interesting group of fish endemic to snow-fed rivers and lakes of the high Asian region. Speciesrichness is highest in the Indus river plains, the Kirtharrange and the Himalayan foothills, while the riversystems of north-east Balochistan have the highest lev-els of endemism. Almost 800 species of marine fishhave been recorded in Pakistan’s coastal waters;however, no analysis of their population status anddistributional range is available.

Invertebrates

Known species of invertebrates represent only asmall portion of the actual number most likely presentin Pakistan. However, some taxa are better known


Golden marmot, Deosai Plateau, Northern Areas.

than others. Among the best known are the butterfliesor Lepidoptera. At least two books on the butterfliesof Pakistan are in preparation. The total number ofbutterfly species probably exceeds 400, with highrates of endemism in the Satyrids, Lycaenids andPierids families (PMNH data). Butterflies of high alti-tudes are largely either endemic or are derived fromboreal fauna from the west. In the northern mountainsalone, 80 species have been recorded, many ofwhich are endemics (Hasan 1997).

So far, more than 5,000 species of invertebrateshave been identified in Pakistan including insects(1,000 species of true bugs, 400 species of butter-flies and moths, 110 species of flies and 49 speciesof termites). Other invertebrates include 109 speciesof marine worms, over 800 species of molluscs (700marine molluscs, 100 land snails), and 355 speciesof nematodes (see section on Soil Biodiversity).

PlantsAbout 5,700 species of flowering plants, have beenre p o rted, including both native and intro d u c e d

species (Nasir and Ali 1970). In a pre l i m i n a ry analy-sis of the flora of Pakistan, Ali and Qaiser (1986)found that the number of species per genus is muchlower than the global average, indicating a high rateof diversity at the gene level. They also found that theflora includes elements of six phytogeographicregions being, in order of importance, theM e d i t e rranean, Saharo-Sindian, Euro-Siberian, Irano-Turanian, Sino-Japanese and Indian. The families withthe largest numbers of species are the Compositae(649 species), Poaceae (597), Papilionaceae (439),Brassicaceae (250), and Cyperaceae (202). Amongthe lower plants, there are at least 189 pteridophytes( f e rns and their allies), of which 153 are Sino-Japanese elements and 36 Euro - S i b e r i a n .

Four monotypic genera of flowering plants(Douepia, Suleimania, Spiroseris, Wendelboa) anda round 400 species (7.8%) are endemic to Pakistan(R. Rafiq, pers. com.). Most endemics are Irano-Turanian and Sino-Japanese. Almost 80% ofP a k i s t a n ’s endemic flowering plants are confined tothe nort h e rn and western mountains (Ali and Qaiser1986). Here, two phytogeographic provinces can bedistinguished: the Balochistan Province and theWe s t e rn Himalayan Province. The Kashmir Himalayasin particular are identified as a global centre of plantdiversity and endemism. Families with more than 20re c o rded endemics are Papilionaceae (57 species),Compositae (49), Umbelliferae (34), Poaceae (32)and Brassicaceae (20); 31 of the endemics belong tothe genus Astragalus, the largest genus in Pakistanwith about 134 species (R. Rafiq, pers. com.). Newendemics are still being discovere d .

Soil Biodiversity and Microbes

Soil biodiversity, comprising populations of nema-todes, annelids, snails and slugs, micro - a rthopods, mil-lipedes, centipedes, termites, and other micro - o rg a n-isms such as algae, fungi, protozoa and bacteria, re p-resents the largest group of living organisms. Estimatessuggest that only 10% of soil biodiversity and of otherm i c robes has, so far, been studied and described.These organisms can be both extremely beneficial aswell as damaging in diff e rent enviro n m e n t s .

Plant parasitic nematodes in Pakistan include 191species belonging to 56 genera, 36 sub-families, 21


Alpine ecosystems are an important component of Pakistan’s eco-system diversity: plant diversity at Deosai plateau, Nort h e rn Are a s .

families, 9 super-families, 3 sub-orders, and 3 orders(Maqbool et al., 1992). Parasitic nematodes areknown to affect crop yields, reduce quality and limitutilization of nutrients. Burrowing, cyst, dagger,lance, reniform, root-knot, seedgull, sheath and stuntnematodes are common in Pakistan and can cause 5-20% damage to host plants. For example, root rotcan damage up to 10-80% of the produce, depend-ing on whether it is a vegetable plant or fruit tree(Abdul Aziz Khan, pers. com.).

In Pakistan, information on soil biodiversity andmicrobes is very limited except for soil-borne fungifor which reliable and published research data isavailable (Mirza and Qureshi 1978; Ghaffar 1984).The Soilborne Diseases Research Centre, Departmentof Botany, University of Karachi, has identified morethan 169 host plants of root infecting fungi. Morethan 4,500 species of fungi have been reported fromPakistan including: 24 genera and 68 species ofAscomycetes; 216 genera and 881 species ofBasidiomycetes; 256 genera and 1,321 species ofDeutromycetes (Naseem, pers. com.).

According to the Greek philosopher Aristotle,earthworms are soil builders and ecosystem engi-neers. They maintain and enhance soil fertility by

way of adding nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, mag-nesium and sodium to the soil. Not more than 20species are known from Pakistan. Studies on their dis-tribution and their relation with different ecosystemshave not been attempted. A total of 50 termitespecies have so far been recorded from Pakistan(Ahmad and Akhtar 1994).

Genetic Diversity of Domesticated Species

Crop Genetic Diversity

Cultivated plant biodiversity may be characterisedas the genetic variation existing among species,local landraces, primitive cultivars and micro b i a lspecies that have been domesticated, often includ-ing their immediate wild relatives. The conserv a-tion and sustainable use of crop genetic diversity iskey to improving agricultural productivity and foods e c u r i t y. Pakistan is rich in indigenous crop diver-sity with an estimated 3,000 taxa of cultivatedplants (U.K. Baloch, pers. com.). There are aro u n d500 wild relatives of cultivated crops, most of


Loss of crop diversity is an increasing concern: a typical agro-ecosystem in lower Kaghan valley, NWFP.

which are found in the Nort h e rn Areas of Pakistan(A. Qutab, pers. com.). As a matter of fact, nort h-e rn and western Pakistan comprises one of theworld centres on the origin and diversity of culti-vated plants. The civilizations of Taxila, Harappaand Mohenjodaro domesticated species such aswheat, eggplant, pigeon pea and cucumber,w h e reas the Nort h e rn Areas became the centre ofdiversity for several nut fruits. Many wild and localcultivars survived in Pakistan up to the era of theG reen Revolution. However, with the intro d u c t i o nof food and cash crop high-yield varieties, expan-sion of land for cultivation, deforestation and damc o n s t ruction, severe threats to wild and weedy lan-draces of cultivated crops have been posed. Theprincipal crops in Pakistan are wheat, rice, maize,b a r l e y, pulses, oil seeds, cotton, sugarcane, tobac-co, vegetables and fruits (both tropical and tem-perate). The genetic diversity of these crop plantsa re still prevalent in the form of wild relatives andlocal landraces.

Recognizing the importance of preserving cropgenetic diversity, the government started collectingindigenous plant germplasm in the early 1970s.Today, there are over 15,600 germplasm accessions

from more than 40 different crops at the PlantGenetic Resources Institute, National ArgriculturalResearch Commission. Over 50% of the germplasmhas been evaluated and presented in respective cropcatalogues (U.K. Baloch, pers. com.).

Livestock Genetic Diversity

The Indian subcontinent was one of the first placesto domesticate cattle, buffalo and chicken. Pakistannow has two breeds of buffalo, eight of cattle, one ofyak, 25 of goat, 28 of sheep, one of horse, four ofcamel, and three of indigenous poultry. The buffalobreeds Nili-Ravi and Kundi are dairy breeds. Amongthe cattle, there are two dairy breeds (Sahiwal, RedSindhi), five draught breeds (Bhagnari, Dhanni,Dajal, Lohani, Rojhan) and one dual-purpose breed(Tharparkar or Thari). However, pure-bred animalsare believed to constitute only 20-25% of the cattlepopulation. Of the sheep breeds, 14 are thick-tailedand 14 thin-tailed. Almost 75-80% of Pakistan’sdomestic livestock breeds are derivatives of estab-lished breeds and the proportion of ‘non-descript’livestock to pure stock is on the increase (I. Hussain,pers. com.).


Rich in agricultural biodiversity, the Hunza valley has around 30 varieties of apricots and 16 of apples.

2.2 CURRENT TRENDS

The ecological trend of greatest concern in Pakistantoday is the continuing loss, fragmentation anddegradation of natural habitats. This is affecting with-out exception forests, rangelands, freshwater andmarine ecosystems. Of equal concern is the continu-ing decline in many native species of animals andplants. Some species are already extinct, many areinternationally threatened, and more still are ofnational concern. The degradation of agro-ecosys-tems and the accelerating loss of domestic geneticdiversity are areas that need to be looked into.

Loss of Natural Habitats

While the loss, fragmentation and degradation ofnatural habitats in the territory of Pakistan has beentaking place for centuries, the last few decades haveseen a particularly rapid acceleration in this process.This trend is most evident in the remaining upland,scrub and mangrove forests, arid and semi-aridrangelands (including sand dune deserts), inlandwetlands, the Indus Delta and coastal waters.

Forests

According to the Forestry Sector Master Plan (GoP1992), forests, scrub and trees on farmlands cover4.2 million hectares or 4.8% of the country.However, if plantations (generally single species,and hence of limited biodiversity value) are exclud-ed, the total area of natural and modified coniferous,scrub, riverine and mangrove forests is less than 3.5million hectares or 4% of the country. If scrub forestsare excluded, the total area of ‘tall tree’ forest falls tojust 2.4 million hectares (2.7%), of which four-fifths (2million) have ‘sparse’ cover (patchy forests with lessthan 50% cover). More specifically, more than half ofPakistan’s remaining mangrove forests, more thantwo-thirds of remaining riverine forests, and morethan nine-tenths of remaining coniferous forests haveless than 50% canopy cover. Good quality (greaterthan 50% cover) ‘tall tree’ forest in Pakistan coversless than 400,000 hectares (under one two-hun-

dredth part of the country). The remaining forests,fragmented and degraded as they are, are rapidlydisappearing.

Two recent studies suggest that Pakistan’s woodybiomass is declining at a rate of 4-6% per year (GoP1992, Hosier 1993). Consumption (primarily forhousehold firewood) exceeds production in all theprovinces except in the relatively sparsely populatedNorthern Areas; consumption is expected to increasein line with population growth at about 3% per year.Both studies concluded that Pakistan’s woody bio-mass could be totally consumed within the next 10 to15 years.

The 1993 Household Energy Strategy Study dre wfive lessons for sustainability. First, the transition to sus-tainable plantation fore s t ry should be as rapid as pos-sible to allow the conservation of natural old-gro w t hf o rest that is much more valuable for biodiversity.Second, a high level of planting must be maintained.T h i rd, good tree management is vital; if the surv i v a lrate is less than 75%, commensurately more tre e swould need to be planted. Fourth, consumption can besignificantly reduced by improved efficiency of fuel-wood use and substitution with more modern fuels.


Cutting trees for firewood causes habitat and biodiversity loss.

And finally, no matter what the level of planting, pop-ulation growth will eventually drive fuelwood demandso high that forest stocks will be destroyed. Hosierderives two policy implications: first, that family plan-ning programmes must be given a high priority, andsecond, that economic growth is essential to enablem o re households to shift to modern fuels.

Regional case studies support the growing bodyof evidence for this approaching national disaster. Inthe upland coniferous forests, for example, a system-atic study of the Siran project area in HazaraDivision, NWFP has indicated a 52% decline in for-est resources between 1967 and 1992. The studyconcludes that if present trends continue, the Siranforests will be gone within eight years, by the year2005 (Archer 1996). Similar trends have beenobserved in the Kaghan and Allai valleys in HazaraDivision. Moreover, plantation survival rates are wellbelow the 75% target set by the HESS study.

The mangrove forests of the Indus Delta show asimilarly dramatic decline. In the last 20 years, man-grove cover has been halved from 2,600 square kilo-metres in the late 1970s (Pernetta 1993) to 1,300square kilometres in the mid-1990s. Once one of the

largest arid zone mangrove forests of the world, thisnational heritage is now quickly disappearing(Saifullah 1997).

It is feared that Pakistan is experiencing the world’ssecond highest rate of deforestation. This destruction isleading to the wholesale disappearance of tre e s ,s h rubs and ground flora, together with the vert e b r a t eand invertebrate fauna they normally support. The lossof forest habitat has had a severe impact on Pakistan’sb i o d i v e r s i t y, and has serious implications for then a t i o n ’s natural and agro - e c o s y s t e m s .

Unfortunately, the moratorium on timber harvest-ing in Pakistan following the 1992 floods has notbeen very effective. Further, the moratorium hasreportedly resulted in increased timber smugglingfrom Afghanistan. As most of this wood is extractedby the clear-felling of forests in the Kunar Province,and as these forests fall within the watershed of theKabul River, the adverse impacts of deforestation inAfghanistan will be felt downstream in Pakistan.

Arid and Semi-arid Rangelands

Trends in biodiversity in Pakistan’s arid and semi-aridrangelands, and to some extent in the nort h e rn alpinegrasslands, are no less disturbing than those in the for-est ecosystems. Pakistan has some 28.5 millionh e c t a res of rangeland: 12.6 million in Balochistan,5.8 million in the Punjab, 2.9 million in Sindh, 4.9million in the NWFP, 1.6 million in the Nort h e rnA reas and 0.8 million hectares in AJK. Of the range-lands in the NWFP, Nort h e rn Areas and AJK, 1.05million hectares are alpine grasslands (GoP 1992).Of Pakistan’s non-alpine rangelands 90% have beendegraded – 27% of the total area in Pakistan.

Degradation of rangelands reduces the diversityof flora and changes the vegetative composition.Increased competition for grazing affects wild herbi-vore populations (rodents, lagomorphs and ungu-lates) and the reduced prey base can then only sup-port smaller populations of predators.

Wetlands and Coastal Waters

Freshwater flows in Pakistan’s rivers have been sub-stantially reduced by water diversion in re c e n t


M a n g roves are a disappearing component of coastal biodiversity:a mature Avicennia marina t ree in Bakran Creek, Korangi.

decades. This has degraded and fragmented fresh-water habitats and led to increasing salinity in theIndus Delta. Many riverain wetlands have beendrained and converted to agriculture. Major bar-rages, such as the Taunsa and Guddu, act as barri-ers to migrating fish and the Indus dolphin. Thisblockage of the Indus’ flow to the ocean by damsand barrages is considered to be the most importanthuman threat to biodiversity in the aquatic ecosys-tems of Pakistan (Ahmed 1997).

Most of the natural lakes in Pakistan have disap-peared over the last 50 years. However, several newlakes have been created upstream of dams con-structed in recent years. Some of these have becomeimportant wintering areas for waterfowl, and theseand other wetlands, particularly in the valleys ofSindh and Punjab, are feeding grounds for large con-centrations of ducks and coots.

Among coastal ecosystems, mangrove forests arethe most vulnerable to severe changes (Amjad1996). Along the coast of Sindh, mangroves play aneconomically significant role in protecting ports from excessive siltation, providing breeding grounds forcommercially important penaid shrimp and fish lar-vae, and as sanctuaries for migratory birds.

Depletion of Species, Populations & Genetic Diversity

Extinct Species

As an example of species loss, at least four mammalspecies are known to have disappeared fro mPakistan within the last 400 years: tiger (Pantherat i g r i s); swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli); lion(Panthera leo); and the Indian one-horned rhinoceros(Rhinoceros unicornis). A further two species haveprobably gone extinct in recent decades: cheetah(Acinonyx jubatus); and hangul (Cervus elaphushanglu). The blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra) hasbeen listed as locally extinct but has now been bredin captivity while the Asiatic wild ass (E q u u shemionus) is believed to be threatened with extinc-tion in Pakistan (Ahmad 1997).

Internationally Threatened Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN1996) lists 37 species and 14 sub-species of inter-nationally threatened or near- t h reatened mammalsas occurring in Pakistan. Of these, two are critical-


The snow leopard is one of the critically endangered mammals in Pakistan.

ly endangered, nine endangered, 11 vulnerable,24 near- t h reatened, five data deficient and onec o n s e rvation dependent. The critically endangere dmammals are Balochistan black bear (Ursus thi -betanus gedrosianus) and Chiltan goat (C a p r aaegagrus chiltanensis). Endangered mammalsinclude snow leopard (Uncia uncia), Indus river dol-phin (Platanista minor), markhor (Capra falconeri) ,urial (Ovis vignei), and woolly flying squirre l(Eupetaurus cinereus) .

Internationally threatened bird species in Pakistaninclude 25 internationally threatened (one criticallyendangered, two endangered, 22 vulnerable) and17 internationally near- t h reatened bird species(IUCN 1996). The critically endangered bird is thelesser florican (Eupodotis indica), while the Siberiancrane (Grus leucogeranus) and great Indian bustard(Ardeotis nigriceps) are listed as endangered.

Ten internationally threatened reptiles occur inPakistan (three endangered, three vulnerable, threenear-threatened and one data deficient), but thereare no internationally threatened amphibians.

Species of National Concern

Lists of internationally threatened species are only thetip of the iceberg. While there is little data available to

demonstrate the decline of species’ populations inPakistan, the accelerating loss and fragmentation ofnatural habitats clearly implies such a decline is occur-ing. Habitat fragmentation isolates populations, expos-ing species to a higher rate of genetic loss and to ag reater risk of extinction. While a few pre l i m i n a ryattempts have been made to draw up national lists oft h reatened species, including a list of some 500 plantspecies believed to be nationally rare or thre a t e n e d(Davis et al. 1986), no comprehensive and systematiclist of species of national concern has been compiledfor Pakistan. Such a list would include species whicha re nationally rare and declining; those which arenationally rare, not declining, but otherwise at risk e.g.f rom population fluctuations, natural catastrophes, per-secution, etc.; those which are highly localised in dis-tribution; and those which are still widespread andcommon but suffering significant decline.

Degradation of Agro-ecosystems and Domestic Genetic Diversity

Pakistan’s agro-ecosystems are experiencing a num-ber of trends damaging to biodiversity. These include


Habitat loss affects plant and animal populations – markhor is a species endangered by habitat loss and overharvest.

soil loss, waterlogging, salinization, intensification ofproduction and the increased use of pesticides. Soildegradation, waterlogging and salinization allreduce the productivity of agricultural lands, decreas-ing the capacity of these lands to sustain soil micro-organisms, invertebrates and higher trophic levels,and indirectly placing greater human demand onnatural biodiversity resources. Intensification reducesfloral and faunal diversity in crops and field margins.

Globally, the genetic diversity of many crops iseroding. This is mainly due to developments in thiscentury of uniform cultivars grown in very similarenvironments and created using the same sophisti-cated agricultural practices. The spread of cultivarsin Pakistan is expected to lead to an erosion of prim-itive crop genetic variety.

Critically Threatened Ecosystems

In Pakistan, given the widespread historic conversionof natural ecosystems to agriculture, the already high-ly advanced and rapidly accelerating degradation ofhabitats, and the continuing depletion of popula-tions, almost all remaining natural or modifiedecosystems are now critically threatened.

To date, no systematic and compre h e n s i v eassessment with the aim of objectively ranking thebiodiversity importance of Pakistan’s natural ecosys-tems has been made. However, based on variousre p o rts (e.g. Mallon 1991) and the opinions ofrecognised authorities (T.J. Roberts, pers. com., R.Rafiq, pers. com.), at least 10 ecosystems of part i c-ular value for their species richness and/or uniquecommunities of flora and fauna are threatened withhabitat loss and degradation (Table 2). Given theirbiodiversity importance and the high level of thre a t ,these ecosystems are considered to be of criticalc o n c e rn for conserv a t i o n .

2.3 DIRECT CAUSES OFBIODIVERSITY LOSS

Biodiversity loss has both direct and indirect causes.The former include activities resulting in the loss and

degradation of habitats, over-exploitation of plant andanimal species, agricultural intensification, pollution,invasion by introduced species and climate change.

Activities Causing Habitat Loss

Habitat loss is the principal cause of the present highrate of global extinctions and poses a severe threatin all biomes (UNEP 1995). There is no ‘safe’ level ofhabitat loss which would reduce the risk of extinctionof some species; no network of carefully selectedreserves that would suffice to protect all species.

Changes in habitat quality, while less extreme thanhabitat loss, would still affect plant and animal popu-lations. For many species, the consequences of evensubtle changes in habitat quality can be confidentlyp redicted from existing knowledge of their habitatre q u i rements. Habitat fragmentation increases the riskof extinction by isolating small pockets of pre v i o u s l ym o re connected populations. Small, isolated popula-tions are more vulnerable to the loss of genetic vari-ability and run a greater risk of extinction.


Chagai desert, a critical ecosystem in south-western Balochistan.

DeforestationThe principal cause of deforestation is the consumptionof fuelwood and timber. This consumption has alre a d ybeen detailed in relation to trends in forest loss, frag-mentation, and degradation (see Current Tre n d s ) .

Grazing and Fodder Collection

The direct cause of degradation of rangelands andforests is the rapidly increasing domestic livestockpopulation. Between 1945 and 1986, the number of

cattle almost doubled, while the numbers of buf-faloes, sheep and goats more than tripled (GoP andIUCN 1992). Overall livestock numbers continue toincrease at a rate of 2% per year. While much of thisincrease has been fed by the production of fodderwithin irrigated areas, persistent overgrazing hasreduced forage production in rangelands to one-thirdthe potential – a loss of almost 50 million tonnes peryear – and in some areas to as low as 15% of thepotential (GoP and IUCN 1992). The problem is par-ticularly acute in Balochistan.


Table 2 Critically Threatened Ecosystems in Pakistan

ECOSYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS SIGNIFICANCE THREATS

Indus delta and coastal Extensive mangroves and Rich avian and marine fauna Reduced freshwater flow fromwetlands mudflats Diverse mangrove habitat diversions upstream

Inadequate protected area Marine turtle habitat Cutting mangroves for coverage fuelwood

Drainage of coastal wetlands

Indus river Extensive wetlands Migratory flyway of global Water diversion/drainageand wetlands importance Agricultural intensification

Habitat for Indus river Toxic pollutantsdolphin

Chagai desert A desert of great antiquity Many endemic and unique P roposed miningspecies Hunting parties from the Gulf

Balochistan Huge and ancient junipers Largest remaining juniper Fuelwood cutting andjuniper forest forest in the world overgrazing

Unique flora and fauna Habitat fragmentation

Chilghoza forest Rock outcrops with shallow Important wildlife habitat for Fuelwood cutting and (Sulaiman Range) mountain soils several species at risk overgrazing

Illegal hunting

Balochistan Mid-altitude forests with Very few areas now remain Fuelwood cutting andsub-tropical forests sparse canopy but rich Important wildlife habitat overgrazing

associated flora

Balochistan rivers Not connected with the Unique aquatic fauna and Water diversion/drainageIndus river system flora with high levels Overfishing

of endemism

Tropical deciduous Extend from the Margalla Hills Perhaps the most floristically Fuelwood cutting andforests National Park east rich ecosystem of Pakistan overgrazing(Himalayan foothills) to Azad Kashmir

Moist and dry temperate Important forest tracts now Global hotspot for avian diver - Commercial loggingHimalayan forests becoming increasingly sity; important wildlife habitat Fuelwood cutting and

fragmented overgrazing

Trans-Himalayan Spectacular mountain scenery Unique flora and fauna; Fuelwood cutting andalps and plateaux center of endemism overgrazing

Illegal huntingUnregulated tourismHabitat fragmentation

Soil ErosionBoth wind and water erosion are exacerbated by a reduction in vegetation cover, resulting from agricultural activities and overstocking. Water ero s i o nis not only a particular problem in the Nort h e rn Are a sand the NWFP, but it also affects the agro - e c o s y s t e m sof the barani lands e.g. the Potwar plateau and theSulaiman rodkohi (traditional water harvesting sys-tem). About 11 million hectares are affected by watere rosion and the consequent washing away of soil.Water erosion results in increasing sedimentation ofwetlands and resulting habitat degradation.

While wind erosion is not as severe a problem aswater erosion, some 2 million hectares of Pakistan (ofwhich 1.5 million hectares are in the Punjab) areexperiencing moderate to severe wind erosion. Thelight soils of the Potwar Plateau and the sandy soilsof the Thal and Cholistan deserts are particularly vul-nerable. The sandy deserts of Thal, Cholistan, Tharand Chagai-Kharan suffer from the linked problem ofshifting sand dunes. In Balochistan, excessive pump-ing of groundwater has led to falling water-tables,with the result that vegetation cover is decreasingand soil erosion is on the rise. The loss of soil throughwater and wind erosion implies a loss of soil organ-isms, plant diversity and the population of animalsthese plants support.

Water Diversion and Drainage

The diversion of water for irrigation, and thedrainage of wetlands, are major causes of wetlandhabitat degradation in Pakistan. The mean quantityof water entering the Indus Basin in Pakistan is 137.2million acre-feet (MAF), of which 104 MAF arediverted at the canal head. Thus, three-quarters of thewater entering the Indus Basin is now diverted andonly a quarter reaches the Indus Delta and theArabian Sea (GoP and IUCN 1992). Despite thesefigures, further diversions are planned e.g. the GhaziBarotha project.

Many small but valuable wetlands created byseepage or overspill from the massive irrigation sys-tem in the Punjab are threatened by drainage for agri-cultural land use. Others are threatened by the dis-c h a rge of saline water into the wetland, or by fallingg roundwater levels due to drainage pro g r a m m e s .

Activities Causing Species or Population Loss

G l o b a l l y, many extinctions have resulted from humano v e r-exploitation for food through hunting and collec-tion. The search for precious commodities and for zoospecimens and medicinal plants, has also impingedon some populations and obliterated others.

Hunting and Trapping

Many bird and animal species are experiencingpopulation declines due to illegal hunting for sport ,meat and trade. Some species are ruthlessly perse-cuted for their depredations on livestock or agricul-tural crops. There is a strong tradition of hunting inPakistan, and the impact has increased with thes p read of modern guns and greater mobility.Vi rtually all large mammals have declined in numberand their range has been reduced. A list of speciesthought to be declining due to unregulated humanuse is given in Table 3.


Unsustainable land use practices accelerate soil erosion, nearBatrasi, Hazara.

FishingMarine catch has steadily increased and furthercatch increases are not possible without depletingstocks (Mallon 1991). The valuable shrimp fisheryhas already begun to show signs of over-exploitation:the number of boats has risen rapidly; there is a ten-dency to fish in shallower waters; and there is anincreased proportion of young shrimp in the catch(Amjad 1996). Concern has also been expressedabout the incidental take of marine turtles by com-mercial shrimp trawlers using mechanised nets. Theintroduction of new technology and bigger fishingtrawlers have also increased the tendency to over-exploit the fishery resource.

No data is available for native freshwater fishstock levels, but overfishing is thought to threatennative fish species in some rivers in Balochistan andinland wetlands such as Kinjhar Lake.

Over-exploitation of Plants

Pakistan is rich in medicinal plants due to its variedclimatic and edaphic factors. Of the almost 6,000species of vascular plants re p o rted to occur inPakistan, about 1,000 species have been re c o g-nized to possess phytochemical pro p e rties. Between350-400 species are traded in diff e rent drug mar-

kets of the country and are used by leading manu-facturing units of y u n a n i and homeopathic medi-cines. A number of medicinal plants and their deriv-atives, whose cultivation is not feasible in the coun-t ry, are brought in under a liberal import policy.Besides this, about 40,000–50,000 t a b i b s ( p r a c t i-tioner of Greco-Arabic medicine), v a i d s ( p r a c t i t i o n-ers of Ay u rvedic and folk-medicine) and a number ofu n re g i s t e red practitioners scattered in rural andremote hilly areas use more than 200 plants in traditional and folk-medicines.

In recent years, there has been a consistent gro w t hin the demand for plant-based drugs and pro d u c t sf rom a variety of species. This has given rise to larg escale collection and habitat degradation. It has re s u l t-ed in the scarcity of a number of valuable medicinalplant species, and their wide range of chemical diver-sity will diminish at the present scale of extractionf rom natural habitats (R. M. Ashfaque, pers. com.).

Agricultural Intensification

I rrigation causes degradation of agro - e c o s y s t e m swhen it results in increasing salinity, sodicity andwaterlogging. This is an extremely serious problem buthas limited direct impact on natural ecosystems.Salinity and sodicity affect 2.1 million hectares inSindh and 2.6 million hectares in the Punjab (GoP andIUCN 1992). Most of the soils affected are of low agri-cultural potential, but nonetheless, almost 10% of ClassI and II soils are affected. WAPDA classifies all are a swith a water-table within 1.5 metres of the surface, 5.3million hectares out of 14.6 million hectares, as the‘ d i s a s t rous zone’ of waterlogging. The NCS gives amuch lower figure of 200,000 hectares, where a dis-aster area is defined as an area where the water- t a b l elies within one metre of the surf a c e .

Crop genetic diversity in Pakistan is also drop-ping and the principal reason is the developmentand use of high-yield varieties (HYVs). These HYVsrespond better to water and fertilizer, but are atremendous threat to indigenous species and primi-tive cultivars that had been selected and maintainedby Pakistani farmers for generations. This geneticerosion is well pronounced in wheat, rice, sorghum,sugarcane and vegetables.


HUMAN USES SPECIES AFFECTED

Illegal hunting Most ungulates, game birds and waterfowl

Persecution All predators (including brown and(in response to black bear, grey wolf, snow leopard,livestock/crop losses) leopard and leopard cat) as well as

rhesus macaque

Falconry Saker, lagger and peregrine falcons

Domestication Cranes, rhesus macaque, parrots and bears (dancing and baiting)

Medicinal purposes Rhesus macaque, bears, musk deer,dolphins, pelicans and lizards

Decoration Most felids and mustelids (for fur); ungulates (for trophies); crocodiles and snakes (for skins); turtles (for shells and oil); and monal pheasant (for feathers)

Table 3 Human Use of Wildlife in Pakistan

Though cross-breeding can lead to relativelyrapid gains in productivity, it also increases the rateof genetic loss if the parent stock is not maintained.Some 75-80% of Pakistan’s domestic livestock arecross-breeds. There is an immediate need to monitorthis situation by conducting scientific surveys.

The agricultural use of pesticides and fertilisershas increased rapidly in recent years. Pesticide usein Pakistan increased seven-fold in quantity between1981 and 1992, from 915 million tonnes to 6,865million tonnes of which 80% were organophosphates(Baloch 1995). Direct mortality of wildlife, especiallybirds, following the use of organophosphates has fre-quently been reported. Pesticides destroy the naturalbiotic balance in agricultural soils and reduce thediversity and abundance of invertebrate fauna withcascading effects at higher trophic levels. Theincreasing presence of pesticides in agricultural run-off has both acute and chronic effects on aquaticfauna and on fish-eating birds. It is estimated that25% of all pesticides used in Pakistan end up in thesea (M. F. Ahmad, pers. com.).

The use of fertilisers grew at over 7% per yearduring the Sixth Five-Year Plan (GoP and IUCN1992). Excessive use of nitrogenous fertilisers leadsto eutrophication of water channels and wetlands,the spread of aquatic vegetation, and reduced aquat-ic diversity. Khurshid (1991) cites Haleji, Drigh andPatisar lakes as examples. The effect of hazardouschemical pesticides, fertilizers and industrial effluentson biological diversity, especially on microbial popu-lations and varieties, is well established. Preservationand quantification of the microbial population as abench mark to measure the effect of these chemicalsis essential.

Pollution

Pollutants can have direct negative impacts onecosystems and may reduce or eliminate popula-tions of sensitive species as contamination re v e r b e r-ates along the food chain. Globally, soil micro b e shave suff e red from pollution as industry sheds heavymetals and irrigated agriculture brings on saliniza-tion. The excessive use of synthetic chemicals suchas pesticides is not only a direct threat to biodiversi-

ty but it can also be toxic for people, either thro u g hd i rect exposure or as residue in food and drinkingw a t e r. Marine pollution (particularly from oil) hascontaminated many estuaries and seas thro u g h o u tthe world.

In Pakistan, pollution is a growing problem part i c-ularly in urban areas and water courses (both fre s h-water and marine). The discharge of sewage andindustrial effluent into aquatic and marine ecosystemsis rapidly growing. The organic load of sewagedepletes oxygen levels in water and indirectly re d u c e sthe diversity of animal and plant life. Major cities dis-pose of largely untreated sewage into irrigation sys-tems, streams and rivers. Lahore alone discharg e s240 million gallons of sewage per day mainly into theriver Ravi (GoP and IUCN 1992). The resultant loss offish and contamination of potential drinking water hasconsiderable economic and health impacts.

Industrial pollution is particularly severe in theindustrial centre of Karachi with a population ofover 12 million people. About 80% of the totalwastewater remains untreated and is discharg e dinto the sea through sewers and rivers, mainly theLyari and Malir. Many creeks and coastal waters in


Terraced fields along the Karakoram Highway, Kohistan, NWFP.

the Karachi area exhibit eutrophication due to highlevels of organic pollution. The characteristic smellof hydrogen sulphide in parts of the city is a sign ofthe intense bacterial activity from the presence ofo rganic wastes.

Most coastal pollution is concentrated in Karachiharbour where an estimated 90,000 tons of oilproducts from vessels and port terminals are dumpedevery year. Extremely high levels of toxic heavy met-als such as mercury have been documented, espe-cially in the coastal waters and sea near Karachi.These are likely to have both acute and chronic toxicimpacts on human beings, marine biodiversity, andfish-eating birds. The impacts of these pollutants onc o m m e rcial fin-fish and shrimp fisheries areunknown, but likely to be significant.

Introduced or Invasive Species

Introduced or alien invasive species can have a sig-nificant negative impact on biodiversity. This form of‘bio-pollution’ has increased in recent years as glob-alisation has meant the more rapid and widespread

movement of goods from one place to another, fos-tering the spread of organisms in ship ballast water,in containers and even in commodities. Introducedspecies are responsible for many recorded speciesextinctions, especially on islands, and are secondonly to habitat loss as a global cause of extinction(Simberloff 1995). In Lake Victoria, Africa, for exam-ple, the introduction of the Nile perch, a voraciouspredator, eliminated about 200 native fish species inthe largest single vertebrate extinction ever recorded(Bright 1998).

The introduction of exotic species can also bedone deliberately by natural resource managers,most often to increase commercial production in agri-culture and forestry. In countries such as South Africa,Chile, Taiwan, Australia, Sweden and Finland, amajority of commercially planted tree species areintroduced. This has resulted in higher production ofwoody biomass than would otherwise have beenpossible using only native tree species.

The effect of exotic species on the native faunaand flora of Pakistan has not been well documented.In attempts to meet the increasing demands of a rapid-ly growing human population, fast growing exoticshave been introduced to alleviate shortages in timber,


Air pollution, a threat to biodiversity.

fodder and fuelwood. Prominent tree species includeeucalyptus, hybrid poplar and Paulownia planted onf a rmlands and irrigated plantations. While thesespecies do not appear to have threatened indigenousvegetation so far, the introduction of Robinia,Ailanthus and eucalyptus in the sub-tropical chir pinezone may pose threats to natural habitats in the future(R.M. Ashfaque, pers. com.).

Many primitive landraces/cultivars and wild rela-tives of agricultural crops (such as wheat, rice, puls-es, sugarcane and cotton) have suffered from genet-ic erosion from the introduction of HYVs of thesecrops, habitat degradation and the excessive use ofpesticides and herbicides (U.K. Baloch, pers. com.).As the genetic traits of local species are lost, the abil-ity to adapt to local environments and climates, andto tolerate diseases is greatly reduced.

Extreme care is required in the selection ofspecies to be introduced to minimize impacts onnative species. Introductions should be consideredonly if absolutely necessary and should be accom-panied by strategies to assess the magnitude of anyt h reats to indigenous species. Where practical,indigenous flora and fauna should be restored toreduce native biodiversity loss.

Global Climate Change

Average global temperature has been rising for morethan a century, either as a result of natural fluctuationor from the build-up of greenhouse gases. Climatechange is likely to reduce biodiversity, and the goodsand services that ecosystems supply to Pakistan by:● increasing desertification in arid and semi-arid

areas; ● increasing seawater intrusion of the Indus delta

with a consequent reduction in mangrove cover,and a loss of sandy beaches;

● increasing summer flooding in monsoon-affectedareas;

● the retreat of glaciers and an upwards shift in ecological zones in the Himalaya-Hindu Kush-Karakorum ranges;

● the desiccation and die-back of forests; ● reduced agricultural production; and ● changes in marine fisheries.

2.4 INDIRECT CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS

The direct reasons for biodiversity loss describedabove are not the root of the problem. As the GlobalBiodiversity Strategy points out, the crisis is not ‘outthere’ in the forest or the rangelands, but embeddedin the way we live. The Strategy identifies six funda-mental causes of biodiversity loss:● the unsustainably high rate of human population

growth and consumption;● economic systems that fail to value the environ-

ment and its resources;● inequity in the ownership, management and flow

of benefits from both the use and conservation ofbiological resources;

● deficiencies in knowledge and its application;● legal and institutional systems that promote unsus-

tainable exploitation; and● the steadily narrowing spectrum of traded prod-

ucts from agriculture, forestry and fisheries.While these causes are common to most coun-

tries, the relative importance and the particular waysin which each cause manifests itself, are particular toeach country. They are discussed for Pakistan below.

Increasing Demand forNatural Resources

Population Growth

Though people are without doubt the most valuableresource in Pakistan, uncontrolled growth in theirnumbers puts undue pressures on all other nationalresources. Unrestrained population growth cannotcontinue without irreversible changes in ecosystemsand with dire consequences for people themselves(GoP and IUCN 1992). Pakistan’s population grewfrom 31 million in 1951 (West Pakistan) to 110 mil-lion in 1991 and is estimated to be about 130.6 mil-lion today based on the 1998 census (NationalInstitute of Population Studies data). With a growthrate of 2.6%, among the highest in Asia, Pakistan’spopulation is expected to reach 200 million by theyear 2010. The proximate cause of this growth is ahigh fertility rate and about 5.3 living children per


woman. A corollary is a youthful age structure with45% of the population under 15 years of age, creat-ing the potential for further rapid growth. However,there are some signs that awareness of family plan-ning is growing. The use of contraceptives amongmarried women has doubled, from 12% in 1991 to24% in 1998 (Hakim et al. 1998).

Consumption

While per capita consumption of natural resources inPakistan is much lower than in developed countries,the combination of population growth and growth inreal economic demand means a doubling of thedemand for natural resources every 12 years. Forexample, the consumption of woody biomass for fueland timber is reducing the total growing stock at thealarming rate of 4% per year (GoP 1992). As anenergy-poor country, Pakistan has few alternatives,and these alternatives also pose potential threats tobiodiversity. The burning of animal wastes reducessoil biodiversity by depriving soils of much-neededorganic matter. The development of hydroelectric

power will have considerable adverse impacts onbiodiversity, unless siting alternatives and mitigatingmeasures are addressed early in the planning stage.The impact of these growing energy demands on bio-diversity will be particularly acute where higher pop-ulation densities and/or large-scale energy demandscoincide with areas of high biodiversity.

Low Primary Productivity

Increasing natural resource consumption is exacer-bated in Pakistan by low primary productivity in a g r i c u l t u re, rangelands, fore s t ry and fisheries.I n c reased productivity in agriculture, animal husbandry, silviculture and pisciculture would reducepressures on natural resources.

The low productivity of Pakistan’s rangelands hasa l ready been discussed. While there is very little scopefor increasing the area of agricultural land in Pakistan(almost all cultivable land is already cultivated), pro-ductivity per hectare is among the lowest in the world(GoP and IUCN 1992). There are three main con-tributing factors to this low productivity: limited avail-ability of water; poor land and crop management; andsoil degradation. Because of the limited availability ofwater under current water management regimes, onlyo n e - t h i rd of the available land suitable for double-cro p-ping is actually double-cropped. Low yields result fro mmany factors, including: soil deficiencies; inadequateseed-bed preparation in clay soils; limited applicationof modern cropping techniques; the system of absen-tee landlords; fragmentation of land holdings; pooraccess to capital for expansion and impro v e m e n t ;poor technology transfer to farmers; and, lack ofadvice concerning the use and timing of farm inputs.Application of fertilizers and pesticides (for incre a s e dp roduction of food to feed increasing populations) hasadversely affected soil microbial populations in thefields. Applying naturally occurring microbes fori n c reased production could be one solution to thediminishing microbial population in ecosystems. Manyof the most harmful pesticides have now been bannedin Pakistan through recent amendments to the PesticideO rdinance, 1971.

The scope for increased forest productivity, in par-ticular through increased farm forestry, is substantial.The main reasons given by farmers for not growing


Pakistan has a young and growing population. Will there beany biodiversity left for them?

trees are lack of water and land, while little adviceand support to farmers are also identified as con-straints (GoP 1992). However, many marginal lands,including waterlogged and slightly saline lands, havepotential for plantation.

Forest productivity in irrigated forest plantationscan be increased though additional inputs in the formof better irrigation water management, regular tend-ing operations and timely felling and regenerationwork. In the sub-mountainous forest and range areas,better grazing management together with communityparticipation could effectively increase range pro-ductivity. Watersheds in the mountainous areas couldbe protected and productivity increased by regulat-ing the yield from forest areas and applying modernplanting/regeneration techniques. Wildlife harvest-ing based on sound principles and with the partici-pation of local communities could also increase theoverall productivity of natural areas. Similarly, thereis substantial scope for increasing fish production inPakistan, particularly through commercial fish ponds.

Economic Causes of Biodiversity Loss

The main economic reason behind the erosion ofbiodiversity is the underlying disparity between pri-vate versus social costs and benefits of biodiversityuse and conservation. Private costs and benefitsrefer to those losses and gains as perceived by theimmediate user of the environment: the farm e r, theindustrialist and the consumer. Social costs and ben-efits refer to losses and gains that accrue to societyas a whole. Social and private interests often do notcoincide: what is good for the individual mayimpose costs on the rest of society – so-called ‘exter-nalities’. Sometimes, what is good for society as awhole is also good for the individual, but no institu-tions exist for the individual to capture this ‘globalvalue’. From the perspective of the individual, itpays to exploit biodiversity. But from the point ofview of society as a whole, it is better to seek waysof sustainably utilising that biodiversity and, onmany occasions, of outright protecting it. ‘Society’ inthis respect can be the local society, the pro v i n c e ,the nation, or the world as a whole. The main fac-

tors in this divergence between private and sociali n t e rests are market and intervention failures. Thesea re exacerbated by weak pro p e rty regimes, highdiscount rates, and the globalization of the worldeconomy (McNeely 1988).

Market Failure

Freely functioning markets are based on narrow self-interest. The upstream polluter has no incentive toaccount for the costs he imposes on a downstreamuser of a river. The downstream ‘externality’ is beingignored by the upstream polluter. This failure arisesfrom the free functioning of the market place (Pearceand Moran 1994).

‘Local market failures’ of this kind are evident inthe pollution of many kinds of ‘re s o u rce streams’ inPakistan. For example, the so-called timber mafiaexploiting the Himalayan forests do not need to con-c e rn themselves with the downstream siltation theya re causing, or the species they are depleting; once


Forest overharvesting for timber production is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss.

they have logged ‘their’ forest, they will leave, andthe nation will have to pay for the siltation of re s e r-voirs and the reduction of biological diversity.S i m i l a r l y, the industrial effluents discharged ins t reams and canals lead to losses in biodiversity andp ro d u c t i v i t y, especially in fish catch. For example,fish catch from the river Ravi and its tributaries hasbeen reduced by 5,000 tonnes annually. Decisionsa re often taken to exploit natural re s o u rces inPakistan without taking into account the social costsof habitat loss or extinction. Conversely, the socialbenefits of conserving biodiversity are rarely takeninto account. Conventional methods of measuringnational income in Pakistan (such as per capitaGNP) do not recognise the drawing down of natur-al capital stock, and instead consider the depletionof national re s o u rces, i.e. the loss of nationalwealth, as net income.

Many conservation activities yield global bene-fits. If, for example, biodiversity is conserved inPakistan’s Himalayan forests, it yields a benefit topeople in other countries, first because they simplywant it, and second because they provide potential-ly important goods (e.g. medicines) and biogeo-chemical services (eg. carbon sequestration). But ifPakistan receives no financial benefits to pay for theincremental cost of these global external benefits, itwill have less incentive to look after these biologicalresources. This has been called the global market fail-ure (Pearce and Moran 1994). This failure arises notfrom the functioning of the free market, but from thefact that the markets are not there at all. They aremissing markets. When these global missing marketscoincide with local market failure and with interven-tion failure, as is the case with Pakistan’s most impor-tant and unique ecosystems, they do much to explainwhy biodiversity is disappearing.

Intervention Failure

Governments have a habit of intervening in markets.They may do so with the best of intentions. Indeed,they often intervene to remove the main elements ofthe externality caused by market behaviour. This isexactly what environmental regulation does.Unfortunately, a great many other interventions are

contrary to the interests of biodiversity, even wherethose interventions appear to serve some social pur-pose (Pearce and Moran 1994).

The principal form of intervention failure is sub-optimal pricing, e.g. of timber, agricultural products,water and energy. Underpricing is often deliberate,with the intention of promoting greater use and thuscontributing to national development. In Pakistan, forexample, irrigation water is underpriced (Pearce andMoran 1994), leading to overuse, wastage, and theconsequent degradation of aquatic habitats andagro-ecosystems. Energy is similarly underpriced tostimulate development, leading to policies thatobscure the environmental costs of energy produc-tion, whether based on fossil fuels or hydropower(Banuri 1997).

Weak Ownership

Market and intervention failures are exacerbated bythe weak ownership regimes characteristic of muchof Pakistan’s remaining natural habitats. A larg ep ro p o rtion of the country ’s forests, rangelands, wet-lands and coastal waters are open access re s o u rc e s ,or are ineffectively controlled under crumbling com-mon pro p e rty regimes, the centralised state orabsentee landlords. Exploitation is allocated to thosewho pay most for the rights, not to those who mostvalue the re s o u rce (McNeely 1988). The costs ofp rotecting species and ecosystems from exploitationcan be prohibitive for owners, be they govern m e n t ,communities or individuals, who often lack suff i c i e n tre s o u rces and capacity to enforce regulations orother re s t r i c t i o n s .

There is a growing tendency for multinationalfirms to take biological and genetic material as wellas knowledge from indigenous cultural groups fortheir own study and exploitation without acknowl-edging their sources. Many instances have surfaced-where multinationals have secured patents and intel-lectual property rights for the commercial distributionof medicines and genetic materials derived fromindigenous flora and fauna (A. H. Cheema, pers.com.). National legislation is needed to check thisbiopiracy, to regulate bioprospecting and to protectsovereign property rights.


High Discount Rates

Market and intervention failures are also exacerbat-ed by uncertainty linked, for example, to changingpatterns of labour, policies and prices. In an uncer-tain future, the time horizon of people shrinks, andthe discount rate increases. The discount rate is thepercent by which we prefer current consumption overfuture consumption. A higher discount rate meansthat future consumption has less value, and thereforethat people would prefer immediate benefits ratherthan greater delayed benefits. Where high discountrates coincide with low biological growth rates – as,for example, in the juniper and chilghoza forests ofBalochistan – the economic activity is devoted entire-ly to immediate interests at the expense of future gen-erations. A high discount rate is presumably a factorin the deforestation by Afghan refugees in Pakistan.

Globalisation of the World Economy

Finally, market and intervention failures are exacer-bated by various trends in the global economy. These

include the growth in international trade, the associ-ated General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)agreement and establishment of the World TradeO rganisation, the internalisation of finance, thegrowing volume of inter-country financial flows, andthe growing indebtedness of developing countries.These trends are influencing governments and eco-nomic agents to behave in ways that are highlydestructive to the social and natural environment ingeneral and to biodiversity in particular.

International trade has been growing at a ratemuch higher than global income. This affects biodi-versity in many ways. First, by increasing interna-tional competition, it exposes Pakistan’s industries tobankruptcy and induces government to provide hid-den subsidies, such as cheap electricity, free waterand lax pollution control standards, i.e., it exacer-bates intervention failure. Second, it shifts productionfrom subsistence towards commercial products, andthus reduces the concern of the producers for thelong-term sustainability of resource use. Third, itencourages government leaders to pursue high tradeand growth at the expense of all other benefits.Fourth, it diverts attention from the primary productsderived from natural and agro-ecosystems, towards


Current fishing practices lead to incidental catch of non-target species, such as marine turtles.

the production of secondary and tertiary goods andservices. The recent General Agreement on Tariffsand Trade (GATT) agreement, with the establishmentof the WTO, restricts governments from using tradepolicies to protect the environment. The CBDSecretariat is in the process of working with the WTOCommittee on Trade and Environment to include theSecretariat’s views on processes that have an impacton biodiversity.

Since the 1970s, there has been an even moredramatic growth in international financial flows. Thisfurther reduces the policy effectiveness and autono-my of the government. The government cannot usecapital controls, interest rate policies or discriminato-ry practices to protect natural resources, as thesewould invite market retaliation in the form of damag-ing financial outflows.

Equally significant has been the growth in foreigndebt. Though Pakistan has been far more restrainedin terms of exposure to foreign debt than, for exam-ple, many Latin American countries, debt levels hadrisen to over 50% of national income by the 1990s.This has been matched by a similar growth in domes-tic debt, increasing budgetary deficits and generallyreducing the solvency level of government.

The consequences of all these changes are thatthe government has far less room for manoeuvretoday than two or three decades ago; there is strong

pressure on producers to compete in internationalmarkets and earn foreign exchange; and conven-tional forms of cash subsidies have become impossi-ble, while subsidies in kind have become difficult.Consequently, the only way of subsidising local pro-ducers is to obscure and hide environmental costs.This is creating increasing pressures on naturalresources and consequently, on biodiversity.

Inequities

In Pakistan, a weakening of customary communityresponsibilities for the use of natural resources canbe attributed to several causes. With development,new sources of income have weakened reliance onlocal biodiversity resources, eroding the need andconcern for sustainable use of these resources. Thisconcern has been further eroded by the disempow-erment of local communities, for example, by stateintervention in the management of community forests.Increasing uncertainty (due, for example, to chang-ing prices and inconsistent government policies) dis-courages a long-term view of resource use. And thefree market, with its associated economic incentives,encourages a competitive race for natural resourcesat the expense of traditional sharing (SDPI 1995).


The goals and aims for the conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity in Pakistan shouldfirst and foremost relate to the specific problems

affecting biodiversity in Pakistan. The needs of peo-ple and their activities must be reconciled with themaintenance of biodiversity. Most often, successfulconservation is achieved by changing human atti-tudes and use regimes and by promoting collabora-tive management. Conservation must be carried outwith the cooperation of government, NGOs andlocal people. For this to happen, there is a need toagree upon a set of guiding principles, goals, andbroad aims.

The principles that could provide guidance toPakistan’s efforts to conserve and manage its biodi-versity include the following:● Every form of life is unique and warrants respect

from humanity.● Biodiversity is a key indicator of the health of the

environment in which we live. We depend on bio-diversity for a vast array of goods and services,and should, therefore, accord priority to its con-servation, management and sustainable use.

● Conservation of biodiversity is a common concernof all citizens of Pakistan. While governments areaccountable for its conservation and manage-ment, all Pakistanis have stewardship responsibil-ity for the country’s natural heritage.

● Biodiversity conservation is an investment that canyield substantial benefits; ensuring a larger mar-ket share of benefits to local communities canreduce biodiversity losses.

● All sectors that influence biodiversity should helpplan its conservation.

● Biodiversity management actions must be basedon sound ecological principles, scientifically validinformation and local knowledge.

● Natural resources cannot be sustainably man-aged exclusively by communities or governments.The government must recognize the interests andrights of local communities, while the communities

must recognize that such management is part of alarger political and environmental framework.

3.1 GOAL

In becoming a signatory to the CBD, Pakistan hasendorsed the global priority accorded to biodiversityc o n s e rvation and sustainable use. Through thisBiodiversity Action Plan, Pakistan will evolve its ownstrategy for containing the erosion of biodiversity andensuring its conservation for the benefit of presentand future generations.

The overall goal of the Biodiversity Action Plan forPakistan is:


PRINCIPLES, GOALS AND BROAD AIMS

Dry temperate forests are an important component of Pakistan’secosystem diversity.

To promote the conservation and sustainable useof Pakistan’s biodiversity, and the equitable sharingof benefits arising thereof, for the well-being andsecurity of the nation.

3.2 BROAD AIMS

Because most actions for the conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity are closely interlinked, itis difficult to find a satisfactory way of classifyingactions within a few broad categories. The GlobalBiodiversity Strategy (WRI/IUCN/UNEP 1992) themost advanced global strategy for biodiversity con-servation, classifies actions under five broad head-ings. This system, however, is not internally consistentin that three of the objectives are defined by level ofaction (local, national and international), while theother two are defined by type of action (‘to apply thetools and technologies’, and ‘to build human capac-ity’ for conserving biodiversity). Despite this inconsis -tency, the Strategy’s approach has its advantages.The action levels help indicate by whom actions mustbe taken and so goes some way towards the next

step of identifying agencies that could take forwardspecific actions. It is appropriate to highlight the‘tools and technologies’ (which include, for example,protected areas and species recovery plans) as theseare central to any biodiversity strategy. Similarly, it isappropriate to highlight ‘building human capacity’as this is vital to all other actions.

The major aims of the BAP can therefore be stated as:● to create a policy framework that fosters the sus-

tainable use of biological resources and the main-tenance of biodiversity;

● to strengthen and promote national biodiversityconservation programmes and develop interna-tional and regional cooperation;

● to create conditions and incentives for biodiversi-ty conservation at the local community level;

● to strengthen and apply more broadly the toolsand technologies for conserving biodiversity; and

● to strengthen human knowledge, will and capaci-ty to conserve biodiversity.The specific objectives and actions that will be

re q u i red to meet these broad aims are described in the following sections, which have been org a-nized according to the principal articles of theC o n v e n t i o n .


4.1 PLANNING ANDPOLICIES

Identifying the Issues

Article 6 of the CBD requires parties to developnational strategies, plans or programmes for conser-vation and sustainable use, and to integrate theseinto other relevant sectoral plans. This requirement ispartially met by the current Biodiversity Action Planfor Pakistan.

Integration with Other Strategies

The National Conservation Strategy was adopted asnational policy in 1992; it has been accepted by the

World Bank as the National Environmental ActionPlan. Since it addresses the broad spectrum of issuesrelating to the environment, the goals of the NCS areobviously expressed in broad terms: “conservation ofnatural resources”, “sustainable development” and“improved efficiency in the use and management ofresources”. There are 14 core programmes in theNCS, and though one of them deals with biodiversi-ty and many of the others touch on biodiversity-relat-ed issues, they are clearly inadequate to comprehen-sively address the issues related to the depletion ofbiodiversity in Pakistan. BAP will fill this void; it givesdirection and defines an action programme for theconservation of the nation’s biodiversity.

The Eighth Five-Year Plan identifies the need todevelop provincial conservation strategies to furt h e rimplement the NCS. The Sarhad Pro v i n c i a lC o n s e rvation Strategy and the BalochistanC o n s e rvation Strategy have been completed and a


PROPOSALS FOR ACTION

Losing biodiversity is losing the life-support systems we depend on; butterflies are indications of ecosystem health.

strategy for the Nort h e rn Areas is in pre p a r a t i o n .Though the SPCS is rather more specific than the NCSabout actions needed – with a chapter devoted to bio-logical diversity, parks and protected areas – it toodoes not comprehensively address the re q u i rements ofthe Convention. Infact, the SPCS refers to the curre n tnational biodiversity action planning process and theneed to develop a provincial level biodiversity actionplan. At a more local level, the preparation of districtc o n s e rvation strategies has commenced in Chitraland Abbottabad, and these are expected to pro v i d eg round-level support to the BAP.

Integration with sectoral policies and plans

Existing sectoral policies and plans most pertinent tothe conservation and sustainable use of biodiversityare those relating to wildlife, forestry, fisheries andagriculture.

At the federal level, the formulation and coordi-nation of wildlife policy and plans have, since 1974,

been the responsibility of the National Council forConservation of Wildlife. At the provincial level,wildlife policy and planning are the responsibility ofthe provincial wildlife departments and/or theWildlife Management Boards, wherever they exist.Current wildlife policies and plans tend to placeheavy emphasis on fauna to the exclusion of flora,and on game animals as opposed to non-gamespecies. They relate almost exclusively to the estab-lishment of protected areas, and hunting and tradecontrols for listed species. Many of the more com-p rehensive re q u i rements of the CBD are notaddressed. A new national wildlife policy has beendrafted by GoP and circulated to the provinces fortheir comments. This policy is more comprehensive inthat ‘wildlife’ is defined as all wild species and theirhabitats. However, it does not include domesticatedfauna or flora, or genetic material.

Other sectoral policies dealing with biologicalre s o u rces tend to address biodiversity as a marg i n a lissue. The Fore s t ry Sector Master Plan (GoP 1992)f o rmulates programmes for soil conservation andwatershed development, wood production, ecosys-tems and biodiversity, and institutional stre n g t h e n i n g .While all these programmes are of relevance to bio-diversity conservation and sustainable use, the specif-ic provisions for ecosystems and biodiversity are lim-ited in scope and scale to replanting 75,000 hectare sof mangroves in the Indus Delta and the associatedplanting of 5,000 hectares of fuelwood plantations,p rotecting 20,000 hectares of juniper and 5,000h e c t a res of chilghoza forest in Balochistan andunspecified actions to survey and protect species andecosystems. The total financial allocation for thesep rogrammes was under Rs. 350 million for the five-year period 1993-1997. These technical and finan-cial provisions are clearly inadequate, and there is acritical need to raise the priority given to biodiversityissues in forest policies and plans. A draft fore s t ry sec-tor (forest, watershed, rangeland and wildlife) policyhas been pre p a red by the Ministry of Enviro n m e n t ,Local Government and Rural Development and givento the Cabinet for appro v a l .

Agricultural policy, as reflected in the Eighth Five-Year Plan, addresses a number of issues relevant tothe CBD, including increasing primary production,reducing land degradation, improving irrigation anddrainage, improving soil management, and expand-


Clear policies for sustainable use of rangelands are lacking.

ing integrated pest management. However, it doesnot adequately address the issue of biodiversity perse. Fisheries policy, as reflected in the same plan,focuses on aquaculture and makes no reference tothe conservation of indigenous aquatic biodiversity.

Integration with development plans

The main planning instruments in Pakistan are thePerspective Plan, Five-Year Plan and AnnualDevelopment Plan. Prior to Cabinet approval of theNCS in 1992, these plans gave scant attention toenvironmental issues in general, and even less to bio-diversity in particular. However, the influence of theNCS is clearly seen in the Eighth Five-Year Plan,which identifies the environment as a critical issue.Conservation of natural resources and protection ofthe environment are clearly identified as plan objec-tives. The plan prioritises the development of acoherent legislative framework, institutional strength-ening and the promotion of environmental aware-ness. Mention is made of the expansion and man-agement of protected areas, ex-situ measures forplant conservation, and action for the conservationof endangered species.

The total provision for NCS-related environmentprojects is Rs 21.585 billion, of which Rs 1.624 bil-lion is allocated for 29 (unspecified) schemes for‘conserving biodiversity’. A further Rs 95.195 billionis allocated for environment related programmes buta substantial study would be required to assess therelevance of these to biodiversity conserv a t i o n .Despite these provisions, the Eighth Five-Year Planremains weak on the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity and falls short of addressing in acomprehensive manner the full scope of the CBD. It iscritical to ensure that the provisions of thisBiodiversity Action Plan are integrated into the NinthFive-Year Plan and into both the national and theprovincial Annual Development Plans.

Objectives and Recommended Actions

Objective 1: Adopt appropriate policies and plans that promote the

conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity and integrate biodiversityconservation measures into sectoralplans and programmes

Action 1.1 Secure high level and multi-sectoralsupport for its implementation.

Action 1.2 Prepare and adopt the new wildlifeor ‘biodiversity’ policy, at both the provincial andfederal levels.

Action 1.3 Institutionalise the biodiversity strate-gy process initiated by the current BAP, at both thenational, provincial and local levels.

Action 1.3.1 This process should complementthe national and provincial conservation strategies. Itshould also be both iterative and cyclical, involvingthe preparation, periodic review and development ofa country strategy and action plan to address theprovisions of the CBD. It should ensure broad, multi-sectoral involvement as well as wide participationfrom all sectors of society.

Action 1.3.2 Promote coordination among theinstitutions involved in conservation of biodiversity atfederal and provincial levels.

Action 1.4 Integrate biodiversity considerationsinto the Perspective Plans, Five-Year Plans andAnnual Development Plans (ADPs), and into relevantsectoral plans, particularly those for wildlife, forestry,fisheries and agriculture.

Action 1.5 Promote the preparation of provin-cial conservation strategies with strong elements ofbiodiversity conservation and cross-referenced toFive-Year Plans and provincial ADPs.

4.2 LEGISLATION


Legislative support is required for the implementationof many of the articles of the CBD. Although the termbiodiversity is new and does not find expression inmuch of the existing legislation, Pakistan has a widerange of laws related to the conservation of differentcomponents of biodiversity. What is now required isa review of the relevant laws and how well they


relate to the CBD and, where necessary, amend-ments or enactments of new laws. A review of exist-ing legislation is provided in Appendix 2.

The first piece of legislation targeting environ-mental conservation as a whole was the PakistanEnvironmental Protection Ordinance of 1983. Thishas very recently been replaced by the PakistanEnvironmental Protection Act, 1997. The relevanceof this Act to biodiversity conservation is primarilythrough the mandatory screening process for pro-posed projects. It is important to ensure that the InitialEnvironmental Examinations and the EnvironmentalImpact Assessments adequately address the relevantissues and that the federal and provincial environ-mental protection agencies have the skills to evaluatethese reports in relation to the conservation of biodi-versity in the countr y.

The legislative framework for the conservation ofwildlife consists of the various provincial Acts andO rdinances. These laws provide for the establishmentof provincial Wildlife Management Boards withresponsibility for the formulation of policy and thes u p e rvision of activities related to the conserv a t i o nand management of wildlife. In practice, boards havenot been set up in some provinces, and even wherethey have been set up, they are largely ineff e c t i v e .

With regard to the conservation of species, a seri-ous weakness in the law is that it deals excessivelywith animal species with no provisions for the pro-tection of threatened and endangered plant species.Attempts have been made to control the hunting ofdesignated game animals, but most of these regula-tory measures have proved difficult to enforce. Somerules have been framed to protect a few selectedspecies e.g. falcons and cranes; the need for intro-ducing control measures for other key threatenedspecies should be examined.

Under the existing wildlife law in Pakistan, thereare three categories of protected areas: nationalparks, wildlife sanctuaries and game re s e rv e s .Current thinking on protected area management isthat, to be effective, the communities living alongsidethe area should have a hand in management andshould derive some benefits from the area. None ofthe existing categories of protected areas makeallowance for participatory management by commu-nities. A draft wildlife law empowering local commu-nities to participate in joint wildlife management with

governments has been prepared and is currentlyunder review by the provinces.

The forest Acts and other related legislation of thep rovincial government deal primarily with theexploitation of forests. In practice, there is no clearjurisdiction over forests and different governmentagencies use this resource for their own purposes,under the mandate provided by their respectivepieces of legislation. Responsibility for conservationof forest biodiversity is, therefore, uncertain.

In 1993, the federal government adopted a poli-cy (through a long-term Master Plan) to “recognize,safeguard and manage animal and plant diversity inforest areas under the conservation area and work-ing plan systems”. The Ecosystem and BiodiversityAction Programme formulated under the Master Planincludes schemes for the rehabilitation of mangroveforests in the Indus Delta, conservation and protec-tion of the juniper and chilghoza pine forests inBalochistan, protection of all endemic and endan-gered species of flora and fauna and ecosystemsthrough designated conservation areas, and scientif-ic management of these areas. The Plan also recom-mends updating provincial forest legislation to pro-mote, amongst other things, the conservation of nat-ural forest ecosystems and suggests a model law forthis purpose. It, therefore, assumes that the ground-work has been laid for an effective programme forthe conservation of forest biodiversity outside the pro-tected area system. It is now necessary to move intoaction, particularly at the provincial level.

Fisheries constitute an important component ofPakistan’s biodiversity. Responsibility for marine fish-eries is divided between the provincial and federalgovernments: the former for fisheries upto 12 nauti-cale miles offshore and the latter from there to the200-mile limit. Freshwater and estuarine fisheries areunder provincial jurisdiction. The existing laws pro-hibit the capture of certain species of fish below aprescribed size and the use of poison or explosives,and regulate fishing craft and fishing gear. They alsoempower the government to designate any waterbody as a sanctuary. These measures, both in termsof coverage and enforcement, are inadequate foraffording protection to Pakistan’s aquatic biodiversi-ty. A failure to address these issues would eventuallylead to a serious erosion of the resource base onwhich the fishery industry rests.


Considerable potential for biodiversity conserva-tion exists at the local government level. The functionsdelegated to local government coincide with manyaspects of biodiversity conservation and these are awindow of opportunity for the implementation of con-servation measures at the local level.


Objective 2: Develop an effective legalframework for the implementation ofthe CBD and related conventions

Action 2.1 Review the 1973 Constitution tomake the conservation and sustainable use of biodi-versity the concern of the state and its citizens.

Action 2.2 Review all relevant existing legisla-tion in Pakistan against the obligations under CBDand other biodiversity-related conventions to deter-mine the need for amendments and/or new legisla-tion to meet these obligations.

Action 2.2.1 As part of this process:● existing legislation should be reviewed to identify

deficiencies and other shortcomings in relation tobiodiversity conservation in Pakistan and todefine clearly the jurisdictional limits of differentlaw enforcement agencies;

● local government laws should be amended to pro-vide for greater community level participation inactivities supporting biodiversity;

● the laws relating to communal ownership andaccess to biological resources should be reviewedand revised so as to protect and encourage cus-tomary natural resource management systems;and

● the rules and regulations needed to support legis-lation that would implement the CBD objectivesshould be framed, so as to provide clear guide-lines for implementation.Action 2.3 Ensure that the draft wildlife law cur-

rently under review embodies the conservation mea-sures suggested by the CBD and other related con-ventions.

Action 2.4 Update and rationalise legislationon endangered and exploited flora and fauna in

Pakistan, in line with the CBD and according to thespecific re q u i rements of CITES (Convention onI n t e rnational Trade in Endangered Species of Wi l dFauna and Flora), the Bonn Convention(Convention on the Conservation of MigratorySpecies of Wild Animals) and the other conventionsmentioned in Appendix 2. Enhance penalties forviolations and introduce a system of re w a rds forc o m p l i a n c e .

Action 2.5 Ensure, as far as possible, thatreforms in the forestry sector are integrated withreforms in the wildlife arena and that new forestrylaws are also framed fully within the context of theCBD and other international conventions.

Action 2.6 Finalise detailed rules, regulationsand guidelines for the implementation of IEE/EIAunder the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, pay-ing due regard to the need for addressing mattersrelating to the conservation of biodiversity.

Action 2.7 Develop access legislation as a mat-ter of priority to comply with Article 15 (geneticresources), Article 16 (technology) and Article 19(handling of biotechnology and distribution of itsbenefits). See Section 4.11.

Action 2.8 Develop guidelines/regulatory mea-sures with regard to biosafety relating to the devel-opment, use, transport and import of living modifiedorganisms.

Objective 3: Enhance the enforcementof biodiversity-related laws

Action 3.1 Improve the effectiveness of existinglegal mechanisms by creating greater awareness ofconservation regulations and enhancing the capacityof law enforcement agencies including the depart-ments of wildlife, police, customs and quarantine.This should include the provision of training to rele-vant officers in identifying the species listed in CITESAppendix I and II.

Action 3.2 Recognize the right of citizens, com-munity-based organizations (CBOs) and NGOs tochallenge administrative decisions which they believehave been taken in violation of conservation law.

Action 3.3 Take immediate remedial measuresto protect species that are presently being subject toillegal trade.


Action 3.4 Take all necessary measures to fulfilthe commitments of the agreements already signedunder related international conventions.

4.3 IDENTIFICATION AND MONITORING


Two of the CBD objectives relate to the conservationof biodiversity and the sustainable use of the compo-nents of biodiversity. In order to target conservationand sustainable use measures, each country has tohave a clear idea of the ecosystem, species andgenomes that are under threat through overuse, habi-tat degradation and spread of invasive species.Annex 1 of the CBD consists of guidelines to identi-fying the components of biodiversity which should bethe target of attention. They are:

Ecosystems and habitats containing high diversity,large numbers of endemic or threatened species, orwilderness; required by migratory species; of social,economic, cultural or scientific importance; or, whichare representative, unique or associated with keyevolutionary or other biological processes.

Species and communities which are thre a t e n e d ,wild relatives of domesticated or cultivated species, ofmedicinal, agricultural or other economic value, ofsocial, scientific or cultural importance, or of impor-tance for re s e a rch into the conservation and sustainableuse of biological diversity, such as indicator species.

Described genomes and genes of social, scientificor economic import a n c e .

Article 7 goes on to stress the need for monitoringchanges in the components of biodiversity which areunder threat and identifying processes or activitiesthat continue to cause adverse impacts on biodiversi-ty. This is so that effective remedial measures couldbe taken through the other Articles of the Convention.

In Pakistan, information about biodiversity is veryincomplete; at best, only a provisional identificationcan be made of the components of biodiversity re q u i r-ing special conservation measures. There is no biodi-versity information and monitoring centre to maintain,

s t o re and organise data or to analyse, evaluate anddisseminate this data in a usable form. Data derivedf rom the identification and monitoring of biodiversity,and of activities having or likely to have adverseimpacts on biological diversity, are scattered amonga large number of organisations. Data on the flora ofPakistan, for example, are held by the NationalHerbarium and the Department of Botany, Universityof Karachi. Additional data is available with botani-cal departments in other universities and museums,p rovincial forest departments, companies collectingand trading in medicinal plants, natural re s o u rce pro-jects and overseas herbaria and botanical gard e n swith collections from Pakistan.

Similarly, Pakistan has a number of different insti-tutions working on particular biodiversity topics.Many of these institutions hold valuable collections.However, the capacity of these institutions to manip-ulate the data re q u i res strengthening. AlthoughPakistan has a pool of excellent taxonomists, theirnumbers are insufficient to address the tasks at hand.As a result, the scientific accuracy of biodiversity-related publications has sometimes been problemat-ic; the botanical checklists contained in forest work-ing plans, for example, are often in error. Similarly,published checklists of birds often contain doubtfulrecords. There is also a tendency to publish ‘new’species without observing standard procedures.

It is first necessary to collate and authenticate theavailable data on biodiversity in Pakistan. Thisshould be followed up by a biodiversity assessmentthat would identify the ecosystems, species, andgenomes for which special conservation measuresare needed. Simultaneously significant gaps in thedata should be identified and remedial action taken.


Objective 4: Expand and improve theinformation base on the biodiversity of Pakistan

Action 4.1 Appoint a national centre (or severalprovincial centres) to coordinate biodiversity identifi-cation and monitoring activities.


Action 4.1.1 The centre could:● s t rengthen other institutions or org a n i z a t i o n s

involved in biodiversity work;● provide guidance on the design and maintenance

of national and provincial inventories;● c o o rdinate existing and new specimen collections;● promote standardization of data collection and

storage to ensure the comparability and transfer-ability of information among databases;

● provide support for local initiatives in databaseestablishment and networking;

● create and manage meta-databases;● disseminate information on biodiversity to policy

makers, natural resource managers, educators,and other parties; and

● implement Actions 4.2 to 4.6 below.Action 4.2 Identify national priorities for biodi-

versity conservation, including threatened ecosystemsand species, ‘hot spots’, and zones of endemism (ina c c o rdance with Annex 1 of the Convention).

Action 4.2.1 This should include:● the use of existing data (scientific papers, species

lists, museum collections, etc.), to update speciesdistribution, status and taxonomy;

● the use of satellite imagery to develop a definitivemap of the remaining natural and semi-naturalecological zones of Pakistan;

● the identification of key information gaps; and● the implementation of additional surveys and

research studies as required.Action 4.3 Create a national Red Data List of

threatened flora and fauna.Action 4.4 Advance knowledge of indigenous

microflora for use in biodiversity conservation.Action 4.5 Store and catalogue information in

computerized databases to be maintained by ‘custo-dian’ agencies.

Action 4.6 Foster the sharing of information onbiodiversity among research institutions, governmentagencies, NGOs and local communities. The incor-poration of traditional (local) knowledge with sciencehas great potential for strengthening the informationbase on biodiversity.

Objective 5: Develop and institutionalize systems to monitor key elements of biodiversity

Action 5.1 Develop and institutionalize regularresource monitoring by the agencies responsible forthe conservation and sustainable use of naturalresources in Pakistan. Particular attention should bepaid to monitoring the status of protected areas andthe components of biodiversity identified in Annex 1of the Convention. Monitoring should also be carriedout with the active participation of local communities.

Action 5.2 Provide periodic assessments e.g.through a State of the Environment report, of key ele-ments of biodiversity and indicators of progress/fail-ure, including resources allocated by governmenttowards biodiversity conservation.

4.4 IN-SITU CONSERVATION


The CBD recognises in-situ conservation as the pri-mary approach to biodiversity conservation (Article8). Of particular importance is the balance to bestruck between conservation measures within protect-ed areas (PAs) and measures beyond PAs in thewider countryside.

It is generally recognized that activities whichoccur in areas adjacent to protected areas may becritical to the viability of the protected areas them-selves. Adjacent communities ultimately control theprotected area to the extent that if the local popula-tion is negatively affected by the protected area, thenthis area may be destined to fail. However, if localpeople are involved in the management of protectedareas, and forms of development compatible with thegoals of the protected area are promoted in adjacentareas, then the protected area’s long-term viability islikely to be enhanced.

The majority of Pakistan’s protected areas werecreated in the 1970s, and paid insufficient attentionto ecological criteria and the requirements of com-munities. Today, many of the PAs are too small andisolated to be effective. Most ecological zones arenot adequately represented within the protected areasystem, including a majority of the critically threat-


ened ecosystems identified in this Plan (Table 2). Forexample, there are no marine PAs, very few coastalPAs and no formal designation to protect the remain-ing juniper forests in Balochistan.

T h e re is also considerable regional disparity inthe distribution of PAs across Pakistan. For example,whilst over 16% of Punjab is protected as one oft h ree PA categories (national park, wildlife sanctu-a ry or game re s e rve), about 6% of the NWFP andless than 6% of Balochistan is formally pro t e c t e d( Table 4). This is unfortunate, since these are theregions where most of Pakistan’s remaining biodi-versity is concentrated.

By definition, a wildlife sanctuary offers gre a t e rp rotection than a national park, while a game re s e rv ea ff o rds no protection to habitat but merely re g u l a t e shunting. As a result, the value of a game re s e rve forl o n g - t e rm conservation of biodiversity is very limited.If only national parks and wildlife sanctuaries aretaken into account, then Pakistan lags behind manyother Asian countries (including Nepal, Sri Lanka andBhutan) in terms of the percentage of land area whichhas been designated for conserv a t i o n .

The three categories of PAs used in Pakistan aretoo limited for contemporary needs. Most of theremaining unprotected areas of biodiversity signifi-cance are currently used and managed by local com-munities in one way or another. The best way to pro-tect these areas will be through the establishment ofcollaborative management regimes. However, exist-ing wildlife legislation in Pakistan does not providefor a protected area category in which sustainableuse and community involvement can take place(along the lines of IUCN Category VI: ManagedResource Protected Area).

Finally, there are a number of important gaps andneeds relating to the management of protected areasin Pakistan. First, existing wildlife laws do not pro-vide an adequate framework for management. Thelaws give authority for protected area managementto the provincial wildlife departments, but give noauthority to these departments over the managementof adjacent areas. Consequently, development activ-ities in areas adjacent to protected areas often con-flict with biodiversity conservation. Second, provin-cial wildlife departments lack the capacity to carry


REGION/ N AT I O N A L WILDLIFE G A M E UN– TOTAL A R E APROVINCE PA R K S SANCTUARIES R E S E RV E S CLASSIFIED PAs P R O T E C T E D

(hectares) (%)

Azad Jammu 1 0 8 0 9 51,998 3.91& Kashmir

Balochistan 2 14 8 7 31 1,837,704 5.29

Punjab 2 37 19 0 58 3,315,803 16.14

NWFP 3 6 38 5 52 470,675 6.30

Sindh 1 35 14 4 54 1,307,575 9.27

Federal 1 1 1 0 3 94,186 100Territory

Northern 4 5* 9 0 18 2,092,180 2.97

Areas

Total 14 98 97 16 225 9,170,121 10.40

* Two of the Wildlife Sanctuaries in the Northern Areas were redesignated as Controlled Hunting Areas in October 1998.

Table 4 Protected Areas in Pakistan, 1999

out their functions effectively, and in particular, sufferfrom a shortage of suitably trained personnel.

Third, most protected areas in Pakistan lack com-prehensive management plans, and where plans doexist, they are not fully implemented. There is also atendency to regard management plans as blueprintsrather than adaptive strategies requiring constantupdating. In recent years, some efforts have beenmade to redress this situation, and plans have beendeveloped for the Margalla Hills National Park(Federal Territory) and Khunjerab National Park(Northern Areas). WWF Pakistan is also working onplans for the Kirthar National Park in Sindh and theHazarganji Chiltan National Park in Balochistan.

Fourth, and perhaps most critically, local commu-nities rarely have any role in the management of pro-tected areas. Little progress has been made on insti-tuting collaborative management regimes for protect-ed areas (Borrini-Feyerabend 1996). Few effortshave been directed at raising public education andawareness in areas adjacent to protected areas, pro-viding environmentally sound and sustainable devel-opment assistance to local communities, or formulat-ing appropriate packages of incentives and disin-centives. Consequently, local communities either con-tinue to disregard protected area provisions leadingto degradation of the protected area or, where thoseprovisions are enforced against local communities’interests, conflicts have arisen. The conflict betweenlocal communities and park authorities in theKhunjerab National Park, arising from the loss ofgrazing rights, is well known. An attempt has beenmade to resolve and manage the conflict inKhunjerab, but deep-rooted problems remain.


Objective 6: Strengthen the pro t e c t e da reas system in Pakistan and its contribution to biodiversity conserv a t i o n

Action 6.1 Ensure that legislation providing forprotected areas includes:● objective criteria for the selection of protected

areas;

● an updated and rationalised system of protectedarea categories with reference to the internation-al categorization system developed by IUCN,and provide for the establishment of private andcommunity protected areas;

● provisions for collaborative management systemsinvolving government authorities, NGOs andlocal communities; and

● mandatory preparation and implementation ofiterative management plans.Action 6.2 Carry out a thorough protected

areas system review to identify existing gaps. On thebasis of the review, prepare a protected areas systemplan for Pakistan.

Action 6.3 Expand Pakistan’s protected areasystem to improve its representativeness, viability andconnectivity.

Action 6.3.1 Expand Pakistan’s protected areasystem to ensure representation of all terrestrial, fresh-water, coastal and marine ecological zones. Priorityshould be accorded to the critically threatenedecosystems identified in Table 2, marine and coastalecosystems, and other insufficiently represented eco-logical zones identified by the system plan. Particularattention should also be accorded to expanding theprotected area systems in Balochistan, the NWFPand southeastern Pakistan.

Action 6.3.2 Expand the PA system to ensureprotection for all nationally and internationally threat-ened species of fauna and flora, and other compo-nents of biodiversity identified in Annex 1 of theConvention.

Action 6.3.3 Re-define protected area bound-aries based on species-area and species-perimeterconsiderations, and establish corridors and ‘step-ping-stones’ to optimise the viability and connectivityof Pakistan’s protected areas.

Action 6.3.4 Identify priority areas for interna-tional designation under the World HeritageConvention, the UNESCO Man and BiosphereProgramme and the Ramsar Convention. In particulartake measures to promote the designation of theCentral Karakorum National Park as a Wo r l dHeritage Site; initiate a feasibility study to assess thepotential of the Indus Delta as a Biosphere Reserve;and adjust and expand the list of designated Ramsarsites according to the revised criteria adopted atMontreux in 1990.


Action 6.3.5 E x p l o re the potential for establishingt r a n s - f rontier ‘peace parks’ with neighbouring countries.

Action 6.3.6 Take interim measures to ensurethat new sites being considered for PA status are notdamaged by development activities.

Action 6.3.7 Encourage private individuals,corporations and NGOs to establish nature conser-vation areas under private/charitable/corporateownership.

Action 6.4 Enhance the management of existingprotected areas.

Action 6.4.1 Develop collaborative manage-ment regimes for selected PAs and adjacent areas.Collaborative management regimes should involvethe protected area authority, relevant governmentdepartments, research institutions, NGOs and localcommunities.

Action 6.4.2 Build the management capacity ofthe protected area authorities through the provisionof funding, equipment, staff and training. Particularemphasis should be placed on developing capacityin approaches to collaborative management.

Action 6.4.3 Encourage collaboration betweeng o v e rnment departments (especially forest andwildlife/parks) and research institutions in order tos t rengthen their capabilities in protected are amanagement.

Action 6.4.4 Decentralize and place moremanagement responsibility in the hands of pro v i n-cial, local and community authorities, includingNGOs and the private sector. Monitor and evaluated i ff e rent management models to determine whichmanagement stru c t u res are most appropriate forindividual protected are a s .

Action 6.4.5 Ensure that priority protecteda reas (for conservation) are soundly managed.Effective management should include:● resource inventories and management-oriented

research;● socio-economic surveys of communities living in

and adjacent to the protected area;● boundary revisions and finalisation in consulta-

tion with local communities;● boundary marking;● the development and implementation of manage-

ment plans;● specific activities for the recovery of threatened

species;

● the development of educational facilities (in high-use zones);

● the implementation of appropriate buffer zoneactivities and collaborative management regimes.

● strengthening management regimes of the priorityprotected areas identified by the BiodiversityWorking Group, in connection with the WorldBank/GEF-funded Protected Areas ManagementProject.Action 6.4.6 Ensure that management plans

specify the personnel, resource and training needs ofeach protected area and how these needs are to bemet. These estimates can then be expanded into anestimation of personnel requirements for the wholeprotected area system, leading to specifications for anational training programme at all levels to strength-en management capabilities.

Action 6.4.7 Zone protected areas (as appro-priate to their management category) to accommo-date a range of uses (from intensive use to no use).Take special measures to protect the land tenure andtraditional harvesting rights of local people, wheresuch actions are compatible with the managementobjectives of the protected area.

Action 6.5 Restore degraded ecosystems withinprotected areas and in adjacent lands and corridors.

Action 6.6 Take measures to control invasivealien species of fauna and flora, and to prevent fur-ther introductions.

Objective 7: Conserve biodiversity outside protected areas

Action 7.1 Develop regional conservation pro-grammes to integrate conservation activities and pro-tected area management with regional land use plan-ning.

Action 7.2 Adopt agricultural, forestry, and fish-ery practices that will enhance the conservation ofbiodiversity.

Action 7.2.1 These might, for example, include:● the adoption of Integrated Pest Management

approaches;● the provision of incentives for the use of tradition-

al cultivars; ● the creation of more diverse forest plantations,

using indigenous species wherever possible;


● the incorporation of biodiversity concerns into for-est management plans; and

● ensuring that irrigation systems take account ofthe freshwater requirements of adjacent wetlands.Action 7.3 Enhance the capacity of local com-

munities and NGOs to conserve, manage, and sus-tainably use biodiversity.

Action 7.3.1 This could include:● providing technical assistance and training to

local communities;● enhancing local awareness of, and commitment

to, biodiversity conservation and sustainable use;and

● building bridges between government and com-munities to foster joint management of biodiversity.Action 7.4 Ensure that protected areas and

adjacent buffer zones are treated as a single plan-ning unit. Of particular importance in this regard, isto support implementation of an Integrated CoastalZone Management (ICZM) plan for the entire coastof Pakistan.

Action 7.5 E n s u re that activities in naturalhabitats outside protected areas are governed bymanagement plans that pay adequate attention tothe conservation of biodiversity; identify the most

a p p ropriate management authority for buffer zonea re a s .

Action 7.6 Ensure that development personnel,land-use planners, aid agencies and the national andprovincial planning authorities have access to infor-mation about biodiversity. This should include infor-mation about the location of biological ‘hot spots’and rare and endangered species.

Action 7.7 Promote the conservation of biodi-versity on military bases and other land owned ormanaged by the defence agencies.

4.5 EX-SITU CONSERVATION


The CBD specifically recommends that ex-situ mea-sures be adopted to support in-situ conservation pro-grammes. These measures have most extensivelybeen applied to conserve cultivated and domesticat-ed species, employing techniques such as seed


Wild blackbuck are extinct; ex-situ conservation programmes provide opportunities for reintroduction.

banks, field gene banks, in-vitro storage, and captivebreeding measures. Other groups in need of ex-situconservation measures include threatened species,wild relatives of cultivated plants and domesticatedanimals, medicinal plants, plant crops of local andregional importance, ornamental plant species, treespecies and micro organisms. Ex-situ conservation iscomplementary to the rehabilitation and restorationof degraded ecosystems and promoting the recoveryof threatened species. The ultimate purpose of theseex-situ conservation measures is to re - i n t ro d u c especies into the wild.

Ex-situ conservation facilities provide excellentopportunities for researchers to study plants, animals,and micro-organisms in controlled conditions, and toimprove collection, storage and regeneration tech-niques. Ex-situ facilities can also be used forgermplasm evaluation, as centres for documentationand information systems, and for providing informa-tion on genetic resources on a commercial basis.

Captive breeding of wild animals can be used torestore endangered species populations. It is impor-tant to increase populations as quickly as possibleand re-introduce the animals back to their originalhabitat, to minimise genetic erosion. Plants can alsobe re-introduced to their natural areas of occurrence.Such re-introductions should, however, be carried outin such a way that other indigenous species are notharmed or adversely affected. Similarly, care must betaken while collecting material/animals for ex-situconservation not to endanger other native speciesand genetic resources. The regulation and manage-ment of such transactions requires accurate informa-tion to determine the impact of collection on popula-tions and ecosystems. The establishment of aNational Microbial Culture Collection would beessential for the preservation and use of the richmicrobial diversity present in Pakistan.

Ex-situ conservation should preferably be under-taken in the country from which the biologicalre s o u rces and genetic materials have originated. InPakistan, institutions involved in ex-situ conserv a t i o ninclude: the National Agricultural Research Center,the Plant Genetics Resource Institute and the AnimalSciences Research Institute. Microbiological collec-tions are held at the Nuclear Institute for Agricultureand Biology (NIAB), National Institute forBiotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE), the

Ayub Agricultural Research Institute and the Karachiand Islamabad universities. There are also a numberof botanical gardens, zoos, captive collections,wildlife parks, and breeding centres as well as privatecollections of wildlife species. However, there is littlec o o rdination or integration among these institutions,p a rticularly with respect to identifying conserv a t i o npriorities in Pakistan. Many of these facilities alsore q u i re significant strengthening, if they are to makean effective contribution to biodiversity conserv a t i o n .


Objective 8: Strengthen ex-situ programmes and their contribution to biodiversity conservation

Action 8.1 Develop a national policy on ex-situconservation.

Action 8.2 Compile a directory of existing ex-situ conservation initiatives, including herbaria, live-stock breeding farms, genome banks, germplasm col-lections, plant breeding centres, zoological gardensand private collections.

Action 8.3 Evaluate the scope and effectivenessof existing programmes at conserving key compo-nents of Pakistan’s biodiversity.

Action 8.4 Identify priority species and geneticresources in need of further ex-situ conservationefforts. This should include an assessment of the needfor captive breeding programmes for commerciallyvaluable, threatened species of indigenous wildfauna and medicinal plants.

Action 8.5 Strengthen the capacity and scope ofex-situ conservation programmes through the provi-sion of additional funding, equipment, and training.

Action 8.6 Promote integration of ex-situ con-servation efforts among institutions.

Action 8.7 Ensure that institutions involved incaptive breeding of rare species set aside resourcesfor rehabilitation schemes and for protection of nat-ural habitats of those species.

Action 8.8 Initiate measures to ensure that thecollection of genetic resources from the wild does notendanger the survival of remaining wild populations.


4.6 SUSTAINABLE USE


The CBD recognizes the need for countries to usetheir indigenous biological resources for socio-eco-nomic development. In fact, key sectors of the econ-omy of Pakistan, such as agriculture, fisheries andforestry are dependent on the use of biologicalre s o u rces. While recognizing the need to useresources, the CBD requires parties to ensure that usedoes not deplete the country’s biodiversity.

The sustainable use of the components of biodi-versity is specifically established in Article 10 of theConvention which inter alia requires parties to inte-grate consideration of the conservation and sustain-able use of biological resources into national deci-sion-making and to adopt measures that would avoidor minimize adverse impacts on biological diversity.

Being one of the objectives of the Convention, thesustainable use of biodiversity figures prominently inArticles other than Article 10. For example, in theArticle on in-situ conservation (Article 8), such con-

servation is never meant to be carried out by exclud-ing use of the resource. Article 8(c) states: “regulateor manage biological resources important for theconservation of biodiversity whether within or outsideprotected areas, with a view to ensuring their con-servation and sustainable use”.

In practice, in Pakistan as in many other develop-ing countries, conservation of biodiversity is tradi-tionally considered to be the exclusive role of orga-nizations such as the Wildlife Department, ForestryD e p a rtment, and zoological/botanical gard e n s .Institutions that use biological resources e.g. the agri-culture and fisheries sectors, have paid little attentioneither to depletion of biodiversity or of the resourcebase. Clearly, there is a need for integrating sustain-able use considerations into national decision mak-ing in different sectors of the economy. The adoptionof the BAP should remedy this problem.

The CBD requests parties to respect, pre s e rv eand maintain knowledge, innovation and practicesof indigenous and local communities for the conser-vation and sustainable use of biological diversity. InPakistan, traditional natural re s o u rce managementsystems have declined with the advent of state-con-t rolled protected areas and the creation of central-


Community managed sustainable use programmes provide economic incentives for conserving wild species.

ized management agencies. Although many ru r a lcommunities have developed specialized, are a - s p e-cific systems of use and conservation, few of thesesystems or the customary rights and traditions whichcomprise them are recognized by current laws. As aresult, many traditional activities have become ille-gal and are now sources of conflict between author-ities and local communities. A new approach isclearly needed in which local people are no longerc o n s i d e red to be the problem but rather, part of thesolution. In recent years, a number of innovative pro-jects – the UNDP/GEF-funded project, MaintainingBiodiversity with Rural Community Development –have tested this approach in Pakistan. The re s u l t sw e re encouraging and demonstrate that local com-munities can be effective custodians and managersof biological re s o u rces, once an appro p r i a t e ,enabling framework, for example policy re f o rm ,technical assistance, has been cre a t e d .

Among the factors that can help promote sustain-able use at the species and ecosystem levels are thefollowing:● Social/policy factors:

– defined ‘ownership’ to land and resources;and

– effective information exchange between users,decision-makers and the public.

● Economic factors:– adequate income/incentives for communi-

ties to sustain conservation of the re s o u rc e ;a n d

– reinvestment of income earned into conser-vation.

● Biological factors:– establishing the biological basis for use i.e.

status, trend and biological re q u i re m e n t s ;a n d

– setting objectives for the size of the target pop-ulation.

● Management inputs:– training; and– monitoring.

As a general rule, sustainability has beena c c o rded insufficient emphasis within those sectorsthat use biological re s o u rces. There is a need tos t rengthen the regulation and management ofP a k i s t a n ’s re s o u rce utilization programmes, takinginto consideration the criteria and factors outlineda b o v e .


Natural springs are centres of diversity in arid areas: vegetation around a spring, Kirthar National Park.

Objectives andRecommended Actions

Objective 9: Develop a policy and legalframework to encourage sustainableuse of biological resources

Action 9.1 With the adoption of the BAP, for-mulate policies in the different resource sectors whichwould promote the sustainable use of biologicalresources (see also Actions 2.2 and 2.3).

Action 9.2 Review and, where necessary, reviseexisting laws to ensure that an effective legal frame-work is in place which: promotes sustainable use;establishes clear rules on jurisdiction and responsi-bilities among agencies and permitted users; andclarifies rights of ownership to biological resources(see also Action 2.3).

Action 9.3 Introduce legal measures requiringthe development of management plans for harvestedspecies (see also Action 2.3).

Objective 10: Establish, monitor andregulate sustainable use limits ofselected biological resources

Action 10.1 Enhance the capacity of govern-ment agencies, research institutions, NGOs andlocal communities to determine and monitor harvestlevels of biological resources.

Action 10.2 Develop criteria for sustainable useand prioritize the types of uses (subsistence versuscommercial) that will be allowed in different areas.

Action 10.3 E n s u re that biological re s o u rces areh a rvested according to scientifically-sound manage-ment plans.

Action 10.4 Take measures to reduce the inci-dental take of non-target species e.g., marine turtlesin the commercial shrimp fishery.

Objective 11: Protect and encouragecommunity-based biodiversity management systems

Action 11.1 Review and revise the laws relatingto ownership and access to natural resources e.g.,tenure rights to fuelwood, fodder, wildlife and trees,so as to recognise community property rights and tra-

ditional natural resource management systems (seealso Action 2.2).

Action 11.2 Evaluate traditional systems of har-vesting biological re s o u rces (terrestrial and marine)and disseminate information on practices which pro-mote the sustainable harvesting of these re s o u rc e s .

Action 11.3 Use traditional land tenurearrangements as a basis for planning and imple-menting conservation projects that promote sustain-able use of biological resources.

Action 11.4 Promote community-based conser-vation projects in which sustainable use of naturalresources can be demonstrated, for example theUNDP/GEF-funded project Maintaining Biodiversityin Pakistan with Rural Community Development.

Objective 12: Develop mechanisms toincorporate biodiversity values intonational accounting and decision-making at different levels

Action 12.1 Develop, document and adoptstandardised methodologies for economic valuationof biodiversity, tailored to the requirements of indi-vidual decision-making agencies.

Action 12.2 Initiate measures to ‘green’ the sys-tem of national accounts.

Objective 13: Strengthen inter-sectoraland federal/provincial coordination in biodiversity conservation and management

Action 13.1 Create inter-sectoral steering com-mittees to oversee the implementation of the BAP atboth the federal and provincial levels (seeImplementation Measures).

4.7 INCENTIVE MEASURES


Article 11 of the CBD requires that incentives beadopted to promote conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity; the Convention stresses that these


incentives should be economically and sociallysound.

Incentives are measures that promote desire dpractices and behaviour, and may be direct (e.g.,the provision of grants or subsidies) or indirect (e.g.tax exemptions). Disincentives, such as fines or pol-lution charges, are used to discourage practiceswhich deplete biodiversity or lead to unsustainableuse. ‘Perverse’ incentives are measures that havebeen taken to promote other social objectives butwhich have a negative impact on biodiversity. Forexample many countries provide grants or taxb reaks for land clearance and the replacement oflocal crop varieties by HYVs – activities that cans e v e rely reduce biodiversity.

The integrated use of incentives and disincentivesis a particularly powerful means of promoting con-servation and sustainable utilization, and is beingaccorded increasing attention by many governments.Pakistan, however, has made relatively little use ofthis approach. Because the benefits of biodiversityare not widely understood or accounted for, very fewincentives have been instituted to encourage conser-vation or sustainable use; similarly, appropriate dis-

incentives are scarce and weakly enforc e d .‘Perverse’ incentives are also widespread, particular-ly in the agricultural sector. Irrigation subsidiesencourage the wastage of water, and contribute to the degradation of freshwater and coastal ecosystems.

An additional cause of biodiversity depletion inPakistan is the dispro p o rtionate distribution of costsand benefits associated with the conservation anduse of biological re s o u rces. Those who benefitf rom the exploitation of biodiversity do not bearthe pro p o rtional costs of depletion; rather, theypass on many costs to other segments of societywhich do not have an equal share in the benefits.For example communities often bear the ecologicalcosts of unsustainable re s o u rce use practices car-ried out by external organisations, but receive fewof the benefits. At the national level, there is nopricing and valuation system for biodiversity. As aresult, the government does not determine and,t h e re f o re, does not charge for, the real costs of biodiversity use.

The appropriation of natural resources by thestate and the subsequent development of centralizedstructures have also deterred communities from tak-ing an interest in the long-term sustainability of theirnatural resources. This has had detrimental effects onbiodiversity conservation in Pakistan.


Objective 14: Create an integrated system of incentives and disincentivesat the national and local level toencourage the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity

Action 14.1 Introduce a system of direct incen-tives that could include:● the provision of subsidies to encourage farm-

ers to retain local cultivars and crop varieties,and to adopt practices such as integrated pestmanagement, agro - f o re s t ry and multi-speciesc ro p p i n g ;

● the provision of subsidies to encourage land own-ers to manage their properties in ways that are


Plants are the basis of many medicines.

sensitive to biodiversity, or to refrain from chang-ing existing land-uses;

● the provision of grants for the protection of threat-ened species or habitats, and the restoration ofdegraded lands;

● the development of programmes to ensure thatlocal communities receive direct benefits from bio-diversity, e.g. through sustainable use activities;

● incentives to encourage ex-situ pro p a g a t i o n /breeding programmes for traded species of wildplants and animals, in order to reduce the drainon wild populations; and

● the provision of incentives for staff (particularlyfield staff) working in institutions dealing with bio-diversity. Possibilities include: upgrading employ-ees to regular functional staff; the provision ofextra training opportunities; and public recogni-tion for outstanding service.Action 14.2 Introduce a system of indirect

incentives to promote the conservation and sustain-able utilization of biodiversity that could include:● fiscal incentive measures such as tax exemptions or

deductions for the conservation of particular habitatsor species; tax reductions for the import of equip-ment used in conservation programmes; and taxdeductions for donations to conservation NGOs;

● service-oriented incentives, designed to link com-munity development programmes with the conser-vation of biodiversity. For example communitiesliving adjacent to protected areas could bea c c o rded priority for public education pro-grammes and technical assistance in agriculture,forestry and other fields.

● social incentive measures designed to improve thequality of life. These include measures such as theclarification of land tenure and the creation ofnew institutions to manage biodiversity.Action 14.3 Introduce a system of disincentives

to discourage unsustainable utilization and practiceswhich deplete biodiversity. These could include:● increasing the size of fines for the violation of con-

servation laws;● revising the tax schedule to penalise undesirable

land-use practices; ● using fiscal disincentives e.g. pollution and efflu-

ent charges, for activities which are damaging tobiodiversity. This could also include the use of a‘polluter pays’ policy, requiring developers to take

measures to mitigate the environmental damagecaused by their activities; and

● promoting and strengthening traditional customsand practices which serve as disincentives tounsustainable use.

Objective 15: Identify ‘perverse’ incentives and minimize their impactson biodiversity

Action 15.1 Carry out a comprehensive reviewof GoP programmes and policies, to identify per-verse incentives and suggest measures to amelioratetheir impacts.

4.8 RESEARCH AND TRAINING


Article 12 of the CBD focuses on the need forresearch and training, recognising the special needsof developing countries in this regard.

Much is yet to be learned about biodiversity con-servation and sustainable use. The study and man-agement of the interactions between people and bio-logical resources requires training in both the socialand biological sciences and forms the basis for themulti-disciplinary field of conservation biology.

In Pakistan, current opportunities for training pro-fessionals in this field are very limited. There are insti-tutions offering strong programmes in forestry andagriculture, but there are no degree programmes inwildlife management, bio-systematics, biodiversityconservation or community-based conservation ofnatural resources.

A shortage of funding and lack of trained staffhave also limited the amount of research on the iden-tification, conservation and sustainable use of biodi-versity in Pakistan. There is little integration ofresearch among institutions and disciplines, and verylimited use of traditional knowledge in defining man-agement programs.



Objective 16: Strengthen research onthe conservation and sustainable useof biodiversity, particularly indigenousspecies under threat

Action 16.1 Evaluate, institutionalize andstrengthen current programmes of research on nativebiodiversity.

Action 16.2 Identify gaps and initiate newresearch programmes in priority areas.

Action 16.2.1 Initiate new (or enhance existing)research programmes in priority areas related to theconservation, management and sustainable use ofbiodiversity. Topics identified during the course ofBAP formulation included:

Identification, distribution and status of Pakistan’sbiodiversity: location of biological ‘hotspots’ and othersites of conservation importance; the composition, dis-tribution, and status of non-woody and non-vascularflora, invertebrate fauna, micro - o rganisms, marinefauna (particularly marine mammals), and flora;

Ecology and ecosystem functions: the biology andecology of threatened species; the impact of intro-duced exotic species; ecosystem dynamics of wet-lands, forests and mountains;

Human/natural re s o u rce interactions: status,abundance and population trends of traded species(this information is required for active participation inCITES); the use of forest resources other than timberand fuelwood; traditional knowledge and the use ofindigenous plant species for medicine and food; thebenefits and risks associated with the application ofmodern biotechnology; the costs and benefits of con-serving natural resources (economic valuation stud-ies); ex-situ breeding/cultivation of economicallyimportant species; scale of the incidental catch ofmarine turtles by the shrimp fishery; the impact ofPakistan’s international debt on biodiversity and nat-ural resource utilization.

Action 16.3 Draft, enact and implement legallybinding regulations to ensure that overseas institu-tions carrying out research on indigenous biodiversi-ty are always partnered by a local organisation andwork in collaboration with Pakistani scientists. The

outcome of such research – be it information or spec-imen types – should be available to local scientistsand institutions. Access to the genetic material shouldbe free of charge for the country of origin (see alsoAction 2.2).

Objective 17: Strengthen human capacity in biodiversity conservationand management

Action 17.1 Assess current capacity and thebiodiversity-related training needs of natural resourcemanagers, conservation professionals and other con-cerned staff, and the extent to which these are cur-rently being fulfilled.

Action 17.2 Design and implement in-servicetraining courses to address immediate gaps and pri-ority requirements.

Action 17.3 Enhance existing training pro-grammes in natural re s o u rce management, thro u g hthe provision of funding, staff and equipment. Exploreo p p o rtunities for ‘twinning arrangements’ with institu-tions in other countries – universities, botanical gar-dens, national park authorities and so on.

Action 17.4 Develop at least one universitydegree programme in biodiversity and conservationbiology particularity as it relates to community-basedmanagement of natural resources. Promote the inte-gration of biodiversity themes into other, tertiary-levelcourses and programmes.

Action 17.5 Create at least one vocationaldiploma-level course to train protected area man-agers.

Action 17.6 Promote, through grants and othermeans, post-graduate specialization in biodiversity-related fields, e.g. taxonomy.

Action 17.7 S t rengthen the capabilities ofNGOs and community institutions to play an effectiverole in the conservation and management of biodi-versity; in particular, initiate training programmeswith ‘umbrella NGOs’ that have large networks ofcommunity-based organizations and VOs.

Action 17.8 Integrate biodiversity concerns intothe training curricula of rural development and exten-sion staff, particularly in the fields of agriculture,forestry and fisheries.


4.9 PUBLIC EDUCATION ANDAWARENESS


Pakistan has already developed an overall strate-gy for environmental education and aware n e s sunder the National Conservation Strategy; moredetailed plans are contained in the provincial con-s e rvation strategies. However, the BiodiversityAction Plan needs to ensure that the part i c u l a rneeds of biodiversity are not marginalized in am o re general ‘greening’ of public education anda w a re n e s s .

In the formal education system, teacher training isperhaps the weakest area. Problems include quantity(insufficiet numbers have received training), quality(training has been seriously neglected), deployment(reluctance to serve in rural areas), and supervision(lack thereof). Although organizations such as IUCN,WWF and PMNH have been working to incorporateenvironmental education into in-service teacher train-ing, most courses still do not reflect environmentalconcerns.

Given the low literacy rates in Pakistan, informaleducation (particularly that not based on the writtenword) will remain a vital component of any strategyfor environmental education and awareness. Thechallenge lies in finding ways to reach this majoritythat largely resides in rural areas.

Transmitting new information on biodiversity isnot necessarily the most effective means of achiev-ing ‘education’. Fostering appreciation for tradi-tional knowledge on biodiversity, its local uses andmanagement can be equally effective. Helping com-munities to document their knowledge raises com-munity awareness of the importance and values ofb i o d i v e r s i t y.

Another potential tool for awareness raising isthe development of interpretive facilities in anda round protected areas and ex-situ conserv a t i o nsites (such as zoos and botanical gardens). Wi t hm o re re s o u rces, much better use could be made of the educational opportunities which these sitesp ro v i d e .


Objective 18: Develop a compre h e n s i v estrategy for public education anda w a re n e s s

Action 18.1 Develop a strategy on biodiversityconservation and sustainable use within the frame-work of the environmental education and communi-cation programmes of the NCS and provincial con-servation strategies, and incorporate the actionsdescribed in the following sections.

Objective 19: Use the formal education system to Increase a w a reness about biodiversity andthe need for its conserv a t i o n

Action 19.1 Develop national curricula whichemphasise biodiversity’s contributions to local andnational welfare, emphasise biodiversity’s contribu-tions to the health of ecosystems, and tie ecological,economic and social themes together.

Action 19.1.1 At the primary level, build oppor-tunities into the curricula for interaction with the nat-ural environment.

Action 19.1.2 At the secondary level, incorpo-rate biodiversity themes into the curricula of all rele-vant subjects, including the natural sciences, PakistanStudies, Islamiyat, maths and languages.

Action 19.1.3 At the tertiary level, strengthenbiodiversity themes in existing courses. Create atleast one degree or Masters-level course in Pakistanwhich focuses on the conservation and sustainableuse of biodiversity.

Action 19.1.4 For teacher training: integratebiodiversity themes into the environmental educationunits of all pre- and in-service teacher training andB.Ed. courses. Provide training in the use of practical,field-oriented methods of teaching biodiversity.

Action 19.1.5 For administrators, managersand the armed forces: integrate relevant biodiversitythemes into the curricula of courses at institutions forthe in-service training of public administrators, pri-vate sector executives and the armed forces.


Action 19.1.6 S u p p o rt initiatives linking envi-ronmental education with basic literacy and develop-ment programmes e.g. through the Allama IqbalOpen University basic functional literacy pro g r a m m e .

Action 19.1.7 Use orientation courses to cre-ate awareness of biodiversity and the CBD amongt e a c h e r s .

Action 19.2 As far as possible, develop localcurricula directly relevant to students’ local ecologi-cal, cultural and economic environment, to supple-ment the national curricula, and develop co-curriculaactivities on biodiversity issues of immediate localconcern; in particular, develop pilot local curriculafor schools in and around protected areas or areasof particular importance for biodiversity.

Action 19.3 Develop course materials relevantto the conservation and sustainable use of biodiver-sity. In particular: revise school textbooks accordingto the proposed curricula revisions; and developcourse materials relevant to local curricula and co-curricula activities.

Action 19.4 Encourage public-private partner-ships in curricula development, the development ofco- and extra-curricular activities, and the develop-ment of course materials. This should be through part-

nerships between educational and environmentalauthorities, between the government and NGOs,and between public and private schools, and inter-national collaboration.

Objective 20: Use informal channels toincrease awareness of biodiversity andthe need for its conservation

Action 20.1 Develop and promote a compre-hensive informal biodiversity education programme,tailored to the particular key audiences and ecologi-cal conditions of Pakistan.

Action 20.2 Develop more focused campaignsdesigned with a particular goal in mind, such asworking with a local community adjacent to a pro-tected area to foster local knowledge related to thePA, and promote understanding of the need for PAs.

Action 20.3 Encourage the role of the mediaand in particular of radio, through the establishmentof information clearing houses.

Action 20.4 Make better use of traditional chan-nels; identify key audiences and the most effectivetraditional channels for each audience. These might


Biodiversity increases with the complexity of an ecosystem.

include customary community institutions and meet-ing places.

Action 20.5 Document the local knowledge andthe cultural and religious bases of biodiversity con-servation and sustainable use in Pakistan.

Action 20.6 Exploit the opportunity to link bio-diversity themes with community assistance pro-grammes, including primary health care pro-grammes, primary education programmes and agri-cultural and forestry extension programmes. Integratebiodiversity concerns into the training curricula forrural development extension workers.

Action 20.7 Encourage the growth of member-ship groups, including NGOs, school clubs and out-door groups involved in the conservation and sus-tainable use of biodiversity.

Action 20.8 Develop biodiversity interpretivefacilities, including field centres, at selected protect-ed areas and interpretive programmes in all botani-cal gardens, zoos, herbaria, genebanks and naturalhistory museums.

Action 20.9 Develop locally relevant resourcematerials on the conservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity for the use of agencies developing infor-mal education programmes.

Action 20.10 Develop affordable, popular,accessible and comprehensive field guides to thebirds, animals and flora of Pakistan.

Action 20.11 Encourage public-private partner-ships in the above activities, including partnershipsbetween educational and environmental authorities,between the government and NGOs, and interna-tional collaboration.

4.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT


A rticle 14 of the Convention on Biological Diversityre q u i res parties to introduce appro p r i a t eE n v i ronmental Impact Assessment pro c e d u res for pro-jects, programmes, and policies that may have signif-icant adverse impacts on biodiversity.

EIA is most commonly used as a tool at the pro j e c t

level, to identify the environmental effects of a pro-posed project and to plan ways of reducing negativeimpacts. Most projects are typically designed in aseries of stages, involving needs identification, pre - f e a-sibility and feasibility studies, appraisal and appro v a l .In many cases, EIAs have been undertaken very late inthis design process, when it has become too expensiveto re-design or halt the project – even if significant neg-ative impacts have been identified (Glowka et al.1994). To be most effective, EIAs need to be initiatedat an early stage in project development and includeadequate means for public participation in the re v i e wof the potential effects of the development on humanhealth, pro p e rty and local livelihoods.

EIA has now been made mandatory for all devel-opment projects in Pakistan. Under the PakistanEnvironmental Protection Act (1997):

1. No proponent of a project shall commence con-struction or operation unless the proponent hasfiled with the Federal Agency an InitialEnvironmental Examination (IEE) or, where theproject is likely to cause an adverse environmen-tal effect, an EIA.


Protected areas play an important role in biodiversity conserva-tion: Khunjerab National Park from the Karakoram Highway.

2. The Federal Agency shall:i. review the IEE and recommend the approval

of the project, or require submission of an EIAby the proponent;

ii. review the EIA, with public part i c i p a t i o nw h e re it may deem appropriate, and re c-ommend that the project be approved sub-ject to such conditions as it may deem fit toimpose, or rejected in the interest of suchmodifications as may be stipulated, orrejected in the interest of enviro n m e n t a lo b j e c t i v e s .

3. The provisions of sub-sections (1) and (2) shallapply to such categories of projects and in suchmanner as may be prescribed.A particular strength of the 1997 Act is that it

specifically includes damage to biodiversity in its def-inition of “adverse environmental effect”.


Objective 21: Institutionalize andstrengthen EIA procedures for projects,programmes and policies

Action 21.1 Finalise detailed rules, re g u l a t i o n sand guidelines for the implementation of IEE/EIAunder the 1997 Act, to include a checklist ofp rocesses and activities which have or are likely tohave significant adverse impacts on biodiversity, forexample major power and road-building pro j e c t s .

Action 21.2 Strengthen institutional capacity toevaluate the environmental impacts of developmentactivities especially in relation to biodiversity.Particular emphasis should be placed on training theEnvironmental Protection Agency and federal/provin-cial planning and developing department’s staff inbiodiversity issues and ensuring that EIAs are alsoreferred to relevant natural resource managementinstitutions for review.

Action 21.3 Encourage effective public part i c i-pation in the EIA process. This should include publicreview of EIA re p o rts and access to information onplanned development projects. Data should be

made freely available to local communities andNGOs concerning planned development pro j e c t simpacting on biotic re s o u rces in their areas, so thatthey may play an active and informed role in theirown development.

Action 21.4 Expand the concept of StrategicEnvironment Assessment (SEA) to address the envi-ronmental impacts of programmes and policies suchas the National Drainage Programme or agriculturalpolicies that promote the production of monocultureexport crops.

Action 21.5 Review the National EnvironmentalQuality Standards with due consideration to thepotential impacts on specific ecosystems, for exam-ple the effects of sewage discharge and industrialeffluents on aquatic ecosystems.

4.11 ACCESS ISSUES


The CBD is the first international convention thatacknowledges a state’s sovereign rights over thegenetic resources within its jurisdiction and the result-ing authority to regulate and control access to theseresources (Article 15). However, the degree andextent to which the state can exercise this right has tobe determined by national law. Parties to theConvention are also required to: promote the fairand equitable sharing of benefits arising from the useof genetic resources and the development of biotech-nologies (Articles 15 and 19); and to facilitateaccess to, and transfer of, technology, includingbiotechnology (Article 16).

Genetic re s o u rces have been developed and usedsince the dawn of civilization in Pakistan. Although theuse of some traditional genetic materials has declinedover time as new varieties have been introduced, thereis still considerable potential for further development ofnative genetic re s o u rces. For example, there are hun-d reds of species of wild plants found in diff e rent part sof Pakistan which can be used for medicinal purposes.At present, their use is limited to local remedies andhomeopathic medicines. Some genetic re s o u rces fro mPakistan have been characterized and patented in


developed countries. Access to these re s o u rces for useand re s e a rch in the country of origin is essential.

There are several research institutions in Pakistanthat focus on genetic resources and biotechnology,including the Genetic Research Institute at thePakistan Agriculture Research Council (PARC), theAgriculture Biotechnology Institute at NARC, andNIAB and NIBGE in Faisalabad. However, theseinstitutions operate in a policy vacuum in relation tothe conservation and use of genetic resources. Thereis also limited scope for focusing on biologicalresources that are not of commercial value.


Objective 22: Develop policies andlaws to regulate access to geneticresources and promote the equitablesharing of benefits between resourceowners and users

Action 22.1 Collate baseline data relating togenetic resources and on current practices of accessto such resources for academic and commercial purposes.

Action 22.2 Prepare an existing legal and insti -tutional profile relating to the import, export, and useof genetic resources and traditional knowledge.

Action 22.3 Formulate a national policy andstrategy on genetic resources and access issuesthrough the participation of stakeholders (govern-ment agencies, industry, scientific community, ex-situconservation facilities, relevant NGOs, CBOs andprivate individuals).

Action 22.4 Develop an action plan for imple-mentation of priority actions through assigningresponsibilities and identifying institutional develop-ment needs and designate an appropriate authority tooversee and implement the policy and relevant laws.

Action 22.5 Develop legislation in support ofthe national policy.

Action 22.5.1 This revised legal frameworkshould:● provide explicit recognition of Pakistan’s sover-

eign right over its biological resources, includinggenetic resources;

● effectively control and regulate access to geneticresources, including bioprospecting, the importand export of all genetic resources (includingmicro-organisms and living modified organisms),and the use of biotechnology in developing genet-ically engineered organisms;

● provide for the recognition and protection ofindigenous knowledge (through the use of patentsor similar mechanisms), irrespective of time limita-tions;

● establish a clear system for the fair and equitabledistribution of benefits derived from the use ofgenetic resources;

● formulate legislation for the release of living mod-ified organisms into the environment including therequirement for an EIA prior to the import ofLMOs or other living organisms from another eco-logical zone;Action 22.6 In developing the legal framework

described above, assess the desirability of harmo-nizing this new legislation with similar legislationbeing developed in the countries of south and south-east Asia to create a common, regional approach tothese issues.

Action 22.7 Countries with similar ecologicalzones, for example the SAARC (South AsianAssociation for Regional Cooperation) countries, shouldh a rmonize their policies on the import, export and useof genetic re s o u rces from the region as a whole.

4.12 INFORMATION EXCHANGE


Knowledge and experience about environmentalproblems and their solutions are unequally and poor-ly distributed around the globe. In particular, there isan information gap between developed and devel-oping countries which must be bridged. A provisionon exchanging information has now become a stan-dard addition to international environmental andconservation agreements. Article 17 of the CBDurges parties to take into account the special needsof developing countries and include repatriation ofinformation, where feasible.


Much original and unique information aboutspecies and ecosystems in developing countries isheld by museums and research institutions in thedeveloped countries. Worse, this information is ofteninaccessible to the country from where the data orig-inated. The Convention encourages inform a t i o n‘holders’ to take measures to share the knowledgewith the originating countries (Glowka et al. 1994).

Pakistan lacks data. Information about the coun-try’s biodiversity is scattered among a wide range ofinstitutions, and current capacity to collect, store,analyse and disseminate information is limited (asnoted in Section 4.3). A considerable number ofactions will need to be taken if Pakistan is to fulfill itscommitments under this article of the Convention.


Objective 23: Strengthen informationmanagement systems on the biodiversity of Pakistan

Action 23.1 Establish a national informationclearing house on biodiversity.

Action 23.1.1 The national clearing housecould:● create and manage meta-databases on biodiver-

sity information in Pakistan and abroad;● promote standardization of data formats;● develop guidelines to assist custodial institutions

to formulate individual information access policiesfor in-country and external users;

● improve collaboration and information exchangeamong agencies that collect information relevantto the conservation of biodiversity, for examplesectoral agencies, Bureau of Statistics;

● maintain information on all projects promotingconservation and sustainable use of biodiversityin Pakistan; and

● assist in matching information users with sourcesof information.These functions could be fulfilled by the national

centre recommended in Action 5.1.Action 23.2 Establish contact with institutions

outside Pakistan, for example the British NaturalHistory Museum to obtain information about those

collections of Pakistani origin which are currentlybeing held abroad.

Action 23.3 Enhance the capacity of relevantnational and provincial institutions to collect, store,analyse and supply information on biodiversity,through the provision of funding, equipment, staffand training.

4.13 FINANCIAL RESOURCES


Article 20 of the CBD requires each party to providefinancial support, in accordance with its capacity, foractivities undertaken to implement the Convention.Article 20 also commits the developed nations to pro-vide “new and additional financial resources” toassist developing countries with their biodiversityconservation and management programmes. Thesefunds are currently being channelled through theGlobal Environment Facility.

The successful implementation of Pakistan’sBiodiversity Action Plan will require significant finan-cial investment. It is important to emphasise, howev-er, that many of the recommendations containedwithin the Plan can be implemented through policyand legal changes, such as, the use of incentives andthe removal of ‘perverse’ incentives, as discussed inSection 4.7, and do not require large expenditures.Similarly, ongoing development activities and exist-ing government programmes can be made more sen-sitive to biodiversity concerns, often at relatively littlecost, for example, through better use of EIA proce-dures. It is not necessary, therefore, to await thearrival of new funding before commencing imple-mentation of the Plan.

For those measures which do require new fund-ing, possible sources could include: the developmentof innovative funding mechanisms; bilateral/multilat-eral aid for stand-alone biodiversity projects; debt-for-nature swaps; partnerships with the private sector;and the GEF itself. In fact, GEF needs to recognizeand financially support the needs of developingcountries to implement their national biodiversityaction plans.


Finally, it should be emphasised that funds spenton biodiversity conservation and management arenot unrecoverable expenditures; rather, they areinvestments in Pakistan’s future ecological, economicand social security investments which will yield sub-stantial benefits at virtually all levels and sectors ofsociety. Present economic tools and measurements,such as the national income accounts, fail to recog-nise or accord a value to these benefits.


Objective 24: Develop national funding mechanisms to supportpriority biodiversity conservation andmanagement programmes

Action 24.1 Re-assess national spending priori-ties, and consider financial re-allocations from thosesectors which currently receive a disproportionateshare of the national budget.

Action 24.2 Re-assess existing expenditure onbiodiversity-related activities against the priorities

identified in this Biodiversity Action Plan; re-alignexpenditure to address the most urgent priorities.

Action 24.3 Establish a task force to look intothe possibilities of developing sustainable revenuesto support biodiversity.

Action 24.3.1 Possible mechanisms might include:● the establishment of endowment funds to cover

recurring costs in long-term conservation projects;● royalties from the wildlife, forestry and fisheries

industries;● the return of revenues generated in parks and

reserves, e.g., from tourism, to the protected areasystem and custodian communities;

● Adopt-a-Park schemes, in which organizationsagree to support an individual reserve, oftenunder the banner of a flagship species such as theMarco Polo sheep in Khunjerab;

● partnerships with the private sector, in particular,those companies that benefit from the exploitationof genetic resources;

● debt-for-nature swaps;● bilateral debt relief in which loans are reduced,

re-structured or written off outright in return foragreements to put resources into conservationprogrammes;


Coastal and marine biodiversity contributes to the economics of coastal communities.

● charging for ecosystem services provided by pro-tected areas; and

● special issues of postage stamps and coins.

Objective 25: Seek increased bilateraland multilateral funding for biodiversity programmes

Action 25.1 Create an informal working groupof aid agencies and donors on biodiversity conser-vation and management in Pakistan.

Action 25.2 Establish a database of agency/

donor development activities and locations to identi-fy areas of possible donor interest.

Action 25.3 Coordinate donor activities to max-imize conservation eff o rts and re s o u rces. Invitedonor agencies to assist with priority conservationactivities in regions where they already have devel-opment programmes.

Action 25.4 Strengthen national capacity tosubmit successful proposals to the GEF, through train-ing in project development and proposal preparationusing the GEF format.

Action 25.5 Take steps to strengthen Pakistan’s‘voice’ at the CBD Conference of Parties.


There are many stakeholders involved in the con-servation of biodiversity in Pakistan and to beeffective, conservation efforts must be coordinat-

ed across the various sectors of society.The federal and provincial governments are the

most important stakeholders with overall responsibili-ty for providing an adequate policy and legal frame-work, enforcing regulations, building capacity andproviding incentives and funds for the conservationof biodiversity. The policies and programmes of keyfederal ministries (Environment, Local Governmentand Rural Development; Food and Agriculture ;Finance; and Science and Technology) and provin-cial departments (agriculture, livestock, fore s t ry,wildlife and fisheries) are crucial to the conservationand sustainable use of biodiversity. To ensure thatministries and departments (with different and oftendivergent priorities) commit and comply with theobjectives and the recommendations of BAP, the fed-eral Planning Commission and the pro v i n c i a lPlanning and Development departments will have tosupport and play a leading role. Implementation ofthe BAP will need to be carried out at both the fed-eral and provincial levels through links with the annu-al and five-year planning cycles, and by establishingSteering Committees at both levels (seeImplementation Measures).

Research institutions are responsible for docu-menting elements of biodiversity in Pakistan and formonitoring the health of ecosystems. Training institu-tions play an important role in building professional

capacity in the fields of conservation and sustainableuse.

As direct users of biodiversity, local communitieshave an important role in re s o u rce conservation anduse. The active involvement of communities in themanagement of wild species and ecosystems, wherecommunities become the custodians and beneficiariesof biodiversity, may be the most promising appro a c hto halt further loss of biodiversity in Pakistan.

Non-governmental organizations can help bridgethe existing gap between the government and localcommunities. They can be particularly valuable inproviding technical tools and building capacity andawareness for the environment both locally and withgovernment. NGOs are often well informed and canassist in monitoring implementation of the CBD bothlocally and nationally.

The private sector should be made aware of theimportance and value of conservation and sustain-able use of biodiversity. The private sector has astrong influence in developing and maintaining mar-kets for natural resources. It is also an importantstakeholder in ensuring the equitable sharing of ben-efits from the use of natural resources.

F i n a l l y, the general public (both nationally andglobally) has a stake in the natural heritage ofPakistan and can influence policy and decision-mak-ing on biodiversity. To gather sufficient funds ands u p p o rt, the general public must be better sensitizedto the rapid loss of biodiversity and the need for itsc o n s e rv a t i o n .


COORDINATING EFFORTS

Overall responsibility for implementation of theBiodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan will fallon the Ministry of Environment, Local

Government and Rural Development, which is alsothe focal point for the Convention on BiologicalDiversity. Within MELGRD, it is envisioned that aBiodiversity Secretariat (see below) will have particu-lar responsibility for the Plan.

To oversee the implementation process, it is rec-ommended that a Biodiversity Steering Committee beestablished at the federal level; see Box 1 for the pro-posed composition.

Most implementation measures will take place atthe provincial level. Provincial steering committeeswill need to be established and, if possible, mergedwith the committees that have already been estab-lished under the Sarhad Provincial ConservationStrategy, the Balochistan Conservation Strategy andthe upcoming Northern Areas Conservation Strategy.The suggested structure of the provincial steeringcommittees is given in Box 2.

A national level, multi-disciplinary, working groupshould also be established to act as a technical bodyin support of the national and provincial steeringcommittees, to provide technical guidance for imple-mentation of the Plan, and to review progress at peri-odic intervals. It is suggested that this function be per-formed by the Biodiversity Working Group, and thatthe membership of the group be re-notified to ade-quately reflect the relevant stakeholders and also toinclude women. The proposed membership of areconstituted BWG is given in Box 3.

In addition, it is suggested that a BiodiversitySecretariat be established in MELGRD to coordinatethe implementation of all programmes under the BAP.

Biodiversity Secretariat

A Biodiversity Secretariat will be established as thefocal point within MELGRD for implementation of

the CBD on behalf of the Government of Pakistan. Itis important that all individuals assigned to thisS e c retariat have relevant technical experience. TheS e c retariat should be headed by a Dire c t o rGeneral/Joint Secre t a ry (Biodiversity) and support-ed by: a Biodiversity Programme Officer in charg eof developing a central Clearing House Mechanism(CHM) for the CBD; a Biodiversity Planning Off i c e rto assist other government agencies, NGOs andprivate sector groups in preparing project pro p o s-als suggested by the Plan; and two ScientificO fficers (Biodiversity) to provide technical supportfor BAP implementation. The Programme andPlanning Officers would be Grade 19 officers whilethe Scientific Officers would be Grade 17 and 18


IMPLEMENTATION MEASURES

Chair: Minister, MELGRD

MembersSecretary, MELGRDInspector General of Forests, MELGRDDirector General Environment, MELGRDRepresentative, Kashmir Affairs & Northern Areas DivisionRepresentatives of Provincial Biodiversity Steering Committees:

Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Balochistan, Northern Areas & AJKRepresentative, Ministry of Food, Agriculture & LivestockRepresentative, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Representative, Marine Pollution Control BoardRepresentative, Ministry of FinanceRepresentative, Ministry of DefenceRepresentative, Planning & Development DivisionRepresentative, National Biosafety CommitteeRepresentatives, Two from Biodiversity Working Group Member, Planning CommissionDirector General, Pakistan Environmental Protection AgencyDirector General, Pakistan Museum of Natural HistoryCountry Representative, IUCN PakistanDirector General, WWF PakistanChief Executive Officer, Sustainable Development

Policy InstituteRepresentatives, Two from private sector

Box 1 Federal Biodiversity Steering Committee

s t a ff. Given current restraints on new govern m e n thiring, it is proposed that the Secretariat positionsbe filled from existing, qualified government s t a ff either through deputation or transfers betweenm i n i s t r i e s .

An organizational chart for the proposed admin-istrative structures is provided in Figure 1. Of these,the Biodiversity Secretariat must become fully opera-tional within six months of the adoption of BAP by thegovernment. The secretariat should then facilitate theestablishment of the Federal and Provincial SteeringCommittees, and re-notify the Biodiversity WorkingGroup which should commence working within thefollowing six months.

The primary focus of the Biodiversity Secre t a r i a tis coordination to facilitate the timely implementa-tion of BAP. The secretariat will foster scientific andtechnical cooperation by promoting linkagesbetween, and within, diff e rent sectors affecting bio-d i v e r s i t y. The Secretariat will also be responsible fordeveloping work plans to implement BAP prioritya c t i o n s .

While some of the recommended actions willtake considerable time and funding to address,

others can be implemented immediately and at littlecost. To guide the phasing of activities, an imple-mentation schedule has been developed (Table 5)w h e re recommended actions for each BAP compo-nent are listed by the anticipated length of timere q u i red for implementation. The phasing isdescribed as:● immediate – within 1 year (at low cost)● short term – within 5 years● long-term – within 10 years

During its first year of operation, the secretariatwill begin to address the ‘immediate’ priorities incooperation with the Biodiversity Working Groupand the Federal/Provincial Steering Committees.

Finally, a Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistanshould not be a ‘one-off’ document but, rather, anongoing process that is periodically monitored andupdated much like the National Conserv a t i o nStrategy. The Plan should change as scientific knowl-edge increases, as the intellectual debate continueson various issues related to conservation of biodiver-sity, and new lessons are learned.


Chair: Minister, Forest, Fisheries & Wildlife Department

MembersAdd. Chief Secretary, Planning & Development Department

(Secretary)Secretary, Forest & Wildlife DepartmentSecretary, FisheriesSecretary, AgricultureSecretary, LivestockSecretary, EducationSecretary, Local Government & Rural DevelopmentMember, Planning & Development DepartmentRepresentative, Biodiversity Working GroupRepresentatives, Two from NGO sectorRepresentatives, Two from communities

Chair: Elected by Biodiversity Working Group (BWG)

MembersRepresentative, Biodiversity Secretariat (Secretary)Technical Experts, Six from provincial/state governmentsTechnical Expert, Pakistan Museum of Natural HistoryTechnical Expert, National Agricultural Research CentreTechnical Expert, National Institute of OceanographyTechnical Expert, National Institute for

Biotechnology & Genetic EngineeringTechnical Expert, Pakistan Forest InstituteTechnical Expert, National Council for

Conservation of WildlifeTechnical Expert, Zoological Survey DepartmentTechnical Expert, WWF PakistanTechnical Expert, IUCN PakistanResearch Scientists, Two to four from academia

Box 2 Provincial Steering Committees Box 3 Biodiversity Working Group


Figure 1 Organogram for BAP Implementation*

* Adapted from Sri Lanka’s Biodiversity Action Plan.

MELGRD(Focal Point)

Provincial SteeringCommittees

Federal BiodiversitySteering Committee

Biodiversity Working Group

ImplementingAgencies

(Government)

ImplementingAgencies

(Outside Govt.)

Biodiversity SecretariatDirector General/Joint Secretary

Departments

Universities

Institutions

NGOs

CBOs

Private Sector

Coordination

Policy/Law

Administrative reporting lines

Collaborative and networking relationships

C o n s e rv a t i o nM e a s u re s

SustainableUse

I d e n t i f i c a t i o nR e s e a rc hTr a i n i n g

EducationAwareness

EIA/Incentives

Access Financing

BiodiversityPlanning Officer

B i o d i v e r s i t yP rogramme Off i c e r

2 Scientific Officers(Biodiversity)


BAP COMPONENT

Policy/Planning

Legislation

Identification/Monitoring

In-situConservation

Ex-situConservation

Sustainable Use

IMMEDIATE(WITHIN 1 YEAR)

n Adopt BAP (1.1)n Adopt Biodiversity Policy (1.2)

n Enact Model Wildlife Law (2.3)n Finalize rules for PEPA ‘97 (2.6)n Protect species presently subject to

illegal trade (3.3)

n Appoint biodiversity centre(s) (4.1)n Identify conservation priorities (4.2)n Foster information sharing (4.6)

n Prepare PA system review (6.2)n Identify priority areas for

international designation (6.3.4)n Explore potential for transboundary

Peace Parks (6.3.5)

n Compile directory of conservationinitiatives (8.2)

n Evaluate existing programmes (8.3)n Identify priority species and genetic

resources (8.4)

n Develop criteria for sustainable use(10.2)

n Promote community-based conservation projects (11.4)

n Strengthen sectoral coordination(13.1)

SHORT TERM (WITHIN 5 YEARS)

n Promote coordination between institutions (1.3)

n Integrate biodiversity into sectoralplans (1.4) and conservation strategies (1.5)

n Review existing legislation (2.2; 2.4)

n Develop access legislation (2.7)n Develop biosafety regulations

(2.8)n Enhance enforcement capacity

(3.1)

n Create National Red Lists (4.3)n Establish computerized databases

(4.5)n Produce State of the Environment

report (5.2)

n Develop comprehensive PAlegislation (6.1)

n Prepare PA system plan (6.2)n Enhance PA management (6.4)n Develop regional conservation

programmes (7.1)n Enhance CBO/NGO capacity for

conservation (7.3)n Promote buffer zone management

(7.4; 7.5)n Share biodiversity information with

planners (7.6) and defence agencies (7.7)

n Develop national policy (8.1)n Strengthen capacity and scope

(8.5)n Promote integration among

institutions (8.6)

n Formulate policies (9.1)n Review existing laws

(9.2; 9.3; 11.1)n Reduce incidental catch (10.4)n Evaluate traditional management

systems (11.2; 11.3)

LONG-TERM (WITHIN 10 YEARS)

n Amend Constitution (2.1)n Comply with International

Conventions (3.4)

n Institutionalize resourcemonitoring (5.1)

n Expand PA system (6.3)n Restore degraded

ecosystems (6.5)n Control exotic invasive

species (6.6)n Modify destructive

resource practices (7.2)

n Enhance capacity for monitoring (10.1)

n Require managementplans as a basis for SU(10.3)

n Develop methodologiesfor valuation (12.1)

n Initiate ‘green’ accounting (12.2)

Table 5 BAP Implementation Schedule


BAP COMPONENT

IncentiveMeasures

Research andTraining

Education/Awareness

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment

Access Issues

Exchange ofInformation

FinancialResources

IMMEDIATE(WITHIN 1 YEAR)

n Identify perverse incentives (15.1)

n Identify gaps and priorities for newresearch (16.2)

n Assess biodiversity-related trainingneeds (17.1)

n Create diploma course for protected areas managers (17.5)

n Develop public education/awareness strategy (18.1)

n Encourage the role of media (20.3)

n Finalize rules and guidelines forPEPA 1997 (21.1)

n Collect baseline data (22.1)n Prepare existing legal/institutional

profile (22.2)n Develop action plan (22.4)

n Establish a national clearinghouseon biodiversity information (23.1)

n Establish task force to generate funding (24.3)

n Strengthen capacity to develop GEFproposals (25.4)

n Strengthen Pakistan’s voice at CBD-COP (25.5)

SHORT TERM (WITHIN 5 YEARS)

n Introduce direct/indirect incentives(14.1; 14.2)

n Introduce disincentives (14.3)

n Strengthen current biodiversityresearch (16.1)

n Design and implement in-servicetraining (17.2)

n Design opportunities for international linkages (17.3)

n Develop degree programmes in biodiversity and conservation biology (17.4)

n Initiate training programs withumbrella NGOs (17.7)

n Develop relevant course material(19.3)

n Promote informal education programmes (20.1), includingfocused campaigns (20.2) and traditional channels (20.4)

n Develop interpretive facilities(20.8)

n Develop locally relevant resourcematerials (20.9), including fieldguides (20.10)

n Strengthen capacity of EPA staff(21.2)

n Encourage effective public participation in EIA process (21.3)

n Expand the SEA concept (21.4)n Review NEQS for specific

ecosystems (21.5)

n Formulate a national policy (22.3)n Develop legislation (22.5) based

on a regional approach (22.6)n Harmonize regional policies (22.7)

n Exchange information with outsideinstitutions (23.2)

n Enhance institutional capacity tomanage information (23.3)

n Re-align expenditures with BAP priorities (24.2)

n Enhance donor interest (25.2) andparticipation (25.1; 25.3))

LONG-TERM (WITHIN 10 YEARS)

n Legislate Pakistani involvement in research(16.3)

n Promote post-graduatespecialization (17.6)

n Integrate biodiversity concerns in other curricula(17.8)

n Incorporate biodiversityemphasis in national andlocal curricula (19.1; 19.2)

n Encourage partnerships in curricula development(19.4)

n Document local knowledge (20.5)

n Encourage growth ofmembership groups in biodiversity conservation(20.8)

n Re-assess national spending priorities (24.1)

1. INTRODUCTION

This report gives a brief account of the process fol-lowed during the preparation of a Biodiversity ActionPlan (BAP) for Pakistan. An attempt has been madeto briefly describe the various stages of BAP prepa-ration, to list the opportunities for public and stake-holders participation, and to identify constraints toenlist wider participation.

The BAP Project was initiated in July 1996 as partof a PDF Block B funding from the GEF/World Bank.The focus of the funding was to pre p a re an investment

p roposal to GEF for a Protected Area ManagementP roject (PAMP). An additional activity was to pre p a rea national BAP for Pakistan. A chronology of eventsduring preparation of BAP is shown in Table 1.

2. STEPS INVOLVED IN BAPPREPARATION

The following activities were carried out duringBAP preparation in collaboration with the majors t a k e h o l d e r s .


Appendix 1

STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION

EVENTS

July 1996 Project Start-up (PDF Block B Funding)n IUCN Pakistan selected as lead agency in collaboration with WWF Pakistan.n simultaneous work on PAMP

September 1996 First Consultative Workshopn 87 people attended two-day workshopn sectoral working groups identify issues and make recommendations for BAP drafting

December 1996 Based on the workshop feedback, background papers were prepared by national experts on:n cross-sectoral issues (legislation, education/awareness, economic policies)n data deficient subjects (vertebrates/invertebrates, microbiology, genetics and biosafety,

coastal zones and marine fisheries, forests and rangelands)

April–June 1997 BAP Draft Preparationn compilation of background papersn preparation of initial draft (300 pages)n revision and reduction of draft (100 pages)

October 1997 BAP Draft 1 Distributed (200 copies)

November 1997 Regional Review Workshopsn 5 locations with 175 participantsn spirited debatesn verbal and written feedback

December 1997 Completing the Documentn filling additional gapsn preparation of consultation repor t

Table 1 Chronology of Events during BAP Preparation

Literature Review

Like all projects involving planning, the BAP projectstarted with a review of literature relevant to the pro-ject and the concepts of biodiversity conservationand sustainable use. It also included literature on sim-ilar BAP preparation efforts undertaken elsewhere inthe world and their relevance to Pakistan.

Development of theFramework

To develop an outline of the BAP in a part i c i p a t o ryfashion, a two days consultative workshop was org a-nized in Islamabad on September 15-16, 1996.M o re than 160 individuals were invited to attend theworkshop. The main objectives of the workshop were :● to agree on the contents of the BAP and to devel-

op a framework for BAP development;● to identify and prioritize issues of concerns within

specific areas of interest;● to identify current and planned biodiversity con-

servation efforts (in Pakistan); and● to identify sources of information and expertise

within each area of interest.The workshop was organized not only to develop

a framework of BAP but also to establish a contactdatabase for increased stakeholder involvement inthe project.

In total, 87 individuals from all over Pakistanattended the workshop. Recognizing the fact that bio-diversity is an all-encompassing concept, group dis-cussion themes were identified based on land-useand resource management practices. On the basis ofthese themes, the participants were divided into dis-cussions/working groups covering biodiversity areassuch as:● Agriculture and Animal Husbandry;● Coastal Zones and Marine Fisheries;● Forests and Economically Important Plants;● Invertebrates and Vertebrates;● Microbiology, Genetics, and Biosafety;● Wetlands, Fresh Water and Inland Fisheries; and● Wildlife and Protected Areas.

The groups evaluated each of these areas on thebasis of a common checklist and shared their respec-tive findings in a plenary. Feedback in the form of

group presentations was supplemented with individ-ual observations which were received in verbal aswell as in written form.

Commissioning of Background Papers

On the basis of the findings of the consultativeworkshop, review of BAP-related activities else-w h e re in the world, and information re g a rding bio-diversity conservation issues in Pakistan, 13 nation-al experts were contracted to write backgro u n dpapers. These sectoral papers covered topics suchas vertebrates and invertebrates, microbiology andgenetics, marine biodiversity, legislation, educa-tion, public awareness and education, economicp o l i c y, etc. Some of the sectoral papers remained tobe completed.

Production of First Draft

Information from the sectoral background papersand other sources were compiled into a first draft ofBAP. The initial draft was in excess of 300 pages andconsidered too lengthy to stimulate a consultativereview.

E ff o rts were made in the fall of 1997 to conducethe draft into a more manageable format and to focusthe document on key issues and proposed actionswhile reducing details on the current status of biodi-versity in Pakistan. A revised and reduced first draftBAP was distributed to over 230 individuals onOctober 10, 1997 to seek their comments on the draft.

Regional Workshops Reviews

To accommodate wide participation of the stake-holders in the review of the draft BAP, one day work-shops were held in 5 locations (Lahore, Quetta,Karachi, Peshawar and Islamabad) following distrib-ution of the draft document. The time available forreview of the nearly 100-page draft varied betweentwo and five weeks depending on the date of theregional workshops.


Invitations to the regional workshops were pre-p a red from a Contact Database created after the firstconsultative workshop in Islamabad. Additional invi-tations were also issued after participant lists hadbeen reviewed by GoP and regional IUCN/WWFo ff i c e s .

The regional workshops followed the same gen-eral agenda in each location starting with an intro-duction to CBD and BAP followed by group discus-sions and presentations on the proposed actionsidentified in the draft. The intent of the workshopswas to reach some level of national ìconsensusî onpriority action and strategies for the future. All BWGmembers were invited to the regional workshops andmost members were able to attend.

Follow-up to Regional Workshops

Based on some of the concerns and issues raised atthe regional workshops a 6 member committee fromIslamabad consultative workshop participants wasasked to review and quickly revise portions of thedraft BAP to fill some of the gaps identified.

Briefing of the Biodiversity Working Group (BWG)w e re held on November 18 and December 15, 1997to provide updates on BAP pre p a r a t i o n .

3. OPPORTUNITIES FORPARTICIPATION

Following is a brief account of the various fora forstakeholder participation, established during the BAPdevelopment.

Biodiversity Working Group

The idea of creating a forum under the Ministry ofE n v i ronment was under consideration before thelaunch of the BAP/PA M P, however it got impetusafter the project launch. Basically, the idea was tohave a body comprising of a number of nationallevel experts from diff e rent areas of specialization

to provide advice to various biodiversity initiativesof GoP. Initial consultations between the Pro j e c tManagement Team (PMT) and the focal point on theb i o d i v e r s i t y - related issues in the MELGRD conclud-ed that a Biodiversity Coordinating Committee,which existed only on paper, could be improved byinducting more appropriate experts to it and consti-tuting the BWG. About one month after the launchof the Project, the group was formally constitutedand an announcement to this effect was made bythe focal point on August 22, 1996 were taken onb o a rd. They included environmentalists, fore s t e r sand specialists from wildlife, livestock, agriculture ,natural history, taxonomy, fisheries, tourism, marinesciences, zoology, biotechnology, protected are amanagement, and development in general. Thet e rms of re f e rence of the Group included the following tasks:1. Formally review and approve the selection criteria

for the selection of ten protected areas (PAs).2. Review the results of the socio-ecological surv e y

conducted on the eleven sites by the PMT of PA M P.3. Review and approve 3-5 priority PAs.4. Review the detailed needs assessment survey of

the 3-5 priority PAs undertaken by the TeamLeader and his team.

5. Review the working of the stakeholder groups foreach priority area.

6. Review and approve the draft investment plans foreach priority area.

7. Review and approve the BAP.8. Review the status of the Convention on

Biological Diversity for recommending action(s)on the obligations and incorporating them in theB A P.

Project Management Team

The Project Management Team was a tripart i t ebody including re p resentatives of the MELGRD,IUCN Pakistan and WWF Pakistan. The PMT pro-vided guidance to the PAMP/BAP project staff. TheTeam Leader and the BAP Coordinator provided thelink between the PMT and the project staff. The PMTmet once a month during the first few months of thep roject and later met only at significant stages ofthe project development.


4. CONSTRAINTS TOPARTICIPATION

While the project explored different opportunities forparticipation of key stakeholders in preparing anational framework document, such as BAP, therewere three main constraints to broad and effectiveparticipation. They are given below:

Lack of Information

When BAP started in 1996, there was no centralre g i s t ry or database listing departments, institu-tions or individuals involved in biodiversity re l a t e dp rogrammes. There was lack of information shar-ing, or even understanding, on how the primarystakeholders should be involved in preparing anational strategy document on biodiversity such as BAP.

Lack of Interest (or Incentives)

Several of the sectoral background papers were notadequately prepared. As a result, the draft BAPfocused on elements of biodiversity for which therewas sufficient information (e.g. vertebrates, plants).

During the regional workshops, it was clear that sev-eral individuals/institutions feel that voluntary contribu-tions of information is difficult without some form ofcompensation or an incentive. However, it was pointedout that it is in the interest of every individual/institutionto ensure their particular focus of biodiversity was wellre p resented in a document such as BAP that could helpin identifying future funding priorities.

BWG Composition and Funding

The BWG was made up of representatives from thefederal and provincial government agencies. Therewas no representation of NGOs or women in thegroup. Moreover, the government members did notadequately encourage the participation of all the lined e p a rtments involved in biodiversity issues.Participation in the BWG meetings was thin due tothe lack of funding to cover the expenses of partici-pants from outside Islamabad.

5. CONTRIBUTORS

T h e re were many contributors to this process. Their help, guidance and assistance is gratefully acknowledged.



Box 1 Contributors*

* As of 1997.

Biodiversity Planners Committee

Dr. Anwar Naseem Organization of Islamic Conference, Standing Committee on Scientificand Technological Cooperation

Dr. Ashiq Hussain Cheema National Agricultural Research Commission

Mr. Kalimullah Shirazi Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development

Mr. Rashid Anwar National Agricultural Research Commission

Dr. Shahzad A. Mufti Pakistan Museum of Natural Histor y

Dr. Syed Azhar Hasan Pakistan Museum of Natural Histor y

Mr. Z.B. Mirza Centre for Environment Research and Conservation

Individual Contributors

Mr. Richard Garstang/Mr. Kent Jingfors Project Team Leaders, IUCN Pakistan

Dr. A. Aleem Chaudhry/Mr. Guy Duke BAP Coordinators

Dr. A. Hameed Biological Sciences Department, Quaid-i-Azam University

Mr. Abeed Ullah Jan

Mr. Ashiq Ahmed WWF Pakistan

Mr. David E. Steane FAO Bangkok

Dr. Ejaz Ahmed WWF Pakistan

Dr. Javed Ahmed IUCN Pakistan

Dr. Kausar Abdullah Malik National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

Ms. Khalida Haye WWF Pakistan

Mr. Leslie Wijesinghe IUCN Sri Lanka

Dr. Manzoor H. Soomro Pakistan Science Foundation

Dr. Mohammad Nazir Bhatti Fisheries Department

Ms. Naila Hussain Shirkat Gah

Mr. Najam Khursheed WWF Pakistan

Dr. Naseem Ghani

Mr. Saleem Ahmad Qazi IUCN Pakistan

Dr. Sarwat N. Mirza Arid Zone Research Centre

Dr. Scott Perkin IUCN Pakistan

Dr. Shahid Amjad National Institute of Oceanography

Prof. S. M. Saifullah Department of Botany, University of Karachi

Dr. Surayya Khatoon Department of Botany, University of Karachi

Dr. Syed Irtifaq Ali University of Karachi

Syed Mahmood Nasir Forest Department, Punjab

Mr. Qadeer Mohammad Ali Marine Reference Collection and Resource Center, University of Karachi

Mr. Tanveer Arif Society for Conservation and Protection of Environment

Mr. Usman Iftikhar IUCN Pakistan

Pakistan is a party to two international conven-tions dealing with species: the Convention on theConservation of Migratory Species of Wild

Animals (adopted in Bonn, Germany in 1979 and towhich Pakistan has been a party since 1987); andthe Convention on International Trade in EndangeredSpecies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES – signed inWashington in 1973, to which Pakistan has been aparty since 1976). Pakistan is also a party to twoarea-based treaties: the Convention on Wetlands ofInternational Importance especially as WaterfowlHabitat (signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971, and towhich Pakistan has been a party since 1978); andthe Convention Concerning the Protection of theWorld Cultural and Natural Heritage (signed atUNESCO, Paris in 1972). In addition to thesetreaties, Pakistan is a party to the United NationsConvention on the Law of the Sea (signed atMontego Bay in 1982), supports the UNESCO Manand Bioshpere programme (initiated in Paris in1968) and has signed (but not yet ratified) theConvention to Combat Desertification.

Under the Bonn Convention, Pakistan’s principalobligations are to protect certain endangere dspecies listed in Appendix I of the Convention and toendeavour to conclude agreements for the protectionof migratory species whose conservation status isunfavourable and of those whose conservation statuswould substantially benefit from the internationalcooperation deriving from an agreement (de Klemmand Shine 1993).

Under CITES, Pakistan’s principal obligations areto restrict the import and export of listed species.Appendix I lists endangered species of flora andfauna in immediate danger of extinction. Appendix IIlists species not in immediate danger of extinction,but which may become so if trade restrictions are notapplied. Appendix III lists species for which cooper-ation between parties is desirable for their protec-tion. A range of legislative measures are commend-

ed by the CITES secretariat and IUCN for the ade-quate implementation of CITES (de Klemm 1993).

The Ramsar Convention is primarily concernedwith the conservation and management of wetlandsincluded in the List of Wetlands of InternationalImportance (Davis 1994; de Klemm and Shine1993). Parties are also required to promote the ‘wiseuse’ of wetlands on their territory and to take mea-sures for the conservation of wetlands and waterfowlby establishing nature reserves on wetlands, whetherthey are included in the list or not. A Wetland Fundwas set up in 1990 to assist parties to discharge theirobligations under this Convention. A range of leg-islative measures is required to implement the Ramsarand the specific wetlands in particular, and for thedivision of jurisdiction among government agenciesfor the catchment-side management of wetlands. Todate, Pakistan has designated nine wetlands asRamsar sites under the Ramsar Convention (NCCWdata).

Under the World Heritage Convention, Pakistan’sprincipal obligation is to conserve and transmit tofuture generations the natural and cultural heritage situated on its territory (de Klemm and Shine 1993).The inclusion of a site on the World Heritage Listre q u i res the approval of the World HeritageCommittee. A special financial mechanism, theWorld Heritage Fund, has been established to assistparties to discharge their obligation in respect ofsites, with great success.

Although a number of Pakistan’s cultural siteshave been inscribed on the World Heritage List, noneof Pakistan’s natural sites have yet been included.However, an application in respect of the CentralKarakorum National Park has been prepared and isunder consideration by UNESCO.

The only worldwide programme for the establish-ment and conservation of protected areas is theBiosphere Reserve network which was developedunder UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme


Appendix 2

BIODIVERSITY-RELATED CONVENTIONS TO WHICH PAKISTAN IS A PARTY

(de Klemm and Shine 1993). As there are no treatiesor legally binding obligations governing this net-work, designations of Biosphere Reserves are madeon a purely voluntary basis. Proposed designationsby individuals states must, however, be approved bythe MAB Coordination Committee. To date, Pakistanhas designated only one Biosphere Reserve (LalSuhanra National Park), although a number of otherareas (e.g., the Indus Delta) would appear to be par-ticularly well suited to this management approach.

Under those provisions of the UN Convention onthe Law of the Sea relating to biodiversity, Pakistan’s

principal obligations relate to the conservation andexploitation of marine species, the establishment ofmarine protected areas, and the prevention ofmarine pollution (which includes the introduction ofalien or exotic species).

Pakistan has recently signed and ratified the UNConvention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).Though this Convention does not directly address bio-diversity, it addresses the degradation of arid andsemi-arid rangelands. There are potential synergiesbetween UNCCD and CBD that need to be furtherexplored.



AJK Azad Jammu and Kashmir

BAP Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan

BWG Biodiversity Working Group

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

GATT General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs

GEF Global Environment Facility

GoNWFP Government of North West Frontier Province

GoP Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

HYVs High-Yield Varieties

IEE Initial Environmental Examination

IUCN Pakistan The World Conservation Union, Pakistan

MELGRD Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development

NARC National Agricultural Research Commission.

NCCW National Council for the Conservation of Wildlife

NCS National Conservation Strategy, Pakistan

NEQS National Environment Quality Standards

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NIAB Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology

NIBGE National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering

PA Protected Area

PEPA Pakistan Environment Protection Agency

PMNH Pakistan Museum of Natural History

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

SDPI Sustainable Development Policy Institute

SPCS Sarhad Provincial Conservation Strategy

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

VOs Village Organizations

WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority

WTO World Trade Organization

WWF Pakistan World Wide Fund for Nature, Pakistan

ZSD Zoological Survey Department

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Ahmad, M. F. 1997. Ungulates of Pakistan. InBiodiversity of Pakistan, eds. S. A. Mufti, C. A.Woods and S. A. Hasan, 531-536. Islamabad andGainesville, US: Pakistan Museum of Natural Historyand Florida Museum of Natural History.

Ahmad, M. F. 1998. A Checklist of MarineFishes in Pakistan. Recordings of the ZoologicalSurvey of Pakistan, vol. XIV.

Ahmed, M. 1997. Natural and HumanT h reats to Biodiversity in the Marine Ecosystem ofCoastal Pakistan. In Coastal Zone ManagementImperative for Maritime Developing, eds. B.U.Haq et. al., 319-332. N.P.: Kluwer AcademicP u b l i s h e r s .

Ahmed, M., V.C. Robertson and S.We s t e rn 1992. Potential Impact of Drainageand Saline Effluent Disposal on Wetlands on theRight Bank of the Indus between Guddu Barr a g eand Lake Manchar. In Proceedings of the SecondIWRB Symposium, 14-21, December 1991,K a r a c h i .

Ahmed, M. and M. S. Akhtar 1 9 9 4 .Termites. In Insect Pest Management, ed. A. A.Hashmi. Islamabad: Pakistan Agricultural ResearchCouncil.

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