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Big Bang Theory • Formation of the Universe • Inflationary theory • Single, infinitely dense point called singularity • Suddenly and rapidly expands (does not explode) • Einstein first proposed the theory but later retracted it because he didn’t think he was right • George Lemaitre believed Einstein to be right and developed and publicized the theory • It was heavily criticized when it was first publicized Waves • Frequency (f), speed of light (c), and wavelength (y) f x y=c, c/y=f, and c/f=y (all answers over 1000 should be in scientific notation). F in Hertz (Hz), c in km/s or m/s, and y in m or nm Radio waves Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma Rays

Microwaves Visible Light X-rays Infrared Visible Ultraviolet red orange yellow green blue violet The Doppler Effect • The Doppler effect only applies to moving objects and does not occur when an object is stationary. It states that the closer an object moves toward you, the waves will increase in frequency creating blueshift. Since blue is a higher frequency color, as the waves between objects moving closer to one another grow shorter in length, blueshift occurs. Redshift occurs when an object moves away from you or you move away from it. Since red is a lower frequency color, as the waves between the objects moving away from one another grow longer in length, redshift occurs. • Edmund Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away from us at different speeds. Galaxies farther away move faster. One of the biggest defenses of the Big Bang Theory Background Radiation • Discovered by Penzias & Wilson. • Microwave background radiation • Hypothesized that is Big Bang had occurred, radiation levels would be left over at about 3o Kelvin (K). • Penzias and Wilson’s wave was 2.7o Kelvin

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Stars Nebulae: Beginning of a Star • Will become a star if dense enough at center • Collects dust and matter-grows denser • At 10 milliono K a nuclear reaction occurs between helium and nitrogen Main Sequence Stars: Group of Stars • About same age and chemical composition • Convert hydrogen to helium in core • MSS will be MSS for most of its life • The core of an MSS collapses when it uses up hydrogen • There are Low Mass MSS and High Mass MSS •Both convert hydrogen to helium but High Mass also utilize C, N, and O Red Giant • A cool red star that appears bright because it is large • Red Giants form when MSS run out of hydrogen and get really big due to lack of hydrogen and a mass amount of helium • Can be 10 to 100 times the size of the sun • Not many Red Giants, but we can see them • A relatively small part of the stars life in comparison to the other stages of its life • Measured using binary companions, similar stars needed to determine the masses. You cannot find the mass of one Red Giant without the other. • Core collapses when the heavier elements of the Red Giant run out of helium White Dwarf • About the size of Earth • Close to dying and extremely dense and hot (a piece of a white dwarf the size of a marble would weigh approximately 2 tons on Earth) • Used to be Red Giant but shrunk due to a lack of helium Black Holes • Remains of a very massive star dying • The middle of a black hole is called a singularity • The event horizon-if you went in, you could never get out • Curves space and time • Black holes may create or destroy galaxies • A Kerr is a common type of black hole that spins • A Schwartzchild is an uncommon type that does not spin Variable Stars/Pulsars • A spinning neutron star produced by a supernova • They have the same mass as the sun but are much smaller.

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• They emit short bursts of radio waves. • Pulsars are a type of Neutron Star. Neutron Stars rotate very rapidly. • A spoonful of matter from a neutron star would weigh about 1 million tons on Earth. Star Life Cycles Nebula protostar eventually enough Nuclear STAR! pressure Fusion Low Mass MSS High Mass MSS • H He • H He • Core collapses when • Core collapses when

uses up all of hydrogen uses up all of hydrogen • Also utilizes C, N, & O

Planetary Nebula Black Dwarf White Dwarf never seen so unsure Not running on anything whether or not is real (cooling off) but is just a cooled off

white dwarf Black Hole Middle of Galaxy

Pulsar Forces protons

and electrons together

Red Giant He

Heavier elements run out of helium

Red Giant or Super Giant

Fusing Heavy

Elements

Supernova Star explodes

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Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

• The hotter a star gets, the whiter and less luminous it becomes. • Remember! “Higher Temperature” and then “Lower Temperature.”

Chemistry of the Universe • An atom is the smallest particle of a chemical element. • The three parts of an atom are electrons, protons, and neutrons. • Hydrogen is the lightest and smallest atom because it is the least dense. • Hydrogen and Helium are the primary elements of the sun. • The sun makes those elements through fusion, a process in which high heat and pressure converts hydrogen to helium (2H=1He). • The rest of the elements in the universe are either left over from the Big Bang or are made by fused high mass stars. • Oxygen, silicon, nickel, magnesium, and sulfur are the primary elements that make up the Earth. The does not make those elements but rather received elements left over from the Big Bang or were created by high mass stars.

1

H 1.008

Atomic Mass- Avg. mass of hydrogen protons and neutrons

1 proton 1 electron

Orbitals Nucleus

Electrons - Neutrons O Protons +

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Origin of Earth • Earth at one point was molten • When supernovas exploded, they created elements • Gravity gathered the elements into a spinning disk • At the center of the disk, the sun formed • “Pebbles” in the disk started to build up into “rocks” • Soon enough, the “rocks” became small planets called planetessimals that had expanded from the size of a golf ball to planet size. • Earth’s gravity pulled in debris from space making Earth hotter • When Earth’s “magma ocean” became hot enough, it formed elements like iron and nickel • Denser iron and nickel sunk down into core; less dense water and rock floated to top • We need the core to deflect solar winds that would strip away the Earth’s atmosphere. • Moon formed in a mess of spewing, noxious gases. • The moon’s rocks are similar to the Earth’s rocks. • It is generally believed that the moon was formed when a planetessimal crashed into Earth, it broke up the Earth’s outer layer and then fused, creating a larger Earth and sending debris into space which we now consider the moon. • The moon used to be much closer to the Earth and Earth rotated much faster creating 6-hour days. As the moon moved away though, Earth’s rotations became much slower in frequency and we now have 24-hour days. • One highly supported theory states that a billion years after the moon formed, Earth’s “magma ocean” cooled and formed the crust. • It is possible that volcanoes pumped steam into the atmosphere and when the steam condensed, it fell into low-lying areas, thus creating Earth’s oceans. • It is also possible that “dirty snowballs” the size of mountains crashed into Earth to form its oceans. Earth’s oceans have H2O (regular water) and HDO (heavy water). Solar Nebula Hypothesis • Theory stating that the Earth formed the way previously mentioned (“Origin of the Earth” segment). • Emanuel Swedenborg, a crazy guy who believed that God could communicate with him, originally theorized this in 1734, but because he was crazy, no one believed him. • Immanuel Kant later developed the theory in 1755 and to this day is credited with the idea. The Planets • Planet-a celestial body approximately spherical in shape that is able to dominate its own orbit The Order: Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Asteroid Belt, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Kuiper Belt Mercury • Smallest Planet

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• Hot on one side, and cold on the other • No real atmosphere • Rocky=a terrestrial planet Venus • Rocky=a terrestrial planet • Really thick atmosphere and green house gases that maintain a constant high temperature. Venus is the hottest planet in our solar system; although Mercury is closest to the sun, its lack of an atmosphere prevents in from retaining the heat it gets from the sun. Earth: Our Good Friend • Rocky=a terrestrial planet • Liquid H2O • Atmosphere • Strong magnetic field generated at core protects the planet from solar winds Mars • Used to have water • (Life?) • LOTS of iron • Rocky=a terrestrial planet • Weak magnetic field • Iron core cooled • Thin atmosphere Asteroid Belt Jupiter • Gaseous=Gas Giant • Tiny rings • Biggest planet • Red spot → Similar to a Hurricane • Lots of moons Saturn • Gaseous=Gas Giant • Lots of rings • Lots of moons • Light elements Uranus • Gaseous=Gas Giant • Vertical Rings

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Neptune • Gaseous=Gas Giant • Last planet Kuiper Belt Layers of the Earth Relative Thickness

Crust • The outermost layer of the Earth • 0-40 km down • Part of Lithosphere • Solid Lithosphere • Comprised of the crust and upper mantle • What plates are made of • Solid Mantle • 40-2700 km down Upper Mantle

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• Part of Lithosphere Asthenosphere • “Plastic” • Where plates float Lower Mantle Outer Core • 2700-5150 km down • Only layer that is liquid Inner Core • 5150-6378 km down • Under too much pressure to remain a liquid Plate Tectonics • Alfred Wegener was the first to conceptualize the theory of continental drift, say that the continents move, and that the continents were once connected as Pangaea, but had difficulty supporting his theory because he could not explain the mechanism that move the continents and did not include the oceans in his theory. • Arthur Holmes found himself in alignment with Wegener’s beliefs and developed them further. He uncovered a mechanism (convection) and included the oceans in his theory stating that plates existed. He discovered plate tectonics.

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• Convergent boundaries cause earthquakes and subduction zones, which can cause volcanoes. They can also form folded mountains when the continental plates collide and crunch up. • Divergent boundaries can cause mid-ocean ridges, sea-floor spreading, and Fault-Block Mountains (Horst and Graben) in which the land between diverging plates displaces itself and part of the plates become mountains. Displaced land=valley (Graben). Plates=Mountains (Horst). • Transform boundaries can cause earthquakes and volcanoes. • Orogeny-formation of mountain; active uplift Convection • The actual movement of (warmed) matter depending on changing densities • A convection cell:

• Magma is what is moving • Heats up toward the bottom because it is closer to the core there • Moves plates (very slowly) Tsunamis • Caused by Earthquakes (most common), Landslides, and Meteors (rare) • Any thing that causes the sea floor to shift can cause the waves

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• Force evenly distributed from the ocean floor to top. The water pressure increases as the mass of the water compacts against the shore. • Waves can travel up to 600 mph and be hundreds of feet high. • Unpredictable • Tidal Waves-misnamed and has nothing to do with tides • Pacific Rim has many tsunamis • The energy taken to form a tsunami can generate from a far off source • Water acts as a second medium for the wave by conducting waves from the focus point. EARTHQUAKE! • When plates keep moving while touching, are crunching together, moving away from one another, or pretty much just moving in general, an earthquake occurs, which generates seismic waves. • Fault-a deep crack in the Earth • The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake originates. • Body Waves-travel deep into the Earth’s interior

1. Primary Waves (P-waves) • Fastest • First to occur after an earthquake moves the Earth • Moves like • Travels through liquids, gasses, and solids 2. Secondary Waves (S-waves)

AHHHHHH!

Strong Force but not compacted

Water becomes more concentrated and builds in height

Focus

Epicenter

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• Second fastest • Stronger than P-waves • Moves like • Travels only through solids

• Surface Waves-Surface waves travel just under the Earth's surface. They travel more slowly than body waves. Because of their low frequency, long duration, and large amplitude, they can be the most destructive type of seismic wave.

3. Love Waves • Third fastest • Moves like • Travels through solids 4. Rayleigh Waves • Slowest • Moves like • Travels through solids and liquids • The Richter Magnitude Scale assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is logarithmic. For example, a 5 on the Richter Scale is ten times greater the magnitude of a magnitude of 4. • Tremors usually precede earthquakes. • Earth acts as a medium by conducting waves from the focus point Volcanoes • The higher the levels of silica, the higher explosiveness • Basalt-low silica levels, thus low explosiveness • Andesite and Dacite-moderate silica levels, thus low explosiveness • Rhyolite-high silica levels, thus is highly explosive • High silica levels increase the viscosity (thickness and fluidity; resistance to flow) of the lava/magma and the explosiveness • High temperatures (a lot o’ hot) decrease the viscosity and explosiveness of the lava/magma • H2O gas increases the explosiveness because it builds pressure Shield Volcanoes • Basalt (moderate Silica (Si), high Iron (Fe), and high Magnesium (Mg)) • Basalt-Lava is very fluid • 90% of the volcano is lava rather than pyroclastic material=low-explosiveness • Are only explosive is water enters the vent • High lava flow • Tectonic Setting includes: hot spot, subduction (ex. Hawaii) Strato Volcanoes

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• Andesite (high Si, mod. Fe, mod. Mg) and Dacite (high Si, mod. Sodium (Na), mod. Potassium (K)) • Most Common Volcano • Explosive due to high pressure • ½ Lava, ½ pyroclastic • Tectonic Setting includes: Subduction (ex. Mt. St. Helens, WA) Rhyolite Caldera Complexes • Rhyolite (high Si, high K, high Na) • Most Explosive—collapse on themselves • Tectonic Setting includes: Subduction zones, Hot Spots, ? (ex. Yellowstone) Monogenetic Fields • Primarily basalt (mod. Si, high Fe, and high Mg), but some andesite (high Si, mod. Fe, mod. Mg) and dacite (high Si, mod. Na, mod. K) • Non-explosive—very low lava flow • Tectonic Setting includes: Subduction zones (ex. TONS in Mexico) Flood Basalt • Basalt (mod. Si, high Fe, and high Mg) • Non-explosive and high lava flow (just oozes out of ground) • Tectonic Setting includes: Hot Spots, Subduction, ? (ex. Deccan Traps, India) Mid-Ocean Ridge • MORB (“mid-ocean ridge basalt” known to most as… BASALT!) • Semi-explosive and high H2O pressure • Tectonic Setting includes: Divergent (ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge) Rock Cycle • The three types of rocks in the rock cycle are sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. • Igneous Rocks are a melt with little texture or layering, are mostly black, white and/or gray minerals, and may look shiny or like lava. Often contain mixed crystals. • Sedimentary Rocks are compacted and hardened sediment with layers of sandy or clayey stone, mostly brown to gray, and may have fossils and water or wind marks. • Metamorphic Rocks are tough rocks with layers (foliation) of light and dark minerals, are often curved, are various colors, and are often glittery from minerals like mica. • The hardness of a rock basically determines the hardness of a rock. If it can scratch glass or steel, it is considered “hard.” If it can’t even scratch your fingernail, it is considered “very soft.” • Any of the three types of rock can be changed into another type. Various geological forces and processes cause rock to change from one type to another and back again. This series of changes is called the Rock Cycle. • Intrusive-rocks that are intrusive grow larger because they are under more heat because they are under the Earth.

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• Extrusive-rocks that are extrusive grow smaller because they are on or close to the Earth’s surface and cool quickly.

• Sedimentary rock is primarily created through constant weathering and erosion. Either metamorphic or igneous rock becomes sediment after erosion, which either remains sediment because of constant erosion, or becomes sedimentary rock after enduring extreme pressures and cementation. Metamorphic rock is created through intense heat and pressure. After sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, or igneous rock are compacted and exposed to extreme heat, they become metamorphic because the heat changes their chemical composition and makes them metamorphose. Once the metamorphic rock, igneous rock, or sedimentary rock melt, though, they become magma, which crystallizes (cools and solidifies) into igneous rock. • Plate tectonics and mountain formation drive the rock cycle in many ways: Spreading Ridges At mid-ocean divergent boundaries, new magma is produces. The magma signifies the igneous part of the rock cycle, after the seawater cools it and the future rock solidifies. Subduction Zones When a “slab” of basaltic crust subducts into the mantle, the increasing pressure and temperature modify the mineralogy of the rock. The metamorphosed rock becomes magma. When the magma is erupted, it is subject to rapid erosion. As the sediment becomes abundant, lithification begins and sedimentary rocks are created. Continental Collision

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When two masses of continental crust meet, and neither can subduct because they are both low-density silicic rock, extremely compressional forces distort the rocks caught between. The outcome is metamorphism within the interior of the orogeny. All previous types of rocks are subjected to this new metamorphic event. Accelerated Erosion Mountain ranges created from continental collision are soon after exposed to the effects of erosion. Massive piles of sediment are left and as they are buried deeper, they lithify into sedimentary rock. The once metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary mountain rocks become sedimentary. • Forces that keep the mountains from growing are rapid erosion and metamorphism within the interior of the orogeny. These are explained in depth above. 2 Things That Keep the Earth Warm

1. Gravitational Energy-translates into the pressure that keeps the Earth warm. 2. Radioactive Decay-the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation. • Isotopes-Different type of atom: same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. • Standard Atom=—standard number of protons & neutrons • Unstable Atoms=—radioactive (ex. C14 wants to be C12 or N14 so sheds particles)

WEATHER VOCABULARY air pressure: the force exerted by the weight of air above anything it touches air mass: a large body of air with relatively uniform characteristics (temperature and humidity) temperature: average kinetic energy, or the measure of heat in matter relative humidity: the amount of water in the air compared to the amount it can hold

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weather: the various atmospheric conditions having to do with temperature, wind, precipitation, etc. at a particular place and time climate: the average weather over a long period of time (usually 30+ years) barometer: an instrument measuring atmospheric pressure (a barograph does so whilst recording the readings) thermometer: an instrument that measures and indicates temperature front: the narrow transition zone between air masses with different properties convection: the transfer of heat by the movement of heated material conduction: the transfer of heat by molecular action radiation: energy transmitted via rays, waves, or particles cloud: a collection of water or ice particles suspended in the air wind: air in natural motion, usually parallel to the ground dew point: the temperature at which water condenses (i.e. forms dew) THE WATER CYCLE

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How the Ocean Can Affect Weather Patterns

• Causes hurricanes • Transports heat • Evaporating into clouds, forming precipitation, etc. • Changes air density causes wind

Coriolis Force: the effect of the Earth’s rotation on winds, hurricanes, and other air and water phenomena

• Hurricanes rotate counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere (where they are called cyclones)

ATMOSPHERIC LAYERS

Exosphere o Boundary between Earth and outer space

Thermosphere o Hottest

Mesosphere o Coldest

o Meteors burn up Stratosphere

o Ozone layer (O3; protects Earth from ultraviolet) o

Troposphere o Most dense

o Airplanes, most weather Earth

Composition Percentages Nitrogen (N2): 78% Oxygen (O2): 21% (Ar): 0.9% Other: 0.1%

General Air Pressure Info as It Relates to Weather • In a fixed volume, if temperature increases, pressure increases. • In an indefinite volume (the atmosphere), if temperature increases, pressure decreases. • Warm air is less dense than cool air. Humidity and Air Pressure

o Humidity lowers air pressure because where there is a water molecule in the air, an air molecule cannot exist. The more water molecules in the air, the more spread out the air molecules are. Water is less dense than air, so more water would lower the air pressure.

Ionosphere o Aurora

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Fronts

WARM FRONT: A warm air mass advances toward a cold air mass. The warm air rises above the cold air (because it is less dense) and dominates it. COLD FRONT: A cold air mass advances toward a warm air mass. The cold air sweeps under the warm air (because it is more dense), pushing it up and away.

How Wind Happens

• “Pressure gradients” • Air above the sea heats slower and cools slower, while air above the ground heats faster

and cools faster. • Cold air, in the indefinite volume of the atmosphere, is more dense and hot air is less

dense. • Therefore, in the daytime the land’s air is less dense and the sea’s air is more dense. A

breeze sweeps in from the sea because there are more molecules there and the air pressure is trying to equalize.

• Similarly, in the nighttime the sea’s air is less dense and the land’s air is more dense. A breeze sweeps in from land.

Hurricane Katrina

Happened in 2005. Was category 5 over water. (Wind at least 115 mph). FEMA: Federal Emergency Management Agency Ray Neagan: Mayor of New Orleans Katherine Blanco: Governor of Louisiana Michael Brown: Director of FEMA George W. Bush: the Devil. Discrepancy in communication between all of them. Structural flaws:

o New Orleans is a bowl o Protected by levees: retain water o Mississippi River Gulf Outlet provided the hurricane with a highway

Hurricanes: • Have high wind speeds, carry debris • Carry flooding and storm surge • Last longer than any other natural disaster

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Need: 1. Warmth 2. Moisture to combine with heat and energy 3. Spiral wind pattern

“Eye” is the center of the hurricane: calm. The speed of the spiral on either side of the hurricane is different depending on

which one flows against the wind MORE VOCABULARY tornado: a violently whirling column of air with high windspeeds extending downward from a cumulonimbus cloud; caused by unstable cool air lying on top of warm air which sweeps up through the lid of stable air between them; easier to form on flat land waterspout: a tornado that travels over water, picking it up and bringing it into the cycle thunder: sound produced by rapidly expanding and contracting air lightning: occurs when the difference between electric charges on the base of a cloud and those on the ground/other cloud produce a large electrical discharge. updraft: sudden heating of air so it rises to equalize air pressure downdraft: sudden cooling of air so it sinks to equalize air pressure; causes windshear windshear: sudden change in wind speed or direction microburst: powerful, small downdrafts polarity: the tendency of bodies with opposite magnetic poles to arrange themselves so that their extremities point to the magnetic poles of the Earth; basically, separation of charges.

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Geological History

Hadean (formation of planet)

EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH Holocene Quaternary

Pleistocene Pliocene

Neo

gene

Miocene

Oligocene Eocene

Cen

ozoi

c

Tertiary

Pale

ogen

e

Paleocene

Cretaceous (Late) (Early)

Jurassic

(Late) (Middle) (Early)

Mes

ozoi

c

Triassic

(Late) (Middle) (Early)

Permian (Late) (Early)

Pennsylvanian Carboniferous Mississippian

Devonian

(Late) (Middle) (Early)

Silurian (Late) (Early)

Ordovician

(Late) (Middle) (Early)

Phan

eroz

oic

Pale

ozoi

c

Cambrian (D)(C)(B)(A)

Prec

ambr

ian

Prot

eroz

oic

(Late)

(Middle) (Early)

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Now is the Phanerozoic Eon, Cenozoic Era, Quaternary Period, and Holocene Epoch. Precambrian Eon (Focus on Proterozoic Era: 2.5 billion years ago – 543 million years ago) Climate: Warm and wet except for glacier areas Life Forms: Bacteria, algae, jellies Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Metamorphic: not many intact fossils -Earth’s crust thickened -Virtually inactive plates -Supercontinent Rodina Cambrian Period (543 – 490 million years ago) Climate: Very warm, no glaciers, higher sea levels; ended colder with less oxygen Life Forms: “Explosion of Life” -First life as we know it -Many creatures with hard structures (like trilobites) but no vertebrates -Mass extinction at end Fossils: Burgess Pass Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Rodinia divided into Laurentia (N. America), Siberia (C. Russia), Baltica (Europe), and Gondwana (S. Hemisphere Continents) -Small, flat continents Ordovician Period (490 – 443 million years ago) Climate: Fluctuating temperature, ending with cold taking over Life Forms: -Early land animals and plants -Mass extinction of conodonts at end Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Carbonate and lime -Atlantic Ocean opened -Continents scattering Silurian Period (443 – 417 million years ago) Climate: Stable, tropical climate, melted glaciers Life Forms: -New marine habitats: jawed fish -Vascular plants -Spiders and centipedes Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Lots of rock types -Raised sea level, continent coverage/exposure periods -Orogenies in NE America and NW Europe Devonian Period (417 – 354 million years ago)

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Climate: Warm because land mass was near equator Life Forms: -Ferns, seed plants -Insects and arachnids Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Shallow seas = many minerals -Two supercontinents: Gondwana and Euramerica Carboniferous Period (360 – 286 million years ago) *Mississippian Subperiod (360 – 320 MYA) *Pennsylvanian Subperiod (320 – 286 MYA) Climate: (M) hot and dry (P) wet, flooded, swampy Life Forms: -Sea lily explosion -Amphibians, proto-reptiles -“Age of Crinoids” (fish) -Lots of forest, big insects Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Coal beds formed by swamps and forests decaying and undergoing pressure -Appalachian/Hercynian orogeny when Laurasia and Gondwana collided -Collisions of continents Landmass elevation Permian Period (286 – 245 million years ago) Climate: Hot and dry center of land, high altitude, extremes, less coastline, high sea level Life Forms: -Coastline depletion killed shallow marine life -Mammal-like reptiles -Ended in MASS extinction, killed 90% of life (trilobites finally gone) Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Pangaea formed Mesozoic Era (248 – 65 million years ago) *Triassic Period (248 – 206 million years ago) Climate: High elevation from sea level makes dry land, a few monsoons Life Forms: -Extinction of terrestrial vertebrates -Dinosaurs diversified -Conifers, ginkgoes, cycads, ferns Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Pangaea existed *Jurassic Period (206 – 144 million years ago) Climate: Warm, more humid, no polar ice Life Forms: -Same plants -Tons of various dinosaurs, crocodiles, sharks, etc. -Small, ratty early mammals

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Fossils: Limestone in Jura Mountains Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Pangaea broke in two -Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean Sea expand *Cretaceous Period (144 – 65 million years ago) Climate: Colder, seasons pronounced Life Forms: -Flowering plants -Tertiary extinction: kills 65% of life ---Asteroid or environmental change Fossils: Sandstone preserved fossils, Clayton Lake Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Pangaea continued spreading Cenozoic Era (65 million years ago – present) *Tertiary Period (65 – 1.8 million years ago) Climate: Began tropical, ended in glaciers Life Forms: -Land and sea mammals like saber tooth tigers, gastropods, etc. -People: late Pliocene Epoch Fossils: Rich in fossil presence Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Pangaea is broken completely -India and Asia collide = Himalayas *Quarternary Period (1.8 million years ago – present) -Pleistocene and Holocene (10,000 years ago) Epochs Climate: (P) = Ice Age (H) = End of Ice Age Life Forms: -Mass extinction during Ice Age -Many larger animals died in the La Brea tar pits Fossils: Rich in fossils Plate Tectonics / Rocks: -Movement of Americas and Australia northward caused ice sheet in Antarctic: Ice Age -Continents eventually found their places as we know them

• Mass extinctions occur in association with climate change. o End of Cambrian o End of Permian: 90% (Trilobites finally gone) (WORST) o End of Cretaceous: 60%, notably dinosaurs o Pleistocene Epoch of Quaternary Period (Ice Age)

• Life as we know it appeared in the Cambrian Period. • Oxygen became prevalent during the Proterozoic Era. • Trilobites flourished from the Cambrian to the end of the Permian

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• Earth goes through cycles of humidity and coldness/dryness. Warmth supports life and ice ages cause extinction.

ENERGY SOURCES Wind Power

Two Types: Stable blades and movable blades (follow wind but use up some energy) Solar Power

Pros: • Fairly cheap • Less emissions (“clean”) • Kills stupid birds • Creates repair jobs • Attractive • Not dangerous

Cons: • Less energy than other

forms • Can break • Unreliable • Take up space • Only work at certain

windspeeds • Location-dependent

Pros: • Lots of energy for size • Safe • Save money in the long run • Easy to use (versatile)

Cons: • Fairly expensive • Location dependent • Storage (giant batteries) is bad

for the environment • Production involves toxic

chemicals, etc.

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Hydroelectric

Geothermal

Pros: • Efficient • Doesn’t “use up” water • Control water levels • Jobs! • Low emissions

Cons: • Destroys ecosystems • Expensive • Location dependent • Terrorist target

Pros: • Still less emissions than fossil

fuels • Jobs (from maintenance) • Reliable heat source

Cons: • Location dependent • Less environmentally friendly • Maintenance costs • Expensive to build

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Noo-kya-luhr! (Nuclear)

Chernobyl A simple safety check was botched and set off a chain reaction explosion of the nuclear plant, immediately killing any workers. The explosion released a toxic cloud of radiation that was blown toward inhabited areas (Pripyat), causing 1/3 million people to evacuate. The explosion’s damage and radiation’s contamination had a total cleanup cost of hundreds of millions of dollars. The chemical caused an initial outbreak in children’s thyroid cancer in 1986, but people are still reporting related health problems.

Important Health Terms

• Health: State of well-being that incorporates mental stability, social stability, and physiological stability

Cons: • Accidents • Waste storage • High construction costs • Terrorism • Mutations/cancer • Uranium mines contaminate

water • Use lots of water • Take up too much space • Scary – not many workers

Pros: • Least pollution • Less $ in the long run – pays for

itself • Low maintenance • Ample amounts of uranium • Expands economy • Can recycle fuel and water • Promotes mussel growth • Reliable • Less coal mine death • Reactors last 30 years

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• Stress: Mental or physical tension or strain; the reaction of the body or mind to strain and tension inducing events in one’s life. • Homeostasis: The condition of a stable environment in an organism • Carbohydrate: Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. CHO 1:2:1-sugars and starches • Protein: Amino (Nitrogen Containing) Acid Chains • Fats (also called Lipids): Fatty Acid Chains that give high energy • Digestion: The breakdown of complex food materials into simpler forms that an organism can use. • Metabolism: The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic (big to small) and anabolic (small to big) pathways. • Excretion: The removal of waste substances from an organism

Maslow’s Hierarchy • Health is defined as a state of well-being as it pertains to mental, social, and physical stability. • All the aspects of Health can be interrelated. • For example, when you are depressed (mental) you can become withdrawn and anti-social (social). Your depression (mental) can deepen when people don’t like you or if you are lonely (social). Your depression (mental) can cause a variety of disorders, such as an eating disorder (physical). If you have a disorder (physical), you can lose friends (social). Sickness (physical) can bring depression (mental). Also, being an invalid or vegetable (physical) can make you “empty” (mental). Depression (mental) can lead to a weaker immune system or a loss of the will to live (physical). • Abraham Maslow established the hierarchy of needs in the 1950s. Maslow

believed that the lower order

DIRECTIONAL TERMS! Cranial/Superior/Rostral: Closer to the head or higher (“rostral” often refers to the nose) Caudal/Inferior: Closer to the feet or lower

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Anterior/Ventral: More in front Posterior/Dorsal: More in back Medial: Closer to the median plane Lateral: Further away from the median plane Proximal: Employed only with reference to the limbs, closer to the median plane or root of the limb than another structure in the limb Distal: Employed only with reference to the limbs, further away from the median plane of root of the limb than another structure in the limb Superficial: External, closer to the surface of the body Deep: Internal, further away from the surface of the body ANATOMIC PLANES AND SECTIONS! Median: Midline, longitudinal plane dividing the head and torso into left/right halves. The presence of the vertebral column and spinal cord is characteristic of the median plane of the torso. It is the middle sagittal plane. Sagittal: The longitudinal plane dividing the body into left and right parts. It is parallel to the median lane and may be applied to head, torso, and limbs. Coronal/Frontal: The longitudinal plane dividing the body into equal or unequal front and back parts Cross/Transverse: The transverse plane dividing the body or body parts into upper and lower segments. It is a cross section perpendicular to the longitudinal planes. NO BONES ABOUT IT!

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Functions of Bone 1. Support and movement 2. Blood production (in marrow) 3. Protection of organs 4. Stores fats and minerals

Types of Bones

1. Flat (skull) 2. Long (femur) 3. Irregular (vertebrae)

MUSCLES • There are three types of muscle: Cardiac, Smooth, and Skeletal • Cardiac Muscle—heart muscle, striated (striped), involuntary

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• Smooth Muscle—visceral (organ) muscle, not striated, involuntary • Skeletal Muscle—Striated, voluntary

Functions of Muscle

1. Movement 2. Stabilization of Joints 3. Posture 4. Heart

Connective Tissue: anything that connects (bones, (blood, fascia, etc.) Tendons: muscles to bones (muscles have the “tendoncy” to connect to bones) Ligaments: bone to bone Muscle Contraction

• Myosin (thick filament) and actin (thin filament) are both proteins that make muscle. • They are found in sarcomeres, basic units of muscle contraction. • If one was to divide a (relaxed muscle) sacomere into five sections, two sections would contain only actin, two sections would contain actin and myosin, and the last section would contain only myosin. (LDLDL) • The sections with only one protein are light because they are not as dense as the sections with both proteins. • When a muscle contracts, cross bridges “shoot” out of the myosin proteins and draw the actin proteins toward one another. • There are thus three new sections, all of which contain both actin and myosin, making the entire sarcomere dark. (DDD) • Many sarcomeres make up a Z-band. • Bundles of Z-bands make up

myofibrils.

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DRUG EFFECTS! Drug Category Short-Term Effects Long-Term Effects Alcohol (beer, wine, liquor) Mood changes, lack of

coordination and judgment, visual impairment, slowed reaction time, alcohol poisoning from too much at one time

Liver damage, cancer, physical addiction, psychological addiction

Anabolic Steroids Aggressiveness, mood swings, sexual dysfunction, acne, hormonal changes

Kidney failure, autoimmune diseases, heart ailments, brain damage

Depressants (sedatives, barbiturates, Rohypnol, GHB)

Affects mood, slows central nervous system, deadly when mixed with alcohol, loss of consciousness

Hallucinations, physical addiction, psychological addiction

Hallucinogens (Ecstasy a.k.a. MDMA, LSD, PCP, ketamine)

Psychosis, panic, paranoia, confusion, loss of control, distortion of time and space

Flashbacks (reexperience of hallucination), depression, paranoia

Inhalants (nitrous oxide a.k.a. laughing gas, paint, glue)

Headaches, dizziness, cardiac arrest, difficulty breathing

Fatal when used with depressants, brain, kidney and lung damage

Marijuana Affects thinking, memory, reaction time, vision and short-term memory, causes agitation, irritability, mood swings, lung irritation

Damage to the circulatory, reproductive, immune, respiratory, and neurological systems; amotivational syndrome, psychological addiction

Narcotics (heroin, morphine, codeine)

Decreases heart rate and respiration, dulls pain,

Lowered sex drive, physical addiction, psychological

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induces sleep addiction, infection from needle use

Stimulants (cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine)

Extreme alertness; loss of appetite, insomnia, cardiac arrest

Collapse, convulsions, heart and respiratory failure, psychological addiction

Tobacco (nicotine!) Increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, bad breath, smelly clothes and hair

Physical addiction, psychological addiction, heart disease, emphysema, lung cancer

Basically…don’t do ‘em.

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