bidirectional integrated on-board chargers for electric
TRANSCRIPT
Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers for electric vehicles—areview
CAROLINE ANN SAM* and V JEGATHESAN
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences,
Coimbatore, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
MS received 27 July 2020; revised 9 October 2020; accepted 22 November 2020
Abstract. This paper reviews about the bidirectional on-board chargers for electric vehicles. The chargers are
of two types: on-board chargers and off-board chargers. The overall size, weight and cost of the onboard
chargers can be reduced using integrated on-board chargers where the drive train components are used for
propulsion as well as for charging. Four-quadrant operation of the drive is possible using the bidirectional
converters in the drive train. Regenerative braking control in the integrated on-board chargers aids in proper
utilization of braking energy, which in turn increases the driving range of the vehicle. Various on-board chargers
are presented and their working, advantages and limitations are discussed here.
Keywords. Electric vehicle; four-quadrant operation; integrated on-board chargers; power factor correction;
regenerative braking.
1. Introduction
The increased demand of modern transportation system for
the economic development and societal comfort is creating
the growing presence of global warming and some dan-
gerous climate changes. The major cause of these adverse
environmental effects is due to the harmful environmental
pollutants emitted by Internal Combustion (IC)-enabled
automobiles. One potential alternative to the world’s
dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles is
electric vehicles (EVs).
The popularity of EV is increasing day by due to their
nearly zero carbon emission and less dependence on fossil
fuels. Also, since the electric motors used in EV are more
efficient than the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), this
transportation system results in saving energy than the ICE
vehicles.
Different types of EV configurations are Battery
Electric Vehicles (BEVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(HEVs) and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). BEV
consists of an electric battery for energy storage, an
electric motor and a controller. The electric battery can
be recharged using a charging unit, which can be carried
along with the vehicle or it can be fitted at the charging
point. HEV has a combination of two energy sources [1].
It can be a combination of electric/IC engine, flywheel/IC
engine and battery/fuel cell. Among the two sources, one
will be used as a means of storage and other is used for
providing driving energy.
Depending on the level of hybridization, HEVs are
classified as Micro-HEV, Mild HEV, Full HEV and fuel
cell HEV [2–4].
An EV power train mainly consists of an energy storage
system [5–7], electric motor, power converter to drive the
motor [8–11] and EV charging circuit.
The EV charging circuit is basically classified as on-
board chargers and off-board chargers depending on its
location. If the charging circuit is incorporated in the EV
power train itself it is an on-board charger and if it is placed
outside, separately in a public area, it is an off-board
charger.
This paper reviews about the different configurations
of bidirectional on-board chargers that make the drive
train suitable for four-quadrant operation utilizing very
less space in the vehicle. The paper is organized as
follows. Section 1 gives an outline of the significance
of EV, different types of EV and briefly explains about
different parts of EV powertrain. Sections 2 and 3 give
a general description about the power electronic system
in EV and the different types of chargers used in EV,
respectively. Section 4 gives a review on different
configurations of bidirectional on-board chargers for
EV. The circuit configuration of integrated on-board
chargers and braking control methods of on-board
chargers are discussed in the subsequent subsections.
Finally, section 5 provides conclusions for the
paper.*For correspondence
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 � Indian Academy of Sciences
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12046-020-01556-2Sadhana(0123456789().,-volV)FT3](0123456789().,-volV)
2. Power electronics in EV
The role of power electronics in EV is to provide supply to
the traction motor to obtain the desired performance and to
charge the batteries during idle time [12, 13]. It has to
control the reverse power flow, which can be fed back to
the battery during regenerative braking conduction or to the
grid during idle condition [14, 15]. Figure 1 presents the
power electronic system used in EV.
During propulsion mode the traction motor will be driven
by a power converter, which regulates the power flow to the
motor. The energy storage system provides power to the
traction converter through a DC–DC converter. The DC–
DC converter will step up or step down the power from the
storage system as required by the motor. During charging
mode the vehicle battery, which forms a part of the energy
storage system, will be charged from the utility through a
rectifier and a DC–DC converter. The control pulses for the
power electronic converters in the drive train will be pro-
duced by electronic controllers.
3. Classification of EV chargers
Compared with conventional ICE vehicles the main chal-
lenge faced by EV is the driving range, which depends
upon the battery performance. Research works have been
carried out on battery design, battery management system
and also on the battery charging techniques for improving
the performance of the battery [16, 17]. Depending upon
the location, battery chargers are of two types, on-board
chargers and off-board chargers.
On-board chargers are low-power slow chargers, which
are placed on the vehicle itself. Although it takes longer
charging time, it can be utilized for charging the battery in
home/office/parking area through the utility supply.
Off-board chargers are high-power, fast chargers placed
at public area, which can be used for charging the vehicle
batteries. They are similar to gas stations used for refilling
the fuel tank of ICE vehicles [18].
Based on the power levels, battery chargers are classified
as Level 1 chargers, Level 2 chargers and DC fast chargers.
Level 1 charging can be done even at home overnight,
where the EV will be plugged to a Single-Phase AC power
outlet. Level 2 charging requires a single phase or three-
phase AC outlet and is intended for private and public
applications. DC fast chargers are intended for commercial
and public applications and require a three-phase power
outlet. Table 1 describes the classification of EV chargers
based on their power level [19].
Earlier the EV chargers were based on diode bridge
rectification, which were subsequently replaced by thyris-
tor-based chargers. These chargers support only unidirec-
tional current flow.
The EV charger designs were modified with micropro-
cessor-based control incorporating Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) control. This kind of chargers have several charge
algorithms for providing better battery charging control
[20–22].
EV chargers, when connected to AC mains, introduce
harmonics in the utility, which results in voltage distortion,
heating, noise and reduction in supply capability to provide
energy. Power Factor Correction (PFC) techniques [23]
have to be incorporated to comply with power quality
standards and recommendations.
Power Factor (PF) has been improved in unidirectional
battery chargers by suitably shaping and phasing the
input current. Bidirectional battery chargers [24] have
been introduced, which support power flow in both
directions.
Some of the power devices of the traction inverter of AC
motors can be used to set up the charger circuit for charging
the energy storage system in EV drive trains. The circuit is
named as integrated battery chargers (IBCs), which have
the advantage of reducing the circuit components. This
circuit can be unidirectional or bidirectional [25, 26].
Figure 1. Power electronics in EV power train.
26 Page 2 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26
4. Bidirectional on-board chargers
For EV batteries, fast charging is made possible using a DC
charging station with off-board charger. However, in the
current scenario, due to its cost, it is not widely used. One
of the cheaper alternatives is to place a separate on-board
charger unit in the vehicle power train, which is capable of
charging the battery from commonly available 3-phase or
single-phase supply outlets. Figure 2 shows the general
block diagram for bidirectional on-board charger topology,
which facilitates the bidirectional flow of power from
utility to energy storage and back to utility in grid-con-
nected system.
Different topologies of bidirectional AC/DC converters
have been reviewed and the circuit complexity and the
performance of these converters are compared in [27, 28].
Bidirectional on-board chargers are broadly classified under
single-stage and two-stage topologies. The commonly used
single-stage topologies are half-bridge, full-bridge and
multilevel converters.
Most commonly used bidirectional AC–DC converters
are half-bridge, full-bridge and multilevel converters.
The half-bridge converters have two controllable
switches and two diodes. The major drawback of this
topology is high voltage stress on the switches. The two
capacitors increase the size and complexity of the con-
verter [27].
The full-bridge PWM AC–DC converters consist of four
controllable switches and four diodes. Compared with half-
bridge topology, full-bridge topology has a greater number
of controllable switches but requires only one capacitor.
Component stress is lesser for full-bridge topology. The
circuit requires four PWM switching pulses, which
increases the complexity of control circuitry [28]
Another type of bidirectional converter gives multilevel
output by combining the features of half-bridge and full-
bridge converters. One major concern with this topology is
the additional complexity with increased number of com-
ponents [29]. Compared with single-stage topologies, two-
stage topologies can handle more than one charging level;
thus, they exhibit improved performance. The first stage
performs AC–DC conversion, which is basically responsi-
ble for PFC and regulating the DC link voltage. The second
stage, which performs the DC–DC conversion, controls the
battery charging and discharging operation.
Different topologies of bidirectional DC–DC converters
used in on-board chargers are summarized in Table 2
[30–45].
4.1 Bidirectional integrated on-board chargers
In a conventional electric drive train, there are separate
circuits for propulsion and charging modes. This additional
Table 1. Classification of EV chargers [19].
Power level types Charger location Typical use Expected power level Charging time
Level 1 chargers On-board 1-phase Charging at home or office 1.4 kW (12 A) 4–11 hours
1.9 kW (20 A) 11–36 hours
Level 2 chargers On-board 1- or 3-phase Charging at private or public outlet 4 kW (17 A) 1–4 hours
8 kW (32 A) 2–6 hours
19.2 kW (80 A) 2–3 hours
DC fast chargers Off-board Commercial, analogous to filling stations 50 kW 0.4–1 hour
100 kW 0.2–0.5 hour
Figure 2. General bidirectional on-board charging topology.
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 3 of 14 26
Table 2. Features of different bidirectional on-board chargers in an electric vehicle.
Sl.
no. Converter Features
1 [30] •Consists of a bridge rectifier, 2-phase interleaved buck–boost converter with PFC.
•It gives an efficiency of 97.6% and a PF of 0.99.
2 [31] •Applicable in case of hybrid energy inputs like Photovoltaic (PV) cell, fuel cell and battery are
available.
•Regenerative braking analysis is done for the proposed system.
3 [32] •Fuzzy logic controller implemented for hybrid electric vehicle with converter powered by
battery and PV cell.
•Fuzzy logic regulates the battery current, which reduces the battery damage, thereby increasing
its lifetime.
4 [33] •Half-bridge topology with PI controller and Zero Voltage •Soft switching technique is
proposed for DC motor.
•Bidirectional power during regenerative braking is clearly indicated by the increase of battery
State of Charge (SoC).
5 [34] •The circuit has 4 switches and diodes with charging and discharging modes of operation.
•Regenerative braking energy is used to charge any one of the sources depending on its voltage
level.
•The converter efficiency of 93% is obtained in both operating modes.
6 [35] •The proposed converter has 6 SiC MOSFETs and 2 inductors connected to get boost-
interleaved operation.
•The 2 MOSFETs among 6 are operated as synchronous rectifier.
•The maximum efficiency of the converter reaches 99.2% with a PF of 0.99.
•The bidirectional operation makes it suitable for Vehicle to Grid (V2G) and Grid to Vehicle
(G2V) operations.
7 [36] •In addition to V2G and G2V operations, Vehicle for Grid (V4G) and Vehicle to Home (V2H)
operations are also possible.
•In V4G operation a battery charger is used for compensating current harmonics or reactive
power in connection with V2G or G2V applications.
8 [37] •The battery voltage of 144 V is boosted to 400 V by interleaved front-end converter.
It consists of 2 interleaved boost converters. The DC link voltage is regulated as per the
command speed and a maximum efficiency of 96.99% is obtained. The load dynamic responses and the fast DC
link voltage tracking are done using the proposed robust control.
9 [38] •Bidirectional converter with Modular Charge Equalizer Circuit (CEC) realized to improve the
system reliability and flexibility.
•Life cycle of the battery improves by constant charging/discharging method.
•The switching pattern proposed, reduces the switching stress.
10 [39] •The converter adopts sinusoidal charging method to eliminate the use of DC link electrolytic
capacitor.
•The proposed charger exhibits an efficiency of 95.7% in the charging mode and 95.4% in the
discharging mode.
11 [40] •Additional control technique included to increase the converter gain.
•Experimental set-up provides efficiency of 97.2% and 96.2% during charging and discharging
process, respectively.
12 [41] •An efficient DC link voltage controller is implemented for Light Electric Vehicle (LEV), which
keeps the voltage constant for PWM inverter. The bidirectional boost converter taps the regenerative braking
energy.
•PWM inverter works with vector control logic.
13 [42] •The proposed converter provides high step/step down gain for EVs with Hybrid Energy StorageSystem.
•It provides an efficiency of 94.45% in buck mode and 94.39% in boost mode.
14 [43] •Matrix converter eliminating the DC link capacitor is proposed for EVs. Modulation strategy
proposed eliminates undesirable harmonics in the grid system.
•Converter exhibits an efficiency of 89.6% and 89.3% for forward and reverse operations,
respectively.
26 Page 4 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26
charging unit will increase the overall weight and cost of
the drive train. Since the battery charging is done during the
idle time of the vehicle, power drive train used for
propulsion mode can be utilized for charging mode also;
hence this avoids the additional requirement of a charging
unit. This type of configuration where EV drive train
components used for propulsion mode are utilized for on-
board charging is known as integrated on-board chargers.
An integrated on-board charger was proposed in [46],
which requires only the propulsion mode components for
charging operation except a transfer switch. The four-wheel
drive consists of four inverters connected to the four AC
motors of the vehicle. During charging, the drive circuit is
equivalent to a cascade connection of a single-phase PWM
boost converter and two buck type choppers. Unity power
factor operation (UPF) is realized using a PWM boost
converter. The battery voltage and current regulation to the
desired value is done using the two buck converters. By
suitably controlling the switching operation of the chop-
pers, current ripple can be reduced by a considerable
amount.
Figure 3 shows an on-board charger in which the three-
phase inverter acts as a double buck and boost converter
during charging mode. The required buck and boost oper-
ation takes place through the motor windings [47, 48].
Figure 4 shows the circuit configuration where an on-
board inverter alone works in charging operation. For
proper charging of the storage device, external inductors
have to be connected [48, 49].
A battery charging circuit based on double buck and
boost converter is introduced [49], where the propulsion
inverter is made to work in boost and double buck mode
during charging operation. It works as a boost converter
whenever output voltage is greater than input voltage and it
works as a double buck converter whenever output voltage
is less than input voltage. Double buck converter operation
is like two buck converters working in synchronous mode
in order to make a UPF.
A bidirectional converter is proposed for industrial truck
application [50], which acts as a speed controller in
propulsion mode and as a battery charger in charge mode of
operation. The converters for pallet truck and fork lift truck
are realized and results analyzed. Current harmonics due to
the converters are reduced using PFC technique. Converter
efficiency is found to be 90%.
To improve the drive performance with reduced cost, on-
board chargers with a bidirectional converter was proposed
[51] in which the bidirectional converter acts as a rectifier
during charging mode and as an inverter during inverter
mode as shown in figure 5. To reduce the size and weight of
the on-board chargers, a combination topology is proposed
in which the motor windings act as a boost energy storage
inductor during rectifier mode and as a filter during inverter
mode.
A low-cost digital controlled charger is proposed for
plug-in EVs, which utilizes the available main traction and
auxiliary motors and associated power electronic drive of
HEV to form the charger circuit. The topology can be used
Table 2 continued
Sl.
no. Converter Features
15 [44] •The proposed modulation strategy for AC–DC matrix converter provides controllable power
factor in grid interface and voltage/current regulation for the battery storage device.
•Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is found to be 2.58% in charging mode and 3.44% in
discharging mode.
16 [45] •The proposed buck–boost converter can control active and reactive power in V2G and G2V
modes.
•Experimental results exhibit a THD of 7%.
Figure 3. Three-phase inverter acting as a double buck and boost
converter in charging mode [48].
Figure 4. IGBT inverter circuit is used as an integrated charger
[48].
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 5 of 14 26
for low-power applications with significant cost, weight and
volume reductions [52]. The topology is verified by mod-
eling and experimental results on a 14-kW prototype yield
an efficiency of 91.3%, THD = 8.96% and PF of 0.99.
An IBE is proposed [53] for high-voltage batteries of an
electric scooter. The power circuit of the drive train acts as
the battery charger. Here the motor drive acts as the three-
phase boost rectifier with the capability of PFC. Figure 6
shows the block diagram of the integrated charger where
the AC traction drive is converted to a PFC battery charger.
Input AC current is drawn at UPF with no harmonic dis-
tortion. The efficiency of the battery charger is found to be
86.87%.
An integrated charger based on a special interior per-
manent motor drive is proposed [54, 55], where the 3-phase
motor winding is split and reconfigured to a 3-phase
transformer and the traction inverter acts as a PWM recti-
fier during charging mode. The system efficiency is found
to be 92%.
An 8-switch inverter topology was proposed [56] to
integrate the PHEV with the utility grid. It works as a
single-phase bidirectional AC–DC converter during the
charging mode and as a DC–AC converter during the
propulsion mode. The performance analysis is done by
evaluating different modes of operation. In addition, a
bidirectional interleaved DC–DC converter and its con-
troller is presented for the battery that maintains the DC
link voltage with high efficiency. The THD of the converter
is found to be 2.72%. Figure 7 shows the circuit diagram of
the 8-switch inverter.
Several conventional methods of charging and control
using the motor inductance and inverter are analyzed in
Figure 5. Bidirectional converter as a battery charger [51].
Figure 6. Integrated charger with PFC for electric scooter [53].
26 Page 6 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26
[57]. Also, a new charging method using buck PFC is
proposed and the comparison of different topologies is
done. Using an IBE, by the interleaving control method
with two inverters and a boost PFC converter is considered
as the optimal battery charging method. The converter
exhibits a THD of 4% and a PF of 0.99.
Battery charging technique can be implemented using
two inverters, two three-phase motors and a bidirectional
converter for HEVs. During propulsion mode, motor 1
delivers regenerative energy to the battery and motor 2
starts up the engine or charges the high-voltage battery.
During charging, the two motors and the inverters together
operate as a boost converter. The boosted voltage is
reduced to the nominal battery voltage by the bidirectional
converter.
Another charging topology can be implemented using a
diode rectifier, an inverter, a three-phase motor and a
bidirectional converter [57]. The electric motor and the
inverter together operate as the boost converter during
charging mode. The boosted DC link voltage is reduced to
nominal value through the bidirectional DC–DC converter.
PFC is incorporated in the circuit with two inverters, two
three-phase motors and a bidirectional converter. The DC
link capacitor is not utilized for charging. For PFC, an
additional capacitor of a few microhenries is incorporated
in the circuit.
A reconfigurable battery charger with single-phase AC
supply is proposed [58] for EV applications, which can
perform for three modes of operation. In mode 1, the
traction batteries are charged from the grid. In mode 2,
traction batteries deliver the stored energy to the power
grid. In mode 3, the auxiliary battery is charged from the
traction battery. The bidirectional AC–DC converter used
in modes 1 and 2 will work as a full-bridge isolated DC–DC
converter in mode 3, avoiding the use of a separate con-
verter for charging mode. Mode 1 operates with a THD of
1.8% and a PF of 0.8. Mode 2 operates with a THD of 2.4%
and UPF.
A bridgeless SEPIC converter with PFC is proposed [59]
for on-board chargers that has a few advantages like
reduced number of components and reduction of conduc-
tion loss during AC–DC conversion, thereby increasing the
overall system efficiency. The converter employs current
and voltage loops to obtain near-UPF. The system provides
improved THD, less conduction loss and improved PF near
unity. For an input voltage of 230 V, PF obtained is 0.997.
A single-phase integrated on-board charger is proposed
for Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) in which the switches of
the traction inverter are operated to form a closed circuit
with the diode bridge rectifier circuit. A near-UPF is
obtained with a THD of 3.96% and an efficiency of 93.1%
during charging mode [60].
A bidirectional cuk-converter-based IBE is proposed
[61], which has the capability of PFC during plug-in
charging mode and acts as a buck/boost converter during
motoring and regenerative braking modes. The circuit is
made compact and cost effective by minimizing the number
of components. The proposed charging circuit allows a
wide range of operation and can be charged with a voltage
source ranging from 100 to 260 V. The system also pro-
vides an efficient control of regenerative braking energy.
High-speed battery chargers with available 3-phase
supply are proposed with Wide Band Gap (WGP) devices
like silicon carbide [62], which are capable of delivering a
high power of 20 kW. Since WGP devices are of much
higher power density than silicon devices, these fast
Figure 7. Eight-switch inverter working as an AC–DC converter during charging mode and DC–AC converter during motoring mode
[56].
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 7 of 14 26
chargers can be fitted on-board. Two half-bridge LLC
converters connected in series on the primary side and
connected in parallel on the secondary side together pro-
vide 20 kW. Experimental results show that the set-up has
attained an efficiency of 96%.
A compact bidirectional cuk-converter-based charger is
proposed for PEV, which operates with a sturdier Induction
Motor Drive [63]. The proposed charger operates as a
bidirectional DC–DC converter for PFC during charging
operation and as buck boost converter during driving and
regenerative braking mode.
A bidirectional integrated charger [64] with a front-end
polarity inversion module, current source converter, input
filter and a differentially connected dual-inverter drive is
realized, where the motor has open winding configuration
with phase windings differentially connected to two
inverters from the two DC sources. The major advantage of
dual-inverter drive is the high DC link voltage obtained
from the low-voltage DC sources. Simulation results show
the PF to be unity.
A single-phase integrated PFC charger is proposed [65],
which has only two switches in addition to diode bridge
rectifier circuit and propulsion inverter, for the charger
circuit. During charging, depending on the input and output
voltages, transition between buck and boost operation
occurs. Smooth transition is obtained using a single PI
controller, and by implementing a suitable control logic a
THD of 4.5% with a PF of 0.993 is obtained. The overall
efficiency of the converter is 94%.
An on-board off-board combination of charger is pro-
posed [66] for conveniently using the utility power with
proper galvanic isolation. A contactless energy transfer
system is implemented whose primary winding is con-
nected to supply through an active rectifier circuit (off-
board) and whose secondary winding (on-board) is inte-
grated with the traction inverter. The circuit diagram brings
limitation of structure complexity.
Different topologies of integrated on-board chargers are
reviewed and their features are summarized in [67]. Also a
new single-phase integrated charger based on AC motor is
proposed in which a quasi-Z-source network is realized for
regulating the output voltage. During charging mode the
two legs of the traction inverter are used for PFC, motor
windings act as a grid side filter inductor and third leg of
the inverter is connected to an inductor and capacitor,
which forms an Active Power Filter. THD of grid side
current is found to be 1.46% and the system works with
UPF.
A single-phase bidirectional integrated on-board charger
is utilized for a nine-phase inverter without any need of
additional components [68]. The charging mode efficiency
is around 90%. The converter provides V2G operation with
an efficiency of 92%. The system does not require any
hardware rearrangement while switching from driving
mode to charging mode.
Another traction inverter with integrated charger is pro-
posed for EV [69], which consists of a charging voltage
converter, an inverter, a switching device and a control unit.
The charging voltage converter consists of an inductor,
capacitor, fully controllable switch and two power diodes.
The inverter output terminals are connected to the three
power contacts. During motoring mode the power contacts
provide the motor windings to the inverter, while in
charging mode the three-phase AC source is connected to
the inverter terminals via power contacts. It provides
accelerated charging of the on-board vehicle battery pack at
the power level equivalent to that of the traction inverter.
A novel bridgeless cuk-converter-based charger is pro-
posed [70] for EV, which has improved power quality
features. The modified topology utilizes only a single
switch for both half cycles for PFC operation. However,
Constant Current (CC) and Constant Voltage (CV) charg-
ing is achieved using a flyback converter. Figure 8 shows
the circuit diagram of the modified bridgeless cuk-con-
verter-based EV charger, which has a front-end diode
bridge rectifier with Inductor–Capacitor (LC) filter, a cuk
converter and a flyback converter.
An IBE based on the split three-phase Induction Motor is
proposed where the propulsion inverter of the EV is utilized
as the rectifier and the motor windings are used as grid
filter, connected between the grid and the converter [71].
The converter operates at UPF.
An improved power quality on-board charger [72] is
introduced where, in the charging mode, the motor winding
acts as an input filter and the three-phase Voltage Source
Converter acts as a bidirectional AC–DC converter. A
comparative study with the conventional buck converter
shows that the switching stress has reduced to half, ripple
current reduced to � times and the ripple voltage has
reduced to 1/8 times that of conventional buck converter.
The inductor and capacitor values were also proved to be
reduced.
A reconfigurable power converter with reduced number
of switches is proposed [73] for on-board chargers in low-
voltage EVs. The power converter uses a three-phase
inverter for propulsion mode, which can be reconfigured as
a boost rectifier cascaded with a DC–DC converter as
shown in figure 9. A unified control scheme is proposed that
combines the PFC as well as the optimal CC–CV charging
during the charging mode. A near-UPF is obtained using
this control. The total number of switches used for this
topology is reduced to 8, thereby reducing the size and
weight of the converter.
4.2 Control methods of bidirectional on-boardchargers
The power electronic components [74, 75] that form the
part of an EV drive train aid the vehicle to operate in all the
26 Page 8 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26
four quadrants [76], i.e., forward motoring, forward brak-
ing, reverse motoring and reverse braking. In the first and
third quadrants both speed and torque have the same sign
and therefore the power is positive, providing the motoring
mode. In second and fourth quadrants the power is nega-
tive, providing the braking mode [77].
In EVs, precise braking control is also important along
with the start. Braking is nothing but restricting the motion
of the vehicle as quickly as possible. Braking can be
mechanical braking or electric braking. In an EV, com-
posite braking is used; it combines electric braking and
mechanical braking. Vehicles are slowed down using
electric braking and then mechanical brakes are applied.
Electric braking is classified into plugging, dynamic
braking and regenerative braking. In plugging the electric
motor is reconnected to the supply so that it produces a
negative torque, which is opposite to the direction of
motion. The main disadvantage of this method is that the
kinetic energy of the motor moving parts is wasted and an
additional amount of energy from the supply is required to
develop the negative torque. In dynamic braking, the
vehicle is brought to braking mode by dissipating the
kinetic energy of the motor moving parts in the form of heat
energy through braking resistance. The main disadvantage
of this method is that the kinetic energy is wasted as heat.
In regenerative braking, which is the third type of electric
braking, the motor develops a negative torque, thereby
acting as a generator, and the generated energy is fed back
to the source. Regenerative braking can be effectively uti-
lized for energy regeneration if it is properly controlled
using power electronic circuits. It improves the overall
efficiency and can extend the driving range of EVs [78, 79].
Regenerative braking can be effectively controlled and
utilized with a hybrid energy storage system (HESS).
To provide the regenerative braking control a bidirec-
tional DC–DC converter is used in the drive train, which
steps up the battery voltage for high-efficiency operation
throughout the range of the vehicle. Also, the bidirectional
Figure 8. Modified bridgeless cuk-converter-fed EV charger [70].
Figure 9. Reconfigurable power converter with reduced number of switches [73].
Sådhanå (2021) 46:26 Page 9 of 14 26
DC–DC converter allows reversal of power flow and con-
trol of the braking current [80].
A novel line-commutated thyristor-based Voltage Source
Converter has been proposed [81], which has bidirectional
power flow capability. The switches are operated with
6-pulse phase control. As the output DC voltage is con-
trolled, amount and direction of power flow is automati-
cally controlled. The converter does not have commutation
overlaps but it faces the major problem of commutation
failure. The commutation failure relates to the input current
and a current phase control method is necessary to over-
come the commutation failure problem.
A fully soft switched bidirectional converter is developed
[82], which acts as a boost converter. It drives the motor
with high speed and torque during motoring mode and act
as a buck converter to tap the regenerative braking energy,
which charges the battery during braking mode. This con-
verter act as an interface circuit between DC bus and bat-
tery in HEV to control the charging and discharging
current.
An effective regenerative braking control strategy is
proposed for a light EV with a single-stage DC–AC con-
verter along with a three-phase inverter [83]. It has three
different switching strategies: single switch, two switches
and three switches. Variable braking control strategy is
implemented depending on the driving conditions. Differ-
ent driving parameters such as reliability, braking torque
and cruising distance can be improved effectively using this
variable braking strategy.
Another regenerative braking methodology was proposed
[84] for the DC drive system, which consists of a series
active power rectifier and a four-quadrant chopper con-
nected to the DC motor. The system delivers sinusoidal
input current, thereby providing UPF. It has the capability
of bidirectional power flow, reduced dc link voltage ripple
in any operating condition, faster control response and
disturbance compensation capability.
Digital simulation of a small EV is presented [85], where
the traction chain consists of a battery, bidirectional DC–
DC converter and DC motor. The simulation results show
that the speed regulator gives good performance on the
speed tracking, accuracy and the rejection of disturbance
load.
An instantaneous switching mode bidirectional Boost/
SEPIC converter was proposed [86] for incorporation in an
EV drive train as shown in figure 10 to switch instanta-
neously from motoring mode to regenerative braking mode
and vice versa. Maximum power is extracted even with low
speed and energy regenerated is used to charge the ultra-
capacitor. The converter works as a boost converter during
motoring operation and as a SEPIC converter during
braking.
Fuzzy logic control of a bidirectional buck boost con-
verter is introduced [87] for a Brushless DC (BLDC) drive
where all the four-quadrant operations are possible. During
motoring mode, the battery provides maximum power to
the BLDC motor through a DC–DC converter. During
braking mode, the energy is fed back from the motor to the
battery through the same DC–DC converter.
An Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy System is developed [88],
which is an efficient control method for EV drive trains.
The driving range is extended to about 50% by utilizing the
regenerative braking energy to charge the energy storage
system.
Another effective method of regenerative braking energy
harvesting strategy is proposed [89] in HESS. HESS
improves the charging and discharging performance of the
energy sources. Using a proper switching template for the
inverter, the kinetic energy of EV is harvested by the
supercapacitor during braking. The proposed control strat-
egy with PWM technique helps to maintain a constant
torque operation.
An integrated power converter is proposed [90] for
Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) drive, which has inte-
grated motoring, regenerative braking and charging capa-
bility. The integrated topology consists of buck front-end
DC–DC converter, a Modified Asymmetrical Half-Bridge
Converter, battery source, SRM and the single-phase AC
grid connector. In the regenerative braking mode, the motor
will be controlled as a generator by removing the excitation
signals of the active switches. The motor current will flow
through the upper diode and the battery source and all the
braking energy will be fed back to the source. Since the
braking energy flows in the decreasing inductance region,
negative braking torque will be generated; the regenerative
braking mode is obtained by this and thereby motor speed
reduces.
An innovative single-stage integrated on-board charger is
proposed [91] for on-board chargers, which reduces size,
weight and number of components of power electronics
circuits used in EVs. The proposed converter operates in
boost and buck operation in motoring and braking modes.
The boost operation during regenerating braking mode
helps to capture the energy even at low speeds. The boost
and buck operations during regenerative braking mode are
similar to the reverse motoring operation in the propulsion
mode.
A constant braking current control strategy is introduced
for EV [92], which basically performs the control of
armature current. A duty ratio control law is performed for
the braking current control and in order to make the current
constant, the duty ratio should be gradually climbing.
Simulation is done on a MATLAB/Simulink platform and
the results validate the theoretical analysis. The speed is
found to decrease continuously during the braking process
and the terminal voltage of the supercapacitor increases
continuously, which shows that energy regeneration hap-
pens during the braking process.
An efficient and novel method to distribute the braking
force is proposed [93] and a performance map of the motor
and its controller is found to define a boundary for blending
regenerative braking and friction braking energy, thereby
26 Page 10 of 14 Sådhanå (2021) 46:26
maximizing the regenerative braking energy. The perfor-
mance and robustness of the proposed system is verified
through a Hardware-in-Loop set-up for a predetermined
driving cycle of Urban Dynamometer driving schedule. The
results show that the energy harvesting in braking process
has increased significantly compared with variable or
constant boundary methods using weight factor for brake
distribution. The results also show that harvested energy
increases as the vehicle weight increases since heavier
vehicles require higher braking torque.
In this section, various control strategies for effective
regenerative braking control in an EV are analyzed and
their features and advantages are summarized.
5. Conclusion
This paper reviews about the different configurations of
integrated on-board chargers for EVs. The battery perfor-
mance of the vehicle not only depends on the type of bat-
tery and its infrastructure but also depends on the charger
topologies. The chargers are of two types: on-board
chargers and off-board chargers. Different topologies of on-
board chargers are compared and discussed here and the
overall size, cost and weight of the chargers can be reduced
using integrated on-board chargers. By incorporating
regenerating braking control in the chargers the braking
energy can be properly utilized to store the energy storage
system thereby increasing the driving range of the vehicle.
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