bfa portfolio

yash-an-yuGraphic Designer

isolatingHyphenation is

integratingand

“the more connections that can be

made in the brain, the more

integrated the experience

is within memory.”

–don campbell

06Design Portfolio Project yash-an-yu 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1

07Title Categoryselected works design portfolio

01 Droog

02 Raising & Falling

03 Fat Tires

04 One Day On Earth

05 The Cells

06 Glō Hotel

07 Björk

08 Purity

09 Kohl’s Rebranding & Packaging

Surface

Market Square

Twinkle

Villa collection

Blue Ribbon

10 Logos

Thank you

08

28

44

58

70

84

98

110

120

124

132

142

154

158

162

172

relax into eco-principles

luxurious –Sustainability Design Champion –

challenge Droog is a famous conceptual design company started in Amsterdam in 1993. It represents the idea of Dutch Design. It ushers sustainable design and designers into the spotlight and it’s primary focusis to provide a platform for green design. Droog is also aware that the furniture should have sustainable use-value, including durable, recyclable or reusable materials and other functions.

results Inorder to constrain this conceptual design, understand a luxury of con-tent and experience that change perspective on daily life. My design showcase how to solve design problems with green solutions. Reues printed materials on three dimensional items. It puts on display a variety of green materials and eco-friendly processes. It’s possible to make sustainability fun and innovative.

01deliverablescourse

BrochurePosterMatchesCalendarShopping Bag

ChaletGaramond

typefacesDroog

Project

Graphic Design 2

instrctor

Laura Milton

Spring 2009d

ate

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Conceptual

Modern

Sustainable

Thoughtful

Emotional

Minimal

design attributes

1

3

5

2

4

6

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3

5

2

4

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3

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2

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10Design Portfolio Project yash-an-yu 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

11Title Catrgorydroog print, identity, branding, package

co

nce

ptu

al

furn

itu

re d

esi

gn

/ d

roo

g.c

om

a

luxu

ry o

f co

nte

nt r

ath

er

tha

n lu

xuri

ou

s m

ate

ria

ls


a luxury of content rather than luxurious materials

what do we do?how do we do it?

We see post industrial cotton trim mings transforming into new yarns and finished goods like denim wovens, knits, apparel, home furnishings. Reducing dye use, eliminating toxic chemicals and sparing landfillst.

We see leather scraps transforminginto new leather goods like automotive seating, book covers, shoes, furniture, and accessories. Saving herds and increasing animal welfare, preserving lands and restoring habitats.

We see t-shirt clippings transforming into new nonwoven substrates like disposable wipes for personal care, baby and household markets. Conserv-ing fields, saving water, and eliminating toxic chemicals.

We see shipping pallet scraps trans-forming into new wood products like cabinetry, fixtures, display, flooring, paneling and interiors. Preserving forests, wildlife, natural habitats, and landscapes.

We see carpet waste transforming intoa moldable composite for numerous markets like flooring, automotive and transportation, as well as the home furnishings. Reducing a large waste component going into landfills, eliminate toxic chemicals and saving energy.

We see waste from our own patented processes transforming into value added packaging and paper products. Repurposing waste, preserving forests and reducing textile waste in landfills.

cotton wastefrom factory

leather wastefrom factory

fabraic wastefrom factory

wood wastefrom factory

carpet wastefrom factory

paper wastefrom factory

re-generator

concepts//// //////////// ////

1110

paperclothesbottleragsmagnetglassspongetapespapercotton ropes siliconerubberresinclothes hangerwire

{ }droog +

20 21

concepts//// //////////// ////

What can you do with waste paper apart from filling up your dustbin? One Day Paper Waste is a table, obtained by taking shredded confi-dential documents, mixing them with resin and compressing them into a strong mould. A new interesting object that has the strength of wood.

201612841

table of contents//////////// //// ////

furn

iture

in

du

stry

urb

an

wo

od

wa

ste

ab

ou

t d

roo

g

clo

the

s &

ra

gs

do

cu

me

nt

milk

bo

ttle

15

The Droog Rag Chair by Dutch “green” designer, Tejo Remy, is a one

of a kind, fully customizable chair made up of old clothing. The chair

is the idea of Tejo Remy and is designed for Droog. You can send

in your clothes for the design or you can allow the company to use

their own. The chair weighs about 55 pounds and is held together

with metal straps. The dimensions are 60 x 60 x 100cm and will ship

in 8 to 12 weeks. We love the idea of recycling and reclaiming lost

objects to be reused in creative ways.

On the same subject, The Guardian’s “Observer”, Stephen Bayley,

in his January 1 1th post, perfectly points out how past times of

constraint have triggered progress in design and architecture. He

lists Raymond Loewy, Henry Dreyfuss, and Norman Geddes among

the innovators who were able to persuade consumers to want

more from less, working with what was available. With the smooth,

undecorated, and streamlined objects arrived an impression of

life unfettered and less consumptive, disguising the budding of

purchasing power.

Innovation of material re-combination and new alloys contributed to

less costly methods and new perspectives on what design should

do. It ’s important to remember how historically low economic times

have brought about great, new ideas. Although times are difficult

and challenging, all chins can be lif ted by the resurgence of making

the most with what is handy, reinventing the old. It ’s time to get back

to the drawing boards, search the thrif t shops, toil at computer

screens, and hunt through storage containers and even dumpsters

to find inspiration that will entice the nation.

tie up clothes and rags for high style

14

concepts//////////// //// ////

Strong concept

Materials

Rag chair by Tejo RemyThe chair is layered from the contents of 15 bags of rags. It arrives ready made but the user has the option to recycle their own discarded clothers to be included in the design.

5

Urban wood waste is the portion of the wood waste stream that

can include sawn lumber, pruned branches, stumps, and whole

trees from street and park maintenance. The primary constituents

of urban wood waste are used lumber, trim, shipping pallets, trees,

branches, and other wood debris from construction and demolition

clearing and grubbing activities.

The disposal of wastes generated from construction and demolition

activities represents a significant portion of operating expenses in

addition to consuming valuable landfill space. C&D waste represents

a significant part of the solid waste steam, with current estimates

at 28 percent of the total tonnage. It is reduction will help meet the

State-mandated diversion goal of 50 percent by 2000.

There are around 300 furniture recycling projects throughout the US

and it is estimated that these projects redistribute over 13 million

of furniture every year. This does not include second hand dealers

or charity shops that sell to the general public. Furniture recycling

projects accept unwanted furniture which is donated by the general

public, normally collected free of charge by local projects and

sold on to people on low-incomes. Most of the Furniture Recycling

groups limit their supply to people in need through a system of

referral from welfare agencies.

Unlike many other recycled materials that faced a problem of not

having an end market, furniture recycling charities are attempting

to satisfy a massive demand for furniture from people on very low

incomes. Many groups report that demand exceeds supply by up to

50%. So if you have an item of furniture at home that you no-longer

need consider donating it to your nearest Furniture Reuse Group, or

if you are looking for low-priced second hand furniture contact your

local group, some also sell to the general public.

don’t waste wood with new furniture

4

wood waste//////////// //// ////

Urban wood waste

Due to the environmental issues, more and more furniture companies sell products made from recycled wood materials. Furniture made with the environment in mind may cost more, but it is usually more durable. Sustainability can be mean social responsibility used of non-polluting technologies, certified materials, employment fairness and more. The term sustainability can be difficult to define for the contemporary furniture manufacturer. It need to be responsible for the production cycle from raw material acquisition through to manu-facture, end use and final disposal.

1

wood industry//////////// //// ////

documentclothesbottleragsmagnetglassspongetapespapercotton ropes siliconerubberresinhangerwire

{ }droog +

12 13

concepts//////////// //// ////

This chair is layered from the contents of 15 bags of rags and old clothes. It arrives ready made but the user has the option to recycle its own discarded clothes to be included in the design. Each piece is unique; a treasure-chest of memories.

build structure with your documents

Paper table by Jens Praet’sEvery document tells a story. By shred-ding confidential documents, part of its information remains mysteriously visible. One Day Paper Waste gives new life to these documents, that’s the real beauty

of this product.

22

This table is a second edition of the One Day Paper Waste cabinet

concept. Initially asked to design a table/console in limited edition

for EatDrinkDesign and shown during the Dutch Design Week 2007

in Eindhoven (The Netherlands), One Day Paper Waste table has

been launched at Droog Design’s exhibition during the Salone del

Mobile 2008 and is now in their permanent collection.

One Day Paper Waste is a little table, obtained by taking shredded

confidential documents, mixing them with resin and compressing

them into a strong mould. End result: a new interesting object that

has the strength of the wood waste.

Droog Design may have unleashed the most TreeHugger design

we’ve ever seen on the world, but they’re turning over a new leaf,

starting with their contribution to this year’s Salone del Mobile in

Milan. A Touch of Green is an interesting collection that recognizes

that there isn’t one absolute answer to sustainability, and provides

examples from all kinds of angles. bove is One day paper waste, a

table that shows one days’ paper waste in a more static form. Does

it help the environment to recycle a one day gathering of paper

waste from the office into a resin treated piece of furniture? Maybe

it is not literally, but the intention to limit waste is in a right direction.

23

concepts //// //////////// ////

201612841

table of contents//////////// //// ////fu

rnitu

re i

nd

ust

ry

urb

an

wo

od

wa

ste

ab

ou

t d

roo

g

clo

the

s &

ra

gs

do

cu

me

nt

milk

bo

ttle

15

The Droog Rag Chair by Dutch “green” designer, Tejo Remy, is a one

of a kind, fully customizable chair made up of old clothing. The chair

is the idea of Tejo Remy and is designed for Droog. You can send

in your clothes for the design or you can allow the company to use

their own. The chair weighs about 55 pounds and is held together

with metal straps. The dimensions are 60 x 60 x 100cm and will ship

in 8 to 12 weeks. We love the idea of recycling and reclaiming lost

objects to be reused in creative ways.

On the same subject, The Guardian’s “Observer”, Stephen Bayley,

in his January 1 1th post, perfectly points out how past times of

constraint have triggered progress in design and architecture. He

lists Raymond Loewy, Henry Dreyfuss, and Norman Geddes among

the innovators who were able to persuade consumers to want

more from less, working with what was available. With the smooth,

undecorated, and streamlined objects arrived an impression of

life unfettered and less consumptive, disguising the budding of

purchasing power.

Innovation of material re-combination and new alloys contributed to

less costly methods and new perspectives on what design should

do. It ’s important to remember how historically low economic times

have brought about great, new ideas. Although times are difficult

and challenging, all chins can be lif ted by the resurgence of making

the most with what is handy, reinventing the old. It ’s time to get back

to the drawing boards, search the thrif t shops, toil at computer

screens, and hunt through storage containers and even dumpsters

to find inspiration that will entice the nation.

tie up clothes and rags for high style

14

concepts//////////// //// ////

Strong concept

Materials

Rag chair by Tejo RemyThe chair is layered from the contents of 15 bags of rags. It arrives ready made but the user has the option to recycle their own discarded clothers to be included in the design.

5

Urban wood waste is the portion of the wood waste stream that

can include sawn lumber, pruned branches, stumps, and whole

trees from street and park maintenance. The primary constituents

of urban wood waste are used lumber, trim, shipping pallets, trees,

branches, and other wood debris from construction and demolition

clearing and grubbing activities.

The disposal of wastes generated from construction and demolition

activities represents a significant portion of operating expenses in

addition to consuming valuable landfill space. C&D waste represents

a significant part of the solid waste steam, with current estimates

at 28 percent of the total tonnage. It is reduction will help meet the

State-mandated diversion goal of 50 percent by 2000.

There are around 300 furniture recycling projects throughout the US

and it is estimated that these projects redistribute over 13 million

of furniture every year. This does not include second hand dealers

or charity shops that sell to the general public. Furniture recycling

projects accept unwanted furniture which is donated by the general

public, normally collected free of charge by local projects and

sold on to people on low-incomes. Most of the Furniture Recycling

groups limit their supply to people in need through a system of

referral from welfare agencies.

Unlike many other recycled materials that faced a problem of not

having an end market, furniture recycling charities are attempting

to satisfy a massive demand for furniture from people on very low

incomes. Many groups report that demand exceeds supply by up to

50%. So if you have an item of furniture at home that you no-longer

need consider donating it to your nearest Furniture Reuse Group, or

if you are looking for low-priced second hand furniture contact your

local group, some also sell to the general public.

don’t waste wood with new furniture

4

wood waste//////////// //// ////

Urban wood waste

Due to the environmental issues, more and more furniture companies sell products made from recycled wood materials. Furniture made with the environment in mind may cost more, but it is usually more durable. Sustainability can be mean social responsibility used of non-polluting technologies, certified materials, employment fairness and more. The term sustainability can be difficult to define for the contemporary furniture manufacturer. It need to be responsible for the production cycle from raw material acquisition through to manu-facture, end use and final disposal.

1

wood industry//////////// //// ////

documentclothesbottleragsmagnetglassspongetapespapercotton ropes siliconerubberresinhangerwire

{ }droog +

12 13

concepts//////////// //// ////

This chair is layered from the contents of 15 bags of rags and old clothes. It arrives ready made but the user has the option to recycle its own discarded clothes to be included in the design. Each piece is unique; a treasure-chest of memories.

build structure with your documents

Paper table by Jens Praet’sEvery document tells a story. By shred-ding confidential documents, part of its information remains mysteriously visible. One Day Paper Waste gives new life to these documents, that’s the real beauty

of this product.

22

This table is a second edition of the One Day Paper Waste cabinet

concept. Initially asked to design a table/console in limited edition

for EatDrinkDesign and shown during the Dutch Design Week 2007

in Eindhoven (The Netherlands), One Day Paper Waste table has

been launched at Droog Design’s exhibition during the Salone del

Mobile 2008 and is now in their permanent collection.

One Day Paper Waste is a little table, obtained by taking shredded

confidential documents, mixing them with resin and compressing

them into a strong mould. End result: a new interesting object that

has the strength of the wood waste.

Droog Design may have unleashed the most TreeHugger design

we’ve ever seen on the world, but they’re turning over a new leaf,

starting with their contribution to this year’s Salone del Mobile in

Milan. A Touch of Green is an interesting collection that recognizes

that there isn’t one absolute answer to sustainability, and provides

examples from all kinds of angles. bove is One day paper waste, a

table that shows one days’ paper waste in a more static form. Does

it help the environment to recycle a one day gathering of paper

waste from the office into a resin treated piece of furniture? Maybe

it is not literally, but the intention to limit waste is in a right direction.

23

concepts //// //////////// ////

251.3MILLION

3.8MILLION

3.8 million tons of wood waste are generated throughout the state

California every year.

251.3 million tons of municipal solid waste

were generated in United State in 2008.

279.2MILLION

279.2 million tons of paper and allied products has been wasted per year

in United State.

Wood waste is, the largest portion of the waste stream generated

from construction and demolition activities. As such, this fact sheet

is geared toward contractors and local governments considering

alternatives to disposal. Based on information compiled from local

waste generation studies (1990), the California Integrated Waste

Management Board estimates that approximately 3.8 million tons

of wood waste are generated throughout the state and enter the

municipal waste stream in California every year. Of the 3.8 million

tons generated, approximately 3.35 million tons are disposed of in

permitted disposal facilities and the remaining 450,000 tons are

diverted from landfilling.

A considerable amount of wood waste is also consumed by the

biomass industry for boiler fuel to produce electricity, and steam

in some cases. Based on figures supplied by the biomass industry,

it currently consumes approximately 1.3 million tons of urban wood

waste. This is above and beyond the 3.8 million tons quantified in

the previous paragraph. The biomass industry’s fuel consumption is

decreasing due to closures and curtailment of operations of private

and public plants contracted to sell power to utilities in the state.

6 7

wood waste//////////// /// /////

Quantities

With bottles arranged in four rows of three to mimic old Dutch milk

crates, the Milk Bottle Chandelier is a remarkable piece of modern

design. Tejo Remy has taken an ordinary object and used it in an

incongruous manner to create a striking contemporary light fixture.

Combining elegance and levity, the Milk Bottle Chandelier will draw

the admiration of design aficionados and casual passers-by alike.

Celebrated Dutch design collective Droog design pushed a green

design ideas to the forefront this year with the ‘A Touch of Green’

presentation in Milan. Droog, is an innovative design enterprise

based in Amsterdam. Set up in 1993 as a statement on design, it

has developed the Droog mentality: creating innovative concepts

in lighting, furnishing and accessories that change perspective.

Droog designs connect with the individual, the user. They deal with

slowness, memories, nostalgia, re-use, craftsmanship, nature. Droog

lighting, furniture and accessories generate experience, interaction,

participation. They are products that are easy to comprehend, have

meaning, tell stories; products that are meant to be cherished and

not discarded without thought.

18 19

concepts//// //////////// ////

! turn on your milk bottles

Dutch design

Milk bottle light by Tejo Remy1993 for droog design, this milk bottle light is the quintessential example ofartistic, designer contemporary lighting. Milk Bottle Chandelier, made up of 12 frosted glass milk bottles in rows of three by four, is inspired by the dutch milk crates from the old days.

9

{ }droog + ?

Droog started in 1993, as a statement on design, a no-nonsense,

down to earth design mentality opposed to the high style and

form based world of design. In contrast, Droog has proposed a

highly conceptual approach, one captured by the Dutch word

‘droog’ meaning ‘dry’ or ‘wry’. This mentality has defined Droog as

a conceptual design company over the last 16 years, and to a large

extent, has defined Dutch design internationally.

Droog values what it means to be human, with subjectivity, notions

of beauty and meaning, and desire for high quality experiences at

its core. Droog stands for a luxury of content rather than luxurious

materials. Whether it ’s authenticity, humour, affordability, or nature,

the abundance of what is scarce has always been our luxury.

Droog at home is Amsterdam, home to our flagship store and office,

including Factory and outlet, Creative agency and the Lab. From

this base we operate worldwide with partners, clients, manufacturers

and designers to develop products, projects, and presentations and

events that change perspective on daily life, informed by the local

context, yet in relation to urgencies on a global scale.

About droog

Our values

What we do

8

background//////////// /// /////

touch the univers

and feel the space

–The Complete Manual of Typography–

challenge To design a luscious manual of Typography celebrating univers with beautifully designed and richly illustrated contents. The text was taken from a variety of sources, then reconstructed to tell a unique visual story for anyone who works with type: Artists, designers, print production professionals.

results As an exercise in the art of precision in typography, I chose space as my concept. By combining the text with expressive typography and bold abstract illustrations, I worked to illustrate the complexity and characteristics of univers, through the concept of the universal raising and falling of the space. I used a muted colour palette with blue communicating with the concept of space.


da

te

Manual Book Univers AdobeGaramond

typefacesRaising &

Falling

Project

Typography

instrctor

Sammi Saaud

Spring 2009

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Experimental

Harmonious

Complex

Abstract

Expressive

Detailed

design attributes

33Title Catrgoryraising and falling typography

hyphenation

26 25

Function of the Hyphen. The point of the hyphen is to avoid ambiguity for the reader. If a temporary compound is used as an adjective before a noun, it may be unclear what words are modifying what: is a free form sculpture a sculpture that is free, or a sculpture that is free in its form? If the latter, adding the hyphen between free and form makes the meaning instantly clear. The ambiguity occurs because we expect a noun to follow free, and form is a noun, but in this particular case free and form constitute an adjective describing sculpture. (In this particular case, the adjective free-form precedes the noun. When the temporary adjective follows the noun, there is no need for a hyphen. The most common use of the hyphen is to divide words that do not fit on a justified line of type. Most computerized typesetters have internal dictionaries that will automatically hyphenate. If you are working on a system that shows how words will break when type is justified, you should check word breaks and make sure the hyphens are in the proper place.

raising and falling


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Hyphenation is the process of breaking words between lines to smooth out the right edge of the text, called the rag. For right-aligned text, the left edge is the rag. For most people, hyphenation is something that your word processor does automatically set it and forget it. But there are a few options worth considering. First, do you even need hyphenation? Hyphenation doesn not improve text legibility, so other things being equal, you should turn it off. Hyphenation is necessary for justified text but not for left-aligned text, because left-aligned text will have an irregular rag no matter what.

Hyphenation is also less necessary for wider text blocks, because awkward line breaks are less likely. (Newspapers have to take hyphenation seriously because most newspaper text is set in a narrow column and justified.) If you do use automatic hyphenation, take a moment to adjust the hyphenation options. The hyphenation in Word and WP is “dumb” in the sense that it simply looks at the end of each line and decides whether a hyphenated word will fit in. It does not consider what has gone before or after, e.g. whether this is the eighth line in a row with a hyphen. The hyphenation options in both programs will let you control the hyphenation zone (smaller hyphenation =zoneless hyphenation). Word also allows you to set the maximum number of consecutive hyphens. True hyphenation enthusiasts can investigate the manual-hyphenation options in Word or WP, but for legal documents, manual hyphenation is overkill.

hyphenation

24 23

raising and falling


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information

0

raising and falling

table of contents

3

7

15

21

page

page

page

page

how to pick a font

line length and

margin

quatation marks

hyphenation

as iachuid

eff

ress

ent

erit

il h

oripse tum auctus st videtiqEm

ter

cemo et ommodinatua deo hosus

deo

in te

, temqua post iqui se

T

ypography is

always im

portant b

ecause presentation is always im

portant. Just lik

e a gesture can punctuate a point in court, good typography can reinforce the meaning of your text. Good typography helps your read

er

mov

e jhg

beyo

nd your

ty

pography is always im

porta

nt b

ecau

se p

rese

ntat

ion

is a

lway

s

’’

’’

Question marks and exclamation points go inside the quotation marks if they are part of the quotation. I read somewhere that Charlton Heston’s favorite song is “Whoomp! There it is!” Any changes in or additions to direct quotations must be made in brackets. Brackets [ ] are to direct quotations what parentheses are to your own sentences.

Ellipsis marks, three spaced periods, are used to indicate omissions from direct quotation marks. Use the spaced periods only when you are quoting a complete sentence; they are not necessary for a phrase or a dependent clause. If you omit words at the ends of sentences, use four spaced periods, one for the period and three for the ellipsis. Usually you do not need to use ellipsis marks at the beginning of a quotation marks.

quatation marks

19 20

raising and falling

Am, sed magnim d

olum

san

ve n

t xc x

vu l d o s d a s d t r a s a l o

r t i e s

pv

df

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, sed magnim d

olum

san

ve n

t xc x


r t i e s

pv

df

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ed m

agn

im d

olumsand tras

Liq

ue tus se, noveresterit g et; nondam su in dictata num

ia audescr estabem inat

, co

ent

il

i

be

suli buntemus igilisNoste a

pe

rf e

c t u s u l i a

s ! S

e r ma

nd

ac et q

uiin se, quam dum

A

m, s

ed m

agnim dolumsan

ma

gn

do l u m s a n

Tabissen duconfessua nes iaet

duc

terib

em publis vis horunce

s

Pul urae, sulinatis et

puO

cure

cid

ituid

em,P

ul u

rae,

M

aris

, n

on

sit i

s. e

t f a

ce

sse

Unte cultora vem paridem nequis.

Ili

cure

s, nit

forius in si prid ad Caturnum nostres estato estraes?

Dac

cioc

c hu

itis,

non

ta co

ntium tebut publinguli, sendesid

ius, f

uiu

mai

octa

tum

igitu

sque

m pris fac

obulintestum ad more, quo tu cono. Habunum cena,

Vatilin E

tr

i s n

o

s , c a e q u o n s ce

Epse aud a m, nondest cut verrita, ut acto

i nti

l hor

un

t? Orsulos se tus aud

empl

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to u

num

diu

et

gr a

t er u

m t a t u i s e d

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ai

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m d

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rbiti

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m d

eatis

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e na

tife

r un

tiae

t ;P

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quis

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Me atis. Imum cla publib

us a

uc f

ac-

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pre

cus,

n

esim

is co

nve, strum faces! Gulvius pecivit

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s

Estem Rommoreds sd

Es s

i . L

u ta t

i nim n o n s e d d o l o r s e d m

a gn i m augait, sis nonsenim dolortie faCudf

dfa

ss

magnim augait, sis nonsenim

dolortieonsenim dolortieo

nds

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tuus

nih

icem

plie

ri p

ublis

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den

dam re furit; i

am quidicit, quam nos, que et vit,

non

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otiu

s A

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non

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C. M

a, prat

um quitiss e

stri

t e r

nihi

, se o

c, ca;

nos, conves escerum et obse vid consulv ilictui timperferes! Odiciis coFertur, audees ina clut et? Nam omnenius, num ad Castort intili

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etiam

te

men

til c

ero

cre

nem

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et u

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sandre min ulla feugait lam

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lla quas inprare steris iu int.A

ven Me

atis.

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nihi

lla q

uas i

nprare steris iu int.Aven

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od d

o lum

vul

lupt at at.L

a faccummy nibh et nonseq uat venis e g u e r i l i s d v

Onum

accum dolum

modo commod ese magna faccum erostrud modoles

tisit

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is n

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, se

d m

ag n i m d o l u m

s a n v

en

t vulld

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at .

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au

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eu

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niam

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, consed eu feuismo doluptat

nul

lut

e du

nt

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ing et nibh et inci bla alisim nonsectet atis adit amconulla consectet at. Hent nullaore tat

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m v

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zz

rilisi et

ea facilla consequat, sum esectem doluptatem velenim niam iureet et vull um

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27

raising and falling


Q

uotation m

arks typography is always im

portant because presentation is always important. Just like a gesture can punctuate a point in court, good typography can reinforce the meaning of your t

ext.

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use

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11

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line length and page margin

12

raising and falling

The line length is the average number of characters per line in a text block. The page margins control the overall size of the text block, and thus have the most greatest effect on line length, of course, font choice and font size also affect line length, though more finely. As the page margins are increased, the line lengt are decreases. Shorter lines are more comfort able to read than longer lines. As line length increases, your eye has to travel farther from the end of one line to the beginning of the next, making it harder to keep your place vertically. That’s why newspaper columns are so narrow news paper columns are tall and thus it is important to make vertical tracking as easy as possible to read. While there is no blackletter rule, aim for a line length of fifty to ninth characters (including spaces). You can check the line length of a sample text using the word count function of your word processor: select a series of lines and use word count to show the number of characters in each.You can also use the easy “alphabet test” to set line length: type every lowercase letter from a to z. You should be able to fit 2 to 3 alphabets on your line, like so .

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The first step in breaking away from the tyranny of Times New Roman is simply to pick another font. “But I can’t tell the difference between fonts. How will I ever pick a new one?” Don not panic. Can you tell the difference between these fonts? If yes, then you can do this. Trust me. Make a document for testing fonts. Take two recent documents you have made perhaps a short motion and a letter to client that have a variety of font styles in them (bold, italic, etc.) and use a mix of characters. Print out these documents and set them aside as your “control” set. Review the fonts on your system. Purists may hate me for recommending this, but hey. While you shouldn’t use the operating system fonts, most software packages these days (including Word and WordPerfect) come with a giant pile of fonts that get istalled with the software. Many of them are dreck, but some of them are good. So if you haven’t recently, take a moment to go through your font menu and see what is lurking there.

For any font that seems reasonably promising, and apply it to all the text in your test document and print it out a set (but don’t make any other tweaks or adjustments.Compare the new documents to your control set. Now you have a set of test documents are showing the different fonts. At least a few will be obviously wrong, like the shade of orange that looked great on the paint chip but not great on your whole dining room. Throw those out immediately. Work it down to maybe three or four samples you like.

how to pick a font

4 3

adiat a

ugiatum venisExer auguerit vulla feu feugait ercid

raising and falling

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a 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Use each one for a week. Resist the urge after step 3 to pick the font you like best and go with it. �at’s risky, because sometimes a font you like on Monday gets tiresome by Wednesday. If you commit to using it for a week, you’re more likely to discover whether you have the potential for a long term relationship. Once you send that memo to everyone in the o�ce saying that “From now on, Olde Noisome Roman is our o�cial text font”, it is even harder to do this unwind. Pick the one you like best. �ere is no right answer. If you’ve compared a number of options and given them a chance to sink in, you’ve done your due diligence. But if you still don’t like any of them, keep reading.

Find a font you like and try that. Find a book or magazine whose font you like. (Not a newspaper, newspaper fonts are optimized for setting dense blocks of text and don’t look so great in normal legal documents.) Scan the page and upload it to What�eFont. What �e Font is a terri�c free service from “My Fonts” that will analyze your sample and automatically �gure out what font it is. Buy the font and try it out. Buy it and install it, apply it to your test document. If you don’t like it, repeat step 6. OK, you’ll be spending a little money, but it will be worth. Can’t I just go to a font website and start browsing around? Sure, but it’s not a great idea. �ere are thousands of fonts available these days and honestly, even I can not tell the di�erence between a lot of them. If you are not a professional designer, it is more likely you’ll only come away bewildered by choices. But if you are undaunted, here are some sites that carry a wide selection of text fonts.

how to pick a font

6 5

raising and falling

Don not use the same page margins on all sides. For best appearance, size page margins progressively from smallest to largest: inside margins, top margin, outside margin, bottom margin. Make inside margins smaller than outside margins. When setting margins for facing pages, make the inside margin half the size of the outside margin. If the insideUse a larger bottom margin. Make the top margin half the size of the bottom margin. Page numbers and footers generally appear outside the margins which balances out the larger bottom margin. Make the inside margins smaller than the bottom margin. The inside margins of facing pages would be one-third of the bottom margin. Use the same left and right margin on single pages. With a standalone page, the side margins would be equal, both at two-thirds of the bottom margin. Use these formulas as guides. Tweak your margins. After acheiving the perfect proportions, make any necessary adjustments to the page margins to fit the desired look and feel of the piece, to accommodate binding, and to fit any other page layout requirements.

White space is important in design. It gives the text and graphics breathing room. The most prominent white space in a design is the margins all around the page. This space full of nothing is an important element of the overall page layout. Margins can convey a specific tone, make the page easier or harder to hold or read, and margins can affect the cost of the printed piece as well. The margin top, bottom, or either side is that usually empty space between the trim (where the page is cut) and the live printing area of the page. Sometimes headers or footers may be placed within the margin area.

line length and page margin

10 9

raising and falling

’’

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Question marks and exclamation points go inside the quotation marks if they are part of the quotation. I read somewhere that Charlton Heston’s favorite song is “Whoomp! There it is!” Any changes in or additions to direct quotations must be made in brackets. Brackets [ ] are to direct quotations what parentheses are to your own sentences.

Ellipsis marks, three spaced periods, are used to indicate omissions from direct quotation marks. Use the spaced periods only when you are quoting a complete sentence; they are not necessary for a phrase or a dependent clause. If you omit words at the ends of sentences, use four spaced periods, one for the period and three for the ellipsis. Usually you do not need to use ellipsis marks at the beginning of a quotation marks.

quatation marks

19 20

raising and falling

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27

raising and falling


Fat Tire03

deliverablescourse

da

te

Beer BottlesBeer CanShipper

RockwellUnivers

typefaces

Project

Package Design 3

instrctor

Thomas McNulty

Fall 2010

ride amountainbike with

fat tires–New Belgium Brewing Beer Package Design–

challeng To create a brand new beer package design for the New Belgium Brew-ing Company. To bring this real sustainable beer out into the world. To Enhance the brand effect by making the designs striking and powerful in order to carve out a place in the beer market. To give people a fresh look from the packaging.

results By doing research, I learned their remarkable story of how an aspiring young home brewer rode her mountain bike with “fat tires” through European villages famous for beer. I chose a very happy and fun approach to express this most unique and environmentally friendly craft brewing company. My goal was promoting their beer culture and the guaranteed enjoyment of their my idea was to show taste the flavour of happiness from the new design.

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Fun

Happiness

Youthful

Loud

Colorful

Crafty

design attributes

49Title Catrgoryfat tires package

do it nowand

breatheeasier

–One Day on Earth Press Release–

challenge One Day On Earth, A Visual Time Capsule. The goal of creating a unique worldwide media event where thousands of participants would simul-taneously film themselves over a 24-hour period. The idea was to do something good for the earth and see how many other people we could get involved. The challenge was to choose an issue currently facing America and find solutions through alternative approaches using.

Results The topic I chose was air pollution in America, due to the fact that 60 percent of Americans live in areas with unhealthy air pollution levels. As the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” No means of communications spells this out more effectively than infographics. The use of huge amounts of

provocative inforgraphics impact people on an emotional level.

One D

ay on Earth


da

te

Event IdentityWebsitePostersE–Newspaper

Univers

typefaces

Project

Print 21

instrctor

Troy Alders

Spring 2011

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Impact

Informative

Serious

Communicative

Hortative

Contrast

design attributes

// One Day on Earth started in September of 2008 with the goal of creating a unique worldwide media event where thousands of participants would simultaneously film

over a 24-hour period. The idea for the project was conceived while watching musicians from very different regions of the world collaborate on stage at the opening

night of the 2008 World festival of Sacred Music. Their initial attempts to create music together were awkward, and it was clear that they had never collaborated prior

to this moment. Eventually though, over the period of a couple minutes, what was disharmony became harmony, and a beautiful fusion of music came together for the

first time. The moment inspired a similar vision for another universal form of communication cinema.

// Over the last two years, One Day on Earth has grown steadily as a grassroots effort

of international filmmakers dedicated to documenting the 24-hour period of October

10th, 2010. In April 2010, prompted by interest from the United Nations and the in-

ternational educational community, One Day on Earth moved to a social networking

platform that could serve as the eventual sharing site for the entire 10.10.10 event.

// We are excited to see our community grow steadily with new participants everyday,

many of whom are creative professionals, teachers, or employees of a non-profit char-

ity. Together, we are creating the first truly worldwide film, where each contributor

can be publicly acknowledged in an open forum. All are welcome to participate; the

greater the quality and quantity of participation, the greater our impact on society.

There are many exciting developments to share over the next couple months. Stay

tuned; we need your help to make 10.10.10 something that will change the way

we see the world.

OUR HISTORY

OUR MISSION

342 : 19 : 45 : 03days hours mins secs

Thank You For Your Participation! Every Nation, 24 hours, and You.

LEFT TO START YOUR FOOTAGE

Copyright 2006-2008 ONE DAY ON EARTH administration Al l r ights reserved Add: 635 sunst st, San Francisco, Ca 94118

one DAYON EARTH11/11/11

Circle 11/11/11 on your calendar. That’s the date. The place is wherever you live, do something that will help deal with air pullution in your city.

HOME ABOUT NEWS MISSION NETWORK LINK CONTACT

61Title Catrgoryone day on earth print, identity, web

60 Percent Of Americans Affected By Air PollutionPosted on: Wednesday, 29 April 2009, 13:10 CDT

In America today you can murder land for private profit. You can leave the corpse for all to see, and nobody calls the cops. Paul Brooks, The Pursuit of Wilderness, 1971

// The American Lung Association reported Wednesday that despite a

growing trend in ‘going green’ and strict laws aimed at improving air

quality, 60% of Americans live in areas with unhealthy air pollution lev-

els. The group ranked the pollution levels of U.S. cities and counties

based on data collected by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency

from 2005 to 2007. The report indicates that air pollution at times

reaches unhealthy levels in almost every major city, affecting the 186.1

million people abiding in those areas. Last year the number was much

less at 125 million people. This discrepancy can be attributed to the

recent changes in federal ozone standards, which caused more counties

to recognize unhealthy levels of pollution.

// The human health effects of poor air quality are far reaching, primar-

ily affect the body’s respiratory and the cardiovascular system and may

range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to trouble

breathing, wheezing, coughing, etc. Exposure to pollutants can result in

an increased need for medication, doctor visits, and is a cause of lung

cancer and premature death.

// Janice E. Nolen, the association’s assistant vice president on national

policy and advocacy says, “Six out of 10 Americans right now as we

speak live in areas where the air can be dirty enough to send people to

the emergency room, dirty enough to shape how kids’ lungs develop

and even dirty enough to kill.” The report found that cities including Los

Angeles, New York, Atlanta, Charlotte, Philadelphia, Washington D.C and

Baltimore have made improvements in air quality over the last 10 years.

The Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside region of Southern California still

holds its status of metropolitan area with the highest levels of ozone

pollution, as it has in the past 10 reports. Other front-runners of ozone

pollution include Houston-Baytown-Huntsville and Worth in Texas.

Pittsburgh-New Castle, Pa.; and the California areas of Fresno-Madera,

Bakersfield and Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside are the areas with

the most short-term (24-hour) particle pollution or soot. The cleanest

metro area in all categories was Fargo, N.D.

// Pittsburgh-New Castle, Pa.; and the California areas of Fresno-Madera,

Bakersfield and Los Angeles-Long Beach-Riverside are the areas with

the most short-term particle pollution or soot. The cleanest metro area

in all categories. The “State of the Air Report” rankings are based on

ozone pollution levels produced when heat and sunlight make contact

with pollutants from power plants, cars, refineries and other sources.





Most Air Pollution Cities by PM10

The European Commission has set yearly limis from PM10 in the air at 40ug/m3, singificantly lower tha the figures above.

Pm10ug/m3

169

150

128

125

109

101

97

City

Cairo, Egypt

Delhi, India

Kolkata, India

Tianjing, China

Lucknow, India

Shenyang, China

Zenzhou, China

Population(1000s)

11,128

15,048

14,277

7,040

13,215

2,566

2,590

60%



// Regulation of Hazardous Air Pollutants (HAPs) in the United

States has been an evolving process beginning as early as 1881

in the cities of Chicago and Cincinnati. The first federal effort at

air pollution regulation began in 1955 with the Air Pollution Control

Act, the precursor to the current Clean Air Act (CAA). The first air

pollution sources regulated were the largest stationary emitters as

well as some vehicle categories. Currently the focus of new regula-

tion is on the smaller but more numerous emitters in the industrial

and commercial sectors termed the “area sources”. Their collec-

tive impact on air pollution is very significant. In order to continue

to improve ambient air quality, these smaller sources must reduce

their hazardous air emissions.

// Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in the at-

mosphere. Major sources of CO2 are fossil fuels burning and

deforestation. “The concentrations of CO2 in the air around 1860

before the effects of industrialization were felt, is assumed to have

been about 290 parts per million (ppm). In the hundred years and

more since then, the concentration has increased by about 30 to

35 ppm that is by 10 percent” In 1975, 18 thousand million tons

of carbon dioxide (equivalent to 5 thousand million tons of carbon)

were released into the atmosphere, but the atmosphere showed

an increase of only 8 billion tons (equivalent to 2.2 billion tons of

carbon”. (Breuer 70) The ocean waters contain about sixty times

more CO2 than the atmosphere. If the equilibrium is disturbed by

externally increasing the concentration of CO2 in the air, then the

oceans would absorb more and more CO2. If the oceans can no

longer keep pace, then more CO2 will remain into the atmosphere.

As water warms, its ability to absorb CO2 is reduced.

mobile non road

area source

mobile on road

fires

major sources

27%

30%

16%

7%

20%

N20 (NITROUS OXIDE) AIR POLLUTION SOURCE 2010

Human inputs 6 million tons per year

And19 million tons per year by nature

6,000,000 ton

19,000,000 tonComes from nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation, and biomass burning.

// Almost 100% of all hospitals fall into the category of being an area source rather than

a major source of air pollution. Currently however, the EPA is drafting an area source

rule that targets hospital EtO emissions. Both the health care and food industries

depend on EtO for sterile products. As of 1994, more than 50% of all sterile medical

devices sold were sterilized using EtO. In 2009, 26% of total EtO emissions were

generated from hospital sterilizers with 34% coming from consumer and products use.

1700

1990

2030

285

PAR

TS

310

PAR

TS

340

PAR

TS

(per billion)

AIR POLLUTION REGULATION




There are more than 400 polluted locations consid-ered high-rish worldwide that affect more than 100 million people

Breathing air pullution in Cairo is the equivalent of smoking 20 cigarette a day

A recent study of found that 40% of worldwide deaths were caused by water, air and soil pollution

Water pollution causes up to 14,000 deaths a day

60% of acute respiratory infections can be linked to environmental facors and kill 2 milliom children every year


The C

ells


Science Book Courier New News Gothic

typefaces

Project

Typography 3

Carolina de Bartolo

instrctor

da

teSpring 2010

know thesmallest

unit of life –Biology and Mutation of the Cells–

challenge With the topic of survival, the goal was to design a hundred pages book based on a scientific subject matter. The text was appropriated from a va-riety of sources and reconstructed to tell a unique visual story from typography, infographics and photography.

results As we know cell is the smallest unit of life, I see the cell as a the most beautiful and elegant life in earth. An enormous amount of photography was needed to show the amazing details in a cell. The duo tone photos represent the

scientific subject matter related to the complex infographics.

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Analytic

Scientific

Complete

Sophisticated

Vivid

Organized

design attributes

73Title Catrgorythe cells typography

cell membrane

golgi bodynucleolus

nucleus

lysosome

vacuole

ribosomes

mitochondrion

cytoplasm


{ ANATOMY OF CELLS } ChapterONE

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-O-H-N-O-CO-

H-O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-

O-H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

Cells are small and

complex. It is hard to

see their structure,

hard to discover their

molecular composition,

out how their various

components function. What

we can learn about cells

depends on the tools at

our disposal, and major

advances in cell biology

have frequently sprung

from the introduction

of new techniques. To

understand contemporary

cell biology, therefore,

it is necessary to know

something of its methods.

In this chapter, we

the principal methods in

microscopy used to study

cells. Understanding the

structural organization

Perquisite for understand-

ing how cells function.

Optical microscopy will be

our starting point because

cell biology began with

the light microscope, and

it is an essential tool.

In recent years optical

microscopy has become ever

more important, largely

owing to the development

labeling and imaging of

individual cellular con-

stituents and the recon

struction of their the

dimensional architecture.

An important advantage

of optical microscopy is

that light is relatively

nondestructive. By tagging

protein, we can thus watch

their movements and inter-

actions in living cells

and organisms.

ANATOMY

OF

CELLS

cell membrane

golgi bodynucleolus

nucleus

lysosome

vacuole

ribosomes

mitochondrion

cytoplasm

THE STRUCTURE OF A CELL

54 The CELLS

Neurons are generally

recognized in conventional

histological preparations

areas by their multian-

gular shape, their large

vesicular nuclei, and the

Nissl bodies are in the

cytoplasm. Special stains

and special modes of

show not only the rest

of the cell for only the

these features but also

the other organelles that

are disposed within its

limiting membrane. In our

image of the nerve cell at

the light microscope level

, it is like a collage of

many overlapping views,

patiently accrued during

a century of studying.

Methods that display the

Nissl bodies and nuclei

leave the rest of the cell

uncolored, whereas meth-

ods stain the mitochondria

give only a pale rendi-

tion of the Nissl bodies,

and methods that bring out

neither mitochondria nor

Nissl. The result is an

image put together from

various techniques and

highly dependent on the

methods commonly used for

teaching histology and

neurology. This restricted

image must be reconciled

with the dynamism of the

crowded cytoplasm seen

in the living nerve cell

under cultivation in vitro

and with the even richer,

but unfortunately static

cytoplasm seen in electron

micrographs. These images

are best explained,

in conjunction with the

and stained preparations.

Because of the size and

shape of the nerve cell,

constant cross reference

between the two levels of

microscopy is essential

for orientation. There

fore, in this and the

following chapters, the

description of cytologi-

cal features will relate

possible. The cell body is the globular or the poly-

hedral part of the neuron,

which is the comprises of

the nucleus and the sur-

rounding cytoplasm and

which gives rise to the

processes of the cell. The

portion of the cell body

surrounding the nucleus is

known as the perikaryon.

THE

NEURONAL

CELL

BODY

98 The CELLS

The limited separation

at which two objects can

still be seen as dis-

tinct the so called limit

of resolution depends on

both the wavelength of

the light and the numeri-

cal aperture of the lens

system used. This lat-

ter quantity is a measure

of the width of the entry

pupil of the microscope,

scaled according to its

distance from the object;

the wider the microscope

opens its eye, so to

speak, the more sharply

it can see. Under the best

conditions, with violet

-

erture of 1.4, a limit of

resolution of just under

be obtained in the light

microscope. It resolution

was achieved by the micro-

scope makers at the end

of the nineteenth century

and is only rarely matched

in contemporary, factory-

produced the microscopes.

Although it is possible to

enlarge an image as much

as one wants for example,

by projecting it onto a

screen it’s never possible

to resolve two objects in

the light microscope that

are separated by less than

appear as a single object.

We see next how the in

terference and diffrac-

tion can be exploited to

study unstained cells in

the living state. Later

we discuss how permanent

preparations of cells are

made for viewing in the

light microscope and how

chemical stains are used

to enhance the visibility

of the cell structures in

such preparations.

DIFFERENTIAL

INTERFERENCE

CONTRAST

MICROSCOPE

The possibility that

some components of the

cell might be lost or

distorted during speci-

men preparation has always

challenged microscopists.

The only certain way to

avoid the problem is to

examine cells while they

freezing. This purpose,

light microscopes with

special optical systems

are especially useful.

When light passes through

a living cell, the phase

of the light wave is

changed according to the

cell’s refractive index:

light passing through a

relatively thick or dense

part of the cell, such as

the nucleus, is retarded;

its phase, consequently,

is shifted relative to

light that has passed

through an adjacent thin-

ner region of the cyto-

plasm. The phase contrast

microscope and, in a more

complex way, the differen-

tial interference contrast

microscope, exploit the

interference effects pro-

duced when these two sets

of waves recombine.

5554 The CELLS

A typical animal cell

of the smallest particle

visible to the naked eye.

It was not until good

light microscopes became

available in the early

part of this nineteenth

century that all plant and

animal tissues were dis

covered to be aggregates

of individual cells. The

discovery, proposed as the

cell doctrine by Schleden

and Schwann in 1838, marks

the formal birth of this

cell biology.

Animal cells are not

only tiny, they are also

colorless and translucent.

Consequently, discovery

of their main internal

features depended on the

development, in the lat-

ter part of the nineteenth

century, of a variety of

stains that provided suf-

those features visible.

Similarly, introduction

of the far more powerful

electron microscope in the

early 1940s required the

development of this new

techniques for preserv-

ing and staining cells

before the full complexi-

ties of their internal

to emerge. To this day,

microscopy depends as much

on techniques for prepare

the specimen on the per-

formance of the microscope

itself. In the discussions

that follow, we therefore

consider both instruments

and specimen preparation,

beginning with the light

microscope.

Sizes of cells and

their components are drawn

on a logarithmic scale,

indicating the range of

objects that can be read-

ily resolved by the naked

eye and in the light and

electron microscopes. The

following units of length

are commonly employed in

the microscopy:

CELLS

IN

THE

MICROSCOPE

1 mm 1 mm 100 µm 10 µm 1µm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

plant cell

bacteriumanimal cell

virusribosome

globularportein

smallmolecule

atom

(1 Å)

naked eye

light microscope

electron microscope

RESOLVING POWER

5150 The CELLS

thereby creating image of

the cell’s structure. Both

types of the light micros-

copy are widely used to

visualize living cells. A

simpler way to see some

of the features of a liv-

ing cell is to observe the

light that is scattered

by its various components.

of microscope, the illu-

minating rays of light are

directed from the side so

that only scattered light

enters this microscope

lenses. Consequently, the

cell appears as a bright

object against a dark

background. With a normal

the image is obtained by

the simple transmission

of light through a cell

in culture. Images of the

same cell obtained by four

kinds of light microscopy

are shown.

Phase contrast, dif-

ferential interference-

microscopy can makes it

possible to watch the

movements involved in such

processes as mitosis and

cell migration. Since many

cellular motions are too

slow to be seen in real

time, it is often very

helpful to take time lapse

motion pictures or video

recordings. Here, suc-

cessive frames separated

by a short time delay are

recorded, so that when the

resulting picture series

or videotape is played at

normal speed, and events

appear greatly speeded up.

In recent years electronic

imaging systems and the

associated technology of

image processing have had

a major impact on light

microscopy. They have en

abled certain practical

limitations of microscopes

to be largely overcome.

They have also circumvent-

ed two fundamental limi-

tations of the human eye:

the eye cannot see well in

extremely dim light, and

it cannot perceive small

differences in light in

tensity against a bright

limitation could be over

come by attaching highly

sensitive video cameras

to microscope. It is then

possible to observe cells

for long periods at very

low light levels, thereby

avoiding damaging effects

of prolonged bright light.

Such low light cameras are

especially important for

-

ecules in living cells, as

explained below.

5756 The CELLS

A neuron is an electri-

cally excitable cell that

processes and transmits

information by electro-

chemical signaling, via

connections with other

cells called synapses.

Neurons are the core com

ponents of the nervous

system, which includes the

brain, spinal cord, and

peripheral ganglia. A num-

ber of specialized types

of neurons exist: sensory

neurons respond to touch,

sound, light and numerou

other stimuli affected

cells of sensory organs

that then send signals to

the spinal cord and brain.

Motor neurons receive sig-

nals from the brain and

spinal cord and because

muscle contractions and

affect gland. Interneurons

connect neurons to other

neurons within the same

region of the brain or

spinal cord. A typical

neuron possesses a cell

body (often called soma),

dendrites, and an axon.

protoplasm that extrude

from the cell body, often

extending for hundreds of

microns and branching mul-

tiple times, giving rise

to a complex “dendritic

tree”. An axon is a spe-

that arises from the cell

body at a site called the

axon hillock and travels

through the bodies, often

for a great distance. The

cell body of a neurongives

rise to multiple den-

drites, but never to more

than one axon, although

the axon may branch hun-

dreds of times before it

terminates. At the major-

ity of synapses, signals

are sent from the axon of

one neuron to a dendrite

of another. There are,

however, many exceptions

to these rules: neurons

that lack dendrites, neu-

rons that have no axon,

synapses that connect an

axon to another axon or a

dendrite to another den-

drite, etc. All neurons

are electrically excit-

able, maintaining volt-

age gradients across their

membranes by means of

metabolically driven ion

pumps, which combine with

ion channels embedded in

the membrane to gener-

ate intracellular versus-

extracellular concentra-

tion differences of ions

NEURON:

NEVER

CELL

1716 The CELLS

The thinner with each

branching, and extending

their farthest branches a

few hundred microns from

the soma. The axon leaves

the soma at a swelling

called the axon hillock,

and can extend for great

distance, give rise to

hundreds of branches. Not

like these dendrites, an

axon usually maintains

the same diameter as it

extends. The soma may give

rise to numerous den-

drites, but never to more

than one axon. Synaptic

signals from other neurons

are received by the soma

and dendrites; signals

to any other neurons are

transmitted by the axon. A

typical synapse, then, is

a contact between the axon

of a neuron dendrite or

soma of another. Synaptic

signal may be excitatory

or inhibitory. If this

next excitation received

by a neuron over a short

period of time is large

enough, the neuron gener-

ates a brief pulse called

an action potential, which

originates at the soma

and propagates rapidly

along the axon, activat-

ing synapses onto other

neurons as it goes. Many

schema in every respect,

but there are also excep-

tions to most parts of it.

There are no neurons that

lack a soma, but there are

neurons lack dendrites,

and others that lack an

axon. Furthermore, to the

typical axodendritic and

axosomatic synapses, there

are axoaxonic and dendro-

dendritic synapses.

Some ion channels are

voltage gated, meaning

that they can be switched

between open and closed

states by altering the

voltage difference across

the membrane. Others are

chemically gated, meaning

that they can be switched

between open and closed

states by interactions

with chemicals can diffuse

through the extra cellu-

between ion channels and

2120 The CELLS

ion pumps produce a volt-

age difference across the

membrane, typically a bit

less than 1/10 of a volt

at baseline. This voltage

it provides a power source

for this assortment of

voltage dependent protein

machinery that is embedded

in the membrane; second,

it provides a basis for

electrical signal trans-

mission between differ-

ent parts of the membrane.

Machinery that is embedded

in the membrane; second,

it provides a basis for

electrical signal trans-

connective tissue. It

is opaque and somewhat

sticky. It is more vis-

cous than distilled water

with a viscosity of 4.7

and slightly alkaline in

nature, Oxygenated blood

is bright red while the

deoxygenated blood is

purple coloured. Blood

-

sels due to the pump in

action of the heart. It

forms about 8% of the

body weight and about 35%

of the ECF. Adult humans

contain about 5 litres

of blood. It forms about

60% of the blood volume.

of blood. It contains 90%

water and the remaining

10% is formed of organic

and inorganic substances.

These materials include

proteins, glucose, nitrog-

enous wastes, enzymes,

hormones and minerals.

About 200 to 300 gm of

plasma proteins are pres-

ent in the total volume

of blood. They are serum

albumin, serum globulin,

BLOOD

CORPUSCLES

nucleus

lecocyles

red cells

RED AND WHITE CELLS FROM THE HUMAN BLOOD

2322 The CELLS

mission. The fundamental

process that triggers

synaptic transmission is

the action potential, a

propagating electrical

signal that is generated

by exploiting the electri-

cally excitable membrane

of the neuron. This is

also known as a wave of

depolarization, And usu-

ally cannot be replaced

after being lost, there

are a few known excep-

tions. In the most cases

they are generated by spe-

cial types of stem cells,

although astrocytes have

observed to turn into

the neurons as they are

sometimes pluripotent.

Some of the features that

-

trical excitability and

the presence of synapses,

which are complex membrane

junctions used to transmit

signals cells.

Two key classes of the

regulatory molecules,

cyclins and cyclin depen-

dent kinases, determine a

cell’s progress through

the cell cycle. Leland H.

Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt,

and the Paul M. Nurse won

the 2001 Nobel Prize in

Physiology or Medicine for

their discovery of these

central molecules. Many of

the genes encoding cyclins

and CDKs are conserved

among all eukaryotes, but

in general more complex

organisms have more elabo-

rate cell cycle control

systems that incorporate

more individual compo-

nents. Many of relevant

-

especially Saccharomyces

cerevisiae; genetic nomen-

clature in yeast dubs many

these genes cdc for “cell

division cycle” followed

by an identifying number,

e.g., cdc25 or cdc20.

Cyclins form the regu-

latory subunits and CDKs

the catalytic subunits of

an activated heterodimer;

cyclins have no catalytic

activity and CDKs are

inactive in the absence

of a partner cyclin. When

activated by the bound

cyclin, CDKs perform this

common biochemical reac-

tion called phosphoryla-

tion that is activates or

inactivates the target

proteins to orchestrate

coordinated entry into

the next phase of the cell

cycle. Different cyclin

CDK combinations determine

the downstream proteins

targeted. CDKs are the

constitutively expressed

in cells whereas cyclins

stages of the cell cycle,

in response to various

molecular signals.

ROLE

OF

CYCLINS

Upon received this

pro mitotic extracellu-

lar signal, G1 cyclin CDK

complexes become active

to prepare the cell for

S phase, promoting the

expression of transcrip-

tion factors that in turn

promote the expression of

S cyclins and of enzymes

required for DNA replica-

tion. The G1 cyclin CDK

complexes also promote the

degradation of molecules

that function as S phase

inhibitors by target them

for ubiquitination. Once

a protein has been ubiq-

uitinated, it is targeted

for proteolytic degrada-

tion by the proteasome.

Active S cyclin CDK com-

plexes phosphorylate

proteins that make up the

pre-replication complexes

assembled during G1 phase

on DNA replication ori-

gins. The phosphorylation

serves two purposes: to

activate each already-

assembled pre-replication

complex, and to prevent

new complexes from this

forming. This ensures

that every portion of the

cell’s genome will be

replicated once and only

once. The reason for this

prevention of gaps rep-

lication is fairly clear,

because daughter cells

that are missing all or

part of crucial genes will

die. or reasons related to

gene copy number effects,

possession of this extra

copies of certain genes

would also prove deleteri-

ous to the daughter cells.

Mitotic cyclin complexes,

which are synthesized but

inactivated during S and

G2 phases, promote the

initiation of mitosis by

stimulating downstream

proteins involved in chro-

mosome condensation and

mitotic spindle assembly.

A critical complex acti-

vated during this process

is a ubiquitin ligase

known as the anaphase

promoting complex (APC),

which promotes degradation

of structural proteins

associated with the chro-

mosomal kinetochore.

6564 The CELLS

A disregulation of the

cell cycle components may

lead to tumor formation.

As mentioned above, some

genes like the cell cycle

inhibitors, when they

mutate, may cause the cell

to multiply uncontrol-

lably, forming a tumor.

Although the duration of

cell cycle in tumor cells

is equal to or longer

than that of normal cell

cycle, the proportion of

cells that are in active

cell division in tumors is

much higher than that in

normal tissue. Thus there

is a net increase in cell

number as the number of

cells that die by apopto-

sis or senescence remains

the same.

The cells which are

actively undergoing cell

cycle are targeted in can-

cer therapy as the DNA is

relatively exposed during

cell division and hence

susceptible to damage by

drugs or radiation. This

fact is made use of in

cancer treatment; by a

process known as debulk-

the tumor is removed which

of the remaining tumor

cells from G0 to G1 phase,

due to increased the

availability of nutrients,

oxygen,factors etc. This

Radiation or chemotherapy

following the debulk-

ing procedure kills these

cells which have newly

entered the cell cycle.

The fastest cycling mamma-

lian cells in culture, and

crypt cells in the intes-

tinal epithelium, have a

cycle time as short as 9

to 10 hours. Stem cells

in resting mouse skin may

have a cycle time of more

than 200 hours.

Most of the difference

is due to varying length

of G1, the most variable

phase of the cycle. M and

S do not vary much. In

general, cells are most

radiosensitive in late

M and G2 phases and most

resistant in late S. For

cells with a longer cell

cycle time and a sig-

there is a second peak

of resistance late in G1.

The pattern of resistance

and sensitivity corre-

lates with the level of

sulfhydryl compounds in

the cell. Sulfhydryls are

natural radio protectors

and tend to be at their

highest levels in S and at

their lowest near mitosis.

ROLE

IN

TUMOR

FORMATION

6766 The CELLS

{ DNA } ChapterSIX

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-O-H-N-O-CO-

H-O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-

O-H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

How Does Precipita-

understand why nucleic

acids are soluble in

water. Water (H2O) is a

polar molecule that has a

partial negative charge

near the oxygen atom due

the unshared pairs of

electrons, and partial

positive charges near

the hydrogen atoms. Due

to this polar nature of

water, other polar the

molecules such as DNA or

RNA can interact elec-

trostatically with the

water molecules, allowing

them to easily dissolve

in water. Precipitation

breaks this interaction

and creates new ones,

allowing the DNA or RNA

to come out of solution

and be isolated easily.

Salt in the DNA Precipita-

tion. Salt’s role in the

protocol is to neutralize

the charges on the sugar

phosphate backbone of the

nucleic acid whether DNA

or RNA. Commonly used

salts in DNA and RNA are

precipitation include

sodium acetate. In aqeous

solution, sodium acetate

[CH3COO]-. The posi-

tively charged sodium ions

neutralize negatively

charged backbone on the

PO3- groups on the nucleic

acids, making the nucleic

acid molecule far less

hydrophilic, and therefore

less soluble in water.

Ethanol in the DNA Pre-

cipitation Electrostatic

attractions between the

the PO3- ions are dic-

tated by Coulomb’s Law,

which is affected by the

dielectric constant of the

solution. Water has a high

dielectric constant, which

come together. Ethanol on

the other hand has a much

lower dielectric constant,

making it much easier for

PO3-, shield it’s charge

and make the nucleic acid

less hydrophilic, causing

to drop out of solution.

Temperature in the

precipitation. Incuba-

tion of the nucleic acid/

salt/ethanol mixture at

low temperatures is com-

monly cited in protocols

as necessary in protocols.

Nucleic acids however at

concentrations as low as

20ng/mL will precipitate

at 0-4C so incubation for

15-30 minutes on ice is

-

tion Protocol. The goal

of this protocol is to

precipitate DNA, as the

name says. This is usually

coupled with phenol chlo-

roform extraction and is

used as a way of purifying

nucleic acids. This can

also be used as a method

for changing what solution

or buffer your nucleic

acid is in. This protocol

also works for this RNA

precipitation (take care

to us RNAse free materials

in this case).

8180 The CELLS 4746 The CELLS

DIRECTIONS

IN

SPACE

Chemical reactions in

the living cell, unlike

those in the test tube,

commonly have both loca-

tion and orientation in

space. Vectorial trans-

port of electrons and

protons across membranes,

which lies at the heart of

energy transduction was an

early example. The machin-

ery of DNA replication,

and translation has a

direction with respect to

the polynucleotide chains,

which was made visible in

electronic micrographs.

The direction of biochemi-

cal processes ultimately

derives from asymmetric

structure of proteins and

the other macromolecules,

which then assemble into

the polarized complexes,

including the chromosomes,

-

bules, and those motor

proteins that travel those

tracks. To the extent that

directionality is rooted

in molecular structure,

we are still in the orbit

of the genes that encode

those molecules.

Vectorial physiology,

directionality at this

systems level. comes to

the fore when one con-

siders the spatial orga-

nization of the cell as

a whole. Few cells are

spherically symmetri-

cal, and even those must

break symmetry in order

to divide. Growing cells

commonly have a durable

axis, and most are overtly

polarized; Polarity goes

well beyond the visible

differences of form and

function between one end

of the cell and the other.

Rather, it implies that

ultrastructure and physi-

ology are so arranged as

to confer global direction

upon all cellular opera-

tions. Directions in cell

space are rooted in the

asymmetry of molecules

but are established at

a higher level of these

organization, visibly so

in cases where physiologi-

cal vectors arise de novo.

In eukaryotes, at least,

cell polarization normally

(perhaps always) turns

on the construction of a

polarized cytoskeleton.

As discussed in detail

later, tRNA molecules

dimensional architecture

in solution that is cru-

cial in protein synthesis.

Larger rRNA molecules also

in this three dimensional

structures, with more of

Secondary and tertiary

structures also have been

recognized in mRNA, par-

ticularly near the ends of

molecules. These recently

discovered structures

are under active study.

Clearly, RNA molecules are

like proteins in that they

have structured domains

connected by less struc-

The folded domains of

RNA molecules not only

are structurally analogous

strands found in proteins,

but in some cases also

have catalytic capaci-

ties. Such catalytic RNAs,

called ribozymes, can

cut RNA chains. Some RNA

domains also can catalyze

RNA splicing, a remark-

able process in which an

internal RNA sequence, an

intron, is cut and removed

and these two resulting

chains, the exons, are

sealed together. Process

occurs during formation of

the majority of the func-

tional mRNA molecules in

eukaryotic cells, and also

occurs in bacteria and

archaea. The mechanisms of

splicing and self-splicing

are discussed in detail in

Chapter three. As noted

later in this chapter,

rRNA is thought to play

a catalytic role in the

formation of peptide bonds

during protein synthesis.

DNA

PRECIPITATION

DNA precipitation

using salt and ethanol

is a commonly used proto-

col in the lab for con-

centrating nucleic acids

such as DNA and RNA. The

basic method is salt and

ethanol are added to the

aqueous solution, which

forces the nucleic acid to

precipitate out of solu-

tion. Centrifugation of

the precipitated nucleic

acids and washing isolates

the nucleic acid from

the rest of the solution.

The nucleic acid contain-

ing pellet is then washed

with cold 70% ethanol to

remove the salt. Then a

second centrifugation step

is used to isolate the

nucleic acid away from

the ethanol allowing the

ethanol to be removed.

The nucleic acid pellet

is then allowed to dry,

and is then resuspended

in fresh aqueous T (Tris)

buffer or water.

7978 The CELLS

{ MOLECULES INTO CELLS } ChapterTHREE

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-O-H-N-O-CO-

H-O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-

O-H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

Data seldom speak for

themselves: they are apt

to be unintelligible in

the absence of a concep-

tual framework to put the

information in order. I

have therefore tried to

distill from the litera

ture a set of broad and

comprehensible principles

to explain how molecules

come together into the

cellular systems that’s

spatially organized, func-

tionally coherent, and

competitive in the evolu-

tionary arena and to the

illustrate principles by

examples drawn from this

recent research with both

recent research with both

prokaryotic and eukary

otic microorganisms. This

exercise provides fresh

support for a holistic

point of view diverges

opinions held, at least

conventionally, by many

molecular scientists. Spa-

tial organization is not

written out in the genetic

blueprint; it’s emerges

epigenetically from the

interplay of genetically

of a hierarchy of self-

organizing processes,

constrained by heritable

structures, membranes in

particular. Molecules and

the genes that specify

them remain essential

since they constitute the

material basis of all

biological structures,

but from the perspective

of organized systems they

do not hog the limelight.

Center stage is held by

the whole cell, that’s in

dispensable unit of life,

which molecules are but

parts; the smallest self

that truly organizes them-

self is the cell.

3736 The CELLS

Beyond the genes, in

terms heredity and genet-

ics have become as the

practically synonymous:

features reproduced from

one generation to the next

are said to be hereditary

and assumed to be encoded

in gene sequences. At the

molecular level, the level

of proteins and nucleic

acids, few will quarrel

with this sweeping gener-

alization except to make

room for complexities, but

it is the organization of

the cell as a whole that

brings the point to focus.

Cell form and cytology are

obviously inherited across

thousands of generations.

How much of the architec-

ture of prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells will be

explicitly spelled out in

their genes?

To make the issue more

concrete, consider what

cell growth and division

-

ment is to duplicate all

of the molecular. These

by the genes, directly or

indirectly, together with

much regulatory machinery

(note, though, that even

here there is room for

ambiguity: only by impli-

cation is the chemical

structure peptido glycan ,

lipopolysaccharide writ-

ten out in the genes that

encode the enzymes which

produce those molecules).

The genetic instructions

often include information

pertinent into the one

localization of product.

Targeting sequences direct

proteins to the plasma

membrane, nucleus, mito-

chondria, or lysosomes.

Certain proteins and mRNAs

are transported individu-

ally to this particular

locations in cell space,

In speaking of these

matters, I have sometimes

encountered the objection

that many mutations are

known to alter the form

and spatial organization

of cells. Does that not

demonstrate that cellular

architecture comes under

the genes’ writ? Well, yes

and also no. If a pro-

tein deleted or altered by

mutation plays a role in

morphogenesis. The exam-

ples from both prokaryotes

and eukaryotes run into

the hundreds.

THE

HIERARCHY

OF

ORDER

3938 The CELLS

and this localization

depends on having a one

appropriate sequence.

membranes, such as the

Golgi, vacuole, or plasma

membrane, with the aid

of SNARE proteins. But

there is much more to

growth and division than

manufacturing the parts.

A rod-shaped cell must

also elongate with a con

stant diameter, construct

partition its chromosomes,

locate its midpoint, lay

down a septum, and under-

cells, targeted vesicle

fusion requires. Both a

delivery system and the

secretory apparatus. For

the many genomes now on

record apparently contain

no genes that specify cel-

lular forms and patterns.


The axons of vertebrate

neurons are unique pro-

cesses. They can project

locally, they can extend

from one part of nervous

system to another, for

they are the processes

that link the arbitrarily

nervous system, central,

peripheral, and autonomic

divisions. Usually axons

which project locally,

axons of Golgi type II

neurons, often called the

local circuit neurons, are

unmyelinated. Consequent-

ly, they can been visual-

ized by Golgi impregnation

methods. But axons that

pass from one portion of

the nervous system to the

others, the axons of Golgi

type I neurons or this

projection neurons, are

usually myelinated and so

usually impregnate only

as far as the beginning

of their myelin sheaths,

so that impregnation is’n

a useful way to visualize

them. The trajectories,

or the end points, in the

pathways of projection

neurons, can be the traced

by using horseradish per-

oxidase as a retrograde

tracer, or labeled amino

acids as anterograde trac-

ers, but the best way to

examine an entire axonal

projection is by cellular

injection of the kinds of

horseradish peroxidase.

Then, all parts of the

axonal tree can become

both light and electron

microscopy. This technique

shows axonal projections

to be much more complex

and extensive than had

previously been imagined.

The results are spectacu-

lar. It was, therefore,

proposed that technique

would render all other

axon tracing methods su

proven to be the case,

for the method is tech-

nically complicated and

requirescooperation of

physiologists and anato-

mists, a marriage that’s

number of axons can be

relatively few studies so

far have published using

in tracellular injections

of horseradish peroxidase.

THE

AXON

1110 The CELLS

axon

cell

NEURON

As discussed in detail

later, tRNA molecules

dimensional architecture

in solution that is cru-

cial in protein synthesis.

Larger rRNA molecules also

in this three dimensional

structures, with more of

Secondary and tertiary

structures also have been

recognized in mRNA, par-

ticularly near the ends of

molecules. These recently

discovered structures

are under active study.

Clearly, RNA molecules are

like proteins in that they

have structured domains

connected by less struc-

The folded domains of

RNA molecules not only

are structurally analogous

strands found in proteins,

but in some cases also

have catalytic capaci-

ties. Such catalytic RNAs,

called ribozymes, can

cut RNA chains. Some RNA

domains also can catalyze

RNA splicing, a remark-

able process in which an

internal RNA sequence, an

intron, is cut and removed

and these two resulting

chains, the exons, are

sealed together. Process

occurs during formation of

the majority of the func-

tional mRNA molecules in

eukaryotic cells, and also

occurs in bacteria and

archaea. The mechanisms of

splicing and self-splicing

are discussed in detail in

Chapter three. As noted

later in this chapter,

rRNA is thought to play

a catalytic role in the

formation of peptide bonds

during protein synthesis.

DNA

PRECIPITATION

DNA precipitation

using salt and ethanol

is a commonly used proto-

col in the lab for con-

centrating nucleic acids

such as DNA and RNA. The

basic method is salt and

ethanol are added to the

aqueous solution, which

forces the nucleic acid to

precipitate out of solu-

tion. Centrifugation of

the precipitated nucleic

acids and washing isolates

the nucleic acid from

the rest of the solution.

The nucleic acid contain-

ing pellet is then washed

with cold 70% ethanol to

remove the salt. Then a

second centrifugation step

is used to isolate the

nucleic acid away from

the ethanol allowing the

ethanol to be removed.

The nucleic acid pellet

is then allowed to dry,

and is then resuspended

in fresh aqueous T (Tris)

buffer or water.

7978 The CELLS

{ NEURON }

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-O-H-N-O-CO-

H-O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-

O-H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

ChapterTWO

{ CELL CYCLE } ChapterFIVE

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-O-H-N-O-CO-

H-O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-

O-H-N-O-CH-H-O-C-

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

G1 PHASE: Metabolic

changes prepare the cell

for division. At a certain

point, cell is committed

to division and moves into

the S phase.

S PHASE: DNA synthesis

replicates the genetic

material. Each of the

chromosome now consists

of two sister chromatids.

G2 PHASE: Metabolic

changes assemble the

cytoplasmic materials

necessary for mitosis

and cytokinesis.

M PHASE: A nuclear

division (mitosis)

followed by a cell

division (cytokinesis).

G1S

G2

M

The cell cycle, or

called cell division

cycle, is the series of

events that takes place

in a cell leading to its

division and duplica-

tion (replication). In

cells without a nucleus

(prokaryotic), the cell

cycle occurs via a pro-

In cells with a nucleus

(eukaryotes), the cell

cycle can be divided in

two brief periods: inter-

phase—during which the

cell grows, accumulating

nutrients needed for this

mitosis and duplicating

its DNA—and the mitosis

(M) phase, during which

the cell splits itself

into two distinct cells,

often called “daughter

cells”. The cell-division

cycle is a vital process

by which a single celled

fertilized egg develops

into a mature organism,

as well as the process by

which hair, skin, blood

cells, and some internal

organs are renewed.

THE

CELL

CYCLE

For all living eukary-

otic organisms it’s the

essential that different

phases of the cell cycle

are precisely coordinated.

The phases must follow in

correct order, and one

phase must be completed

before the next phase can

begin. Errors in this

coordination may lead to

chromosomal alterations.

Chromosomes or parts of

chromosomes may be lost,

rearranged or distributed

unequally between the two

daughter cells. This type

of chromosome alteration

is seen in cancer cells.

6160 The CELLS

The cell cycle consists

of several phases. In the

grows and becomes larger.

When it has reached a cer-

tain size it enters the

next phase (S), in which

DNA-synthesis takes place.

The cell duplicates its

hereditary material (DNA

replication) and a copy of

each chromosome is formed.

During the next phase (G2)

the cell checks that DNA

replication is completed

and prepares for the cell

division. The chromosomes

are separated (mitosis,

M) and the cell divides

into two daughter cells.

Through this mechanism the

daughter cells receive

the identical chromosome

set ups. After division,

the cells are back in (G1)

and the cell cycle is

completed. The duration

of the cell cycle var-

ies between different cell

types. In most mammalian

cells it lasts between

10 and 30 hours. Cells in

(G1) donnot always con-

tinue through the cycle.

Instead they can exit from

the cell cycle and enter a

resting stage (G0).

MITOSIST

PROPHASE: It occupies

over half of mitosis. This

nuclear membrane breaks

down to form a number of

small vesicles and the

nucleolus disintegrates.

PROMETAPHASE: The chromo-

somes, led by centromeres,

migrate to these equato-

rial plane in the midline

of cell at right angles

to the axis formed by the

centrosomes. This region

of these mitotic spindle

is known as the metaphase

bind to a structure asso-

ciated with the centromere

of each chromosome called

a kinetochore.

NAPHASE: It is the short-

est stage of the mitosis.

The centromeres divide,

and the sister chromatids

of each chromosome are

pulled apart, or disjoin

and move to the opposite

ends of the cell, pulled

to kinetochore regions.

2

3

1 METAPHASE: The chromo-

somes align themselves

along the metaphase plate

of the spindle apparatus.

TELOPHASE:

stage of mitosis, and a

reversal of many of the

processes observed dur-

ing prophase. The nuclear

membrane reforms around

the chromosomes grouped

at either pole of the

cell, the chromosomes

uncoil and become dif-

fuse, and the spindle

CYTOKINESIS:

cellular division to form

two new cells. In plants

a cell plate forms along

the line of the meta-

phase plate; in animals

there is a constriction

of cytoplasm. The cell

enters interphas interval

between mitotic divisions.

6

5

4

G1

S

G2

M

1

2

3

4

5

6

6362 The CELLS

Neuropil, a term given

to the portions of the

central nervous system

that contain a feltwork

of intermingled and in

rerconnected processes

of neurons. It’s in the

neuropil that most of the

synapt interaction occur.

-

mingling of the axons and

dendrites appears to be

random, but more careful

study shows that the func-

tional connections between

these neuronal processes

-

cise. This organization

would be anticipated from

our knowledge of the ex-

act manner in which the

nervous system functions.

Moreover, the precision

of these connections is

electron microscopic study

that have been carried

out into the neuropil of

different regions of the

central nervous system.

The electron micro-

scopic analysis of the

neuropil is not an easy

task. Not only is it nec-

essary to identify the

axons sectioned in vari-

ous planes, but also it

is necessary to recognize

the neuroglial processes

that pass between them.

As a result of investiga-

tions in which the same

types of process have been

studied in the different

areas of the central ner-

vous system, criteria have

been established for the

of dendrites, for example,

subtle variations from

the typical always exist.

These variations depend

upon such factors as the

distance of the dendrite

from the parent cell body,

the sizes of dendrites

arising from different

neurons, and the functions

of the part of the cen-

tral nervous system under

consideration. Consequent,

although this kind typical

features of a certain kind

of process, either neuro-

nal or neuroglial, can be

described, it must not be

expected that any particu-

lar process will exhibit

all of these features.

Neither must it be expect-

ed that the features will

remain constant even from

one portion to another of

the same process. In other

words, it is not possible

to generalize completely.

A full analysis of elec-

tron micrographs from a

given area of neuropil

can only be expected after

some familiarity has been

established with the orga-

nization of the region.

THE

NEUROPIL

2726 The CELLS

These variations depend

upon such factors as the

distance of the dendrite

from the parent cell body,

the sizes of dendrites

arising from different

neurons, and the functions

of the part of the cen-

tral nervous system under

consideration. Consequent,

although this kind typical

features of a certain kind

of process, either neuro-

nal or neuroglial, can be

described, it must not be

expected that any particu-

lar process will exhibit

all of these features.

Neither must it be expect-

ed that the features will

remain constant even from

one portion to another of

the same process. In other

words, it is not possible

to generalize completely.

The thinness of the

sections and the small

amount of material that

can be the effecquently,

in almost every case the

results of an electron

microscopic study have to

support all data obtained

from other techniques. The

electronic microscopist,

the most interested and

connections of the central

nervous system. The elec-

tron microscopic analysis

of the ropil is not an

easy task. Not only is it

necessary to identify the

axons sectioned in vari-

ous planes, but also it

is necessary to recognize

the neuroglial processes

that pass between them.

Detailed and useful analy-

ses of neuropil involve of

many hundreds of electron

microscopic sections. Gen-

in itself. The thinness

of the sections and the

small amount of material

that can be effecquently,

in almost every case of

the results of microscopic

study have to be support-

ed by data obtained from

other techniques.

2928 The CELLS

Vacuole is important

as a homeostatic device,

enabling plant cells to

withstand wide variations

in their environment. When

the pH in the environment

drops, for example, the

-

sol is balanced, at least

in part, by an increased

vacuole to keep the pH

in the cytosol constant.

Similarly, many plant

cells maintain an almost

constant the turgor pres-

sure in the face of large

changes in the tonicity

environment. They do so

by changing the osmotic

pressure of the cytosol

and vacuole in part by the

controlled breakdown and

resynthesis of polymers,

such as polyphosphate, in

the vacuole, and in part

by altering the transport

rates of sugars and the

pressure controls these

activities of the distinct

sets of transporters in

each membrane.

PLANT

CELLS

nucleus

strands of cytoplasm

vacuole

plasma membrance

cell wall

A large increase

in cell volume can be

achieved without increase

the volume of the cytosol.

Localized weakening of the

cell wall orients a turgor

driven cell of enlarge-

ment that accompanies the

uptake of water into an

expanding vacuole. The

cytosol is eventually con-

layer, which is connected

to the nuclear region by

strands of cytosol, which

are stabilized by bundles

THE ROLE OF THE VACUOLE IN CONTROLLING THE SIZE OF PLANT CELLS Substances stored in

plant vacuoles are of-

ten harvested for human

use: in different species,

these range from rubber

the garlic. Many stored

products have a metabolic

function. Proteins, for

example, can be preserved

for years in the vacuoles

of the storage cells of

many seeds, such as those

of peas and beans. When

the seeds germinate, these

proteins are hydrolyzed

and the resulting amino

acids provide a food sup-

ply for developing embryo.

Most plant and fungal

cells (including yeasts)

contain one or several

vesicles called vacuoles.

They typically occupy

more than 30% of the cell

volume, and as much as

90% in some cell types.

Vacuoles are related to

the lysosomes of animal

cells, containing a vari-

ety of hydrolytic enzymes,

but their functions are

remarkably diverse. The

plant vacuole can act as

a storage organelle for

both nutrients and waste

products, as the degrada-

tive compartment, as an

economical way of increas

cell size, and as control-

ler of turgor pressure.

3130 The CELLS

The GC content of DNA

on its Tm. The higher a

DNA’s GC content, the

higher its Tm. Why should

this be? One of the forces

holding the two strands

of DNA together is hydro-

gen bonding. Also G and C

pairs form three hydrogen

bonds, whereas A-T pairs

have only two. It stands

to the reason, then that

two strands of DNA rich in

G and C will hold to each

other more tightly than

those of AT rich DNA.

Heating is not the

only way to denature DNA.

Organic solvents such as

dimethyl sulfoxide and

formamide, or high pH,

disrupt the hydrogen bond-

ing between DNA strands

and promote denaturation.

Lowering of the salt

concentration of the DNA

solution also aids dena-

turation by removing the

ions that shield negative

charges on the two strands

from one another. At low

ionic strength, the mutu-

ally repulsive forces of

the negative charges are

strong enough to denature

the DNA ar a relatively

low temperature.

temperature

ab

sorp

tion

of

26

0n

m l

igh

t

double stranded DNA

0.5

0.75

1.0

8075 85 90

Tm

single stranded DNA

LIGHT ABSORPTION AND TEMPERATURE IN DNA DENATURATION

Melting of doubled

stranded DNA can be moni-

tored by the absorption of

ultraviolet light at 260

nm. As regions of doubled

stranded DNA unpair, the

absorption of light by

those regions increases

almost twofold. The tem-

perature at which half the

bases in a double stranded

DNA sample havedenatured

is denoted Tm (for temper-

ature of melting). Light

absorption by the single

stranded DNA changes much

less as the temperature

is increased. The Tm is a

function of the G and C

content of the DNA; the

higher the G percentage,

the greater the Tm.

7574 The CELLS

An important function

of many checkpoints is to

assess DNA damage, which

is detected by sensor

mechanisms. When damage

is found, the checkpoint

uses a signal mechanism

to either stall the cell

cycle until repairs are

made or, if repairs can’t

be made, to target the

cell for destruction via

apoptosis (effector mecha-

nism). All the checkpoints

that assess DNA damage

appear to utilize the same

sensor signal effector

mechanism. The cell cycle

according to Temple and

Raff, 1986, was meant to

function as a clock, but

if this was the case it

would be expected that the

stages of the cell cycle

must function according

to some sort of internal

clock, that will determine

how long a phase should

take. Contradictorily, the

cell cycle is now depicted

like the falling dominoes,

the preceding phase has

to “fall” before the next

phase can take place. The

cell cycle checkpoints are

therefore made up of com-

posites of protein kinases

and adaptor proteins which

is all play salient roles

in the maintenance of the

integrity of the division.

Checkpoints are now

accepted to exist at

every single point in the

cell cycle. The DNA dam-

age checkpoint is always

active. Nonetheless, most

human cells for example

are terminally differen-

tiated and must exit the

cell cycle. There is a

phase late in G1 phase

called the restriction

point; cells that should

cease division exit the

cell cycle and enter G0.

Cells that continually

divide in the adult human

include hematopoietic stem

cells and gut epithelial

cells. The entrant into

the cell cycle is there-

fore only possible by

overcoming the RP. This

is achieved by the growth

factor induced expres-

sion of cyclin D proteins.

These then overcome the G0

barrier and are able to

enter the cell cycle.

CELL

CYCLE

CHECKPOINT

6968 The CELLS

CIRCULAR

DNA

MOLECULES

Many DNA Molecules Are

Circular. All prokary-

otic genomic DNAs and many

viral DNAs are circular

molecules. Circular DNA

molecules also occur in

mitochondria, which are

present in almost all

eukaryotic cells, and in

chloroplasts, which are

present in plant and some

unicellular eukaryotes.

Each of the two strands in

a circular DNA molecule

forms a closed structure

without free ends. Just

as is the case for linear

DNA, elevated temperatures

or alkaline pH destroy

the hydrogen bonds and

other interactions that

stabilize double helical

circular DNA molecules.

Unlike linear DNA, how-

ever, the two strands of

circular DNA cannot unwind

and separate; attempts to

melt such DNA result in an

interlocked, tangled mass

of single stranded DNA.

Only if a native circu-

lar DNA is nicked, will

the two strands unwind and

the two strands unwind and

separate when the mol-

ecule is denatured. One of

thea separated strands is

circular, and the other

is linear. The study of

circular DNA molecules

uncovered complicated

geometric shape changes

that the double stranded

DNA molecule must undergo

when the strands are not

free to separate. As the

noted earlier, the pri-

mary structure of RNA is

generally similar to that

of DNA; however, the sugar

component (ribose) of RNA

has an additional hydroxyl

and thymine in DNA is

replaced by uracil in RNA.

The hydroxyl group on C2

The hydroxyl group on

C2 of ribose makes RNA

more chemically labile

than DNA and provides a

chemically reactive group

that takes part in RNA

mediated enzymatic events.

As a result of this labil-

ity, RNA is cleaved into

mono nucleotides by alka

line solution, whereas DNA

is not. Like DNA, RNA is a

long polynucleotide that

can be double-stranded or

single-stranded, linear or

circular. It can also par-

ticipate in a hybrid helix

composed of one RNA strand

and one DNA strand; this

hybrid has a slightly dif-

ferent conformation than

the common B form of DNA.

Unlike DNA, which

exists primarily in a

single, very long three

dimensional structure, the

double helix, the vari-

ous types of RNA exhibit

different conformations.

The differences in the

sizes and conformations

of the various types of

RNA permit them to carry

cell. The simplest second-

ary structures in single

stranded RNAs are formed

by pairing of complemen-

tary bases. “Hairpins” are

formed by pairing of bases

within eight nucleotides

of each other, and “stem-

loops” by pairing of bases

to several hundred nucleo-

tides These simple folds

can cooperate to form

more complicated tertiary

structures, one of which

is termed a “pseudoknot”.

7776 The CELLS

0.5

1

0

0 -20 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140

oocyte pronucleus

sperm pronucleus

time (seconds)

8382 The CELLS

The site of sperm entry

-

rior (Goldstein and Hird,

1996). As the pronuclei

become more visible by the

DIC, the sperm derived

pronucleus, and the asso-

ciated centrosomes sit on

the posterior cortex. The

oocyte derived pronucleus

forms following two rounds

of meiotic chromosome seg-

regation, typically in the

embryo anterior. The two

pronuclei migrate towards

each other coincident with

this chromosome conden-

mitotic prophase.

Pronuclear migration

consists of movement of

the oocyte pronucleus

towards sperm pronucleus

and movement of the sperm

pronucleus away from the

cortex towards the embryo

center. Initially, the

oocyte pronucleus moves

-

rior at a slow rate (3.5

this sperm pronucleus,

the oocyte pronucleus are

accelerates, moving an

5-10 times its initial

rate. The sperm pronucleus

begins its migration later

than its female counter-

part and travels at a slow

meets oocyte pronucleus

near the embryo center.

In addition to this migra-

tion of female pronucleus

towards to male pro-

nucleus, migration and

the centration of the

male pronucleus within

the embryo has also been

analyzed to distinguish

between this two possible

models: (1) a “pushing

mechanism,” in which the

male pronucleus is pushed

away from the cortex by

the polymerization of

astral microtubules and,

(2) a “pulling mechanism”

in which male pronucleus

is pulled by minus en

directed motors anchored

throughout the cytoplasm.

PRONUCLEAR

MIGRATION

POSISTION ALONG THE ANTERIOR POSTERIOR AXIS

nu

mb

er

of

em

bry

o

Timelapse DIC sequences

of 20 wild type and 16

gamma tubulin depleted

embryos were collected.

The average position of

the oocyte derived and

sperm derived pronuclei

along the anterior pos-

terior axis of the embryo

is plotted (y-axis) as a

function of time (x-axis).

Times are with respect to

pronuclear meeting. The

sperm pronucleus moves

towards to the embryo

anterior at uniform slow

rate. The oocyte pro-

nucleus initially moves

towards the embryo pos-

terior at a similar slow

rate, but then speeds up

prior to nuclear meeting.

The CELLS

INDEX

D

division 9, 14, 34

DNA 12, 14, 35, 48

depolarization 76, 78

distance 27, 72, 81

dendrity 34, 46

dendritic tree 34, 71

E

eukaryotic 67, 88

enzymes 46, 49

eumetazoa 3, 34, 68, 84

F

framework 23, 48

9, 82

G

genes 4, 45, 57, 69

generations 9, 15, 39, 48

gradient 25, 33, 65

H

hierarchy 36, 56

human 27,49, 56, 87

horseradish 21, 50, 89

A

axons 18, 45, 46

amacrine 9, 21, 24

architecture 46, 80, 81

accompany 67, 78

assembly 12, 22, 34, 36

arctic 6, 8, 24, 26

axoaxonic 77, 79

astrocytes 24,48

B

biology 4, 14, 67

birth 5, 8, 45

bilayers 22, 43

brain 4, 45

blood 45, 68, 69

branch 2, 6, 34

C

cellular 24, 89

coherent 24, 47, 78

chemical 4, 32, 36, 89

cytoplasmic 32, 44

cooperation 45, 86, 90

cytoplasm 14, 46

conjunction 43, 78, 79

I

inheritance 87, 91, 93, 94

intracellular 24, 25, 65

ion 4, 12, 45, 48, 87

interneurons 66, 67

J

jar 63, 76, 77

jerne 24, 67, 78

jobs 4, 65, 88

junctions 5, 16, 27

K

killer 26, 41, 45, 56

kinase 12, 25, 27, 47,95

krebs 36, 65, 89

L

lscl 58, 76, 77

lactose 57, 66

literature 22, 56, 78

lymphocyte 79

lysyl cycle 90

M

macomolecule 42, 51, 55, 56

major 6, 45, 63, 69

malate 33, 56, 66

molecular 24, 36

N

networks 26, 47, 50, 52

neuropil 14, 34, 35, 46

numerous 64, 53, 55

nerve cell 67, 78, 79 ,92

neuroanatomy 33, 84, 86

O

organism 34, 66, 68

order 24, 48, 64

P

protein 27, 42, 56, 34, 78

peptidoglycan 34, 48, 87, 88

prokaryotic 78

physical forces 53

pattern 78, 80, 82

protoplasm 12, 34

peroxidase 67, 68, 70

Q

q band 77

quantitative 28, 45, 62

quiescent 23, 24, 53, 65, 78

quinone 35, 67, 68, 76

R

redistribution 24, 48

reborn 6, 67, 89, 92

red 61, 64, 83,85

S

structure 16, 18, 24, 48

Self organization 23, 26

synonymous 65, 66, 87, 88

spinal 45, 68

schema 23, 35, 43, 54

synaptic 65, 74, 76

silhouette 56, 72, 78

T

template 45, 48

terminal 27, 40, 53

terms 54, 69

tubulin 45, 49, 63, 77

tyrosine 22, 34, 35, 67

V

vaccinia 34, 45, 67

vesicle 32, 40, 41, 43

voltage 36, 38, 64, 58

W

wave 48, 49, 53, 55, 76

weight 5, 48, 78, 79

working 8, 45

woese 8, 9, 12

wohler 5, 26, 56

X

xenobioty 68, 69, 71

xylem 6, 11, 86, 91

Y

yeast cell 32, 34, 36

Z

zonulae occludentes 34, 48

zincndinger 84, 89

zwitterion 39, 50, 53, 73

zymogen 36, 39, 42, 44

The CELLS

A more realistic frame

the genesis of biolog-

ical organization and

morphology is sketched

in Fig. The hierarchy of

order envisages a nested

succession of this stages,

beginning with the trans-

lation of genetic infor-

mation into functional

proteins. Various kinds

of self-assembly give rise

to subcellular structures

and devices. Next come the

localized and vectorial

processes of physiology,

all subordinated to the

structure of the cell as

a whole, which generate

spatial patterns on a

scale orders of magnitude

above the molecular.

The hierarchy of this

culminates with the gener-

ation and the application

of mechanical forces that

actually shape the whole

cell or microorganism.

Organisms are notoriously

diverse, and they have

invented a host of ways

to shape themselves. If

unity can be discerned, it

revolves around the kinds

of processes that prog-

ress sively build up this

structures, organization,

and global form. The word

to conjure with nowadays

is self-organization.

The two monocyclic bases

shown here are classi-

the two bicyclic bases are

purines. Each has at least

one N and H site at which

an organic substituent may

be attached. They are all

polyfunctional bases, and

may exist in this tauto-

meric forms.

Base on the catalyzed

hydrolysis of DNA gave

four nucleoside products,

which proved to be N gly-

cosides of 2’ deoxyribose

combined with the hetero-

cyclic amines. The base

components are colored

green, and the sugar is

black. As noted in the 2’

deoxycytidine structure on

the left, the numbering

of the sugar carbons makes

use of primed numbers to

distinguish them from the

heterocyclic base sites.

N

H

H

O

O

H3C 4

5

6 12

3

N N

NN

H

NH2

17

9 28

3

4

5 6

N

N

N

N

H

H

O

NH2

17

9 28

3

4

5 6

ON

N

H

NH2

45

61

2

3

2

Cytosine C

PYRIMIDINE BASES PURINE BASES

Thymine T Adenine A Guanine G

The corresponding N glyco-

sides of the common sugar

ribose are the building

blocks of RNA, and are

named adenosine, cytidine,

guanosine and uridine.

From this evidence, nucle-

ic acids may be formulated

as alternating copolymers

of phosphoric acid (P) and

nucleosides (N), as shown:

P – N – P – N’– P – N’’– P – N’’’– P – N

4342 The CELLS

Travelers in alpine and

arctic regions sometimes

pass through the puzzling

landscapes known as “pat-

terned ground”: numberless

stones neatly arranged in

rows, circles, or polygons

that may extend for miles.

It is not human hands that

have put these stones in

order, but physical forces

alone. Kessler and Wer-

ner have developed into

this numerical models that

account for this landform

by the interplay of two

forces: pressure generated

by freezing and thawing

of the soil, coupled with

redistribution of the up

heaved stones by gravity.

The spontaneous emergence

of macroscopic patterns,

in the absence of this

directive or design, con-

tradicts our well founded

prejudice that, when left

to themselves, things are

more likely to fall apart

than to put themselves in

order. Self organization

is nevertheless widespread

in nature and is observed

on all scales. We have

galaxies and hurricanes,

crystals and chemical

waves, and a growing ros-

ter of synthetic objects

and materials shaped by

self assembly . Biologists

emphasize the role of self

organization into this

the way termites construct

those astonishing mud tow-

And one could make it into

a strong case for assign-

ing self organization a

major role in generating

spatial order into the

cellular scale.

SELF

ORGANIZATION

For the purposes of

self organization as the

emergence of the supra-

molecular order from the

interactions among of the

numerous molecules that

obey only local rules,

without reference to an

external template or

-

offered by Camazine and

Misteli’s in omitting any

reference to function. The

cludes order imposed by an

external template, wheth-

er physical or genetic.

Examples of self orga-

nization have long been

familiar to biochemists

under the heading of self

assembly. Ribosomes, the

-

ments, virus particles,

and lipid bilayers come

to mind; even the folding

of the nascent polypeptide

chain into its three di-

mensional form can be put

into this category. The

hallmark of self assem-

bly is that, at least in

principle, it’s requires

no the in put of either

information or energy:

self-assembly proceeds

down to the thermodynamic

hill towards equilibrium,

or at least towards a free

energy minimum.

Examples of self orga-

nization have long been

familiar to biochemists

under the heading of self-

assembly. Microtubules,

-

ticles, and lipid bilay-

ers come to mind; even

the folding of a nascent

polypeptide chain into its

three dimensional form can

be put into this category.

The hallmark of self as-

sembly is that, at least

in principle, it requires

no input of either infor-

mation or energy: self-

assembly proceeds down

the thermodynamic hill

towards equilibrium, or

at least towards a free

energy minimum. There is

often room to quibble

over the details, but the

principle is useful. The

structure of the self as

sembled complex is speci-

its parts and is there

fore implicit in the genes

that specify those parts:

natural selection crafted

those genes to specify

parts that assemble into a

functional complex.

4544 The CELLS

{ MICROSCOPE } ChapterFOUR

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C-N-O-N-CO-OH-N-O-

C N - H - O - C - H O - C - N -

CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-

O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N - O - C - H - O - C - H - C -

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C O - H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-

N-O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-

N - O - N - O - H - N - O - C -

H - O - C - H - C - N - O - N -

O - C H - N - O - C O - H - O -

C-CH-C-N-O-N-N-O-

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-O-H-N-O-CO-H-O-

C - O H - C - N - O - N - O -

H - N - O - C H - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C - H - O - C - H - C - N -

O - N - O - C H - N - O - C O -

H-O-C-CH-C-N-O-N-

CO-OH-N-O-CN-H-O-

C - H O - C - N - C O - N - O -

H - N - O - C - H - O - C - H -

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

C - H - O - C - H - C - N - O -

N - H O - H - N - O - C H - H -

C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C - N - O - N - O - H - N - O -

CO-H-N-O-CO-H-O-C-

OH-C-N-O-N-O-H-N-

O-CH-H-O-C-H-C-N-

O-N-O-H-N-O-C-H-O-

C-H-C-N-O-N-O-CH-

N - O - C O - H - O - C - C H -

C - N - O - N - C O - O H - N -

O - C N - H - O - C - H O - C -

N-CO-N-O-H-N-O-C-

H-O-C-H-C-N-O-N-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O-H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-

C-N-O-N-O-H-N-O-O-

H-N-O-C-H-O-C-H-C-

N-O-N-HO-H-N-O-CH-

H - C O - C - H - C - N - O - N

O - H - N - O - C - H - O - C -

H - C - N - O - N - O - H - N -

O - C O - H - N - O - C O - H -

O-C-OH-C-N-O-N-O-

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have genuineelegance

immersedwith spirit

–Glō Hotel Identity and Branding–

challenge Glō Horel is a fabulous boutique property that offers a perfect fusion of comtanpory and surrealistic design. Located in the heart of Berlin, Germany nexus for art, fashion, entertainment, and business. By introducing the brand new iden-tity at the grand opening 2010, Glō Hotel wanted to draw upon the city’s strong artistic and literary root, re-writing the story of boutique hotels along the way.

results The new identity design influence the Glō Hotel with a dark spirit which is relaxing yet holds a sense of energy, while maintaining the brand’s celebrated cosmopolitan edge. Design transcends expectation, to bring elegant sense of sur-realism to the world of accommodation and creating an unforgettable experi-

ence for discerning travellers.

Glō H

otel


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Identity MarkStaionery Applications

Chalet

typefaces

Project

Identity 1

Matt

instrctor

Fall 2009

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

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This is the format for materials

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print materials.

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HOTEL

Glo Hotel Logotype

Glo hotel logotype color: White

Font: (Glo) Chalet, ParisNineteenSeventy

19pt, 185 Tracking, Color: White.

(HOTEL) Chalet, ParisNineteenSeventy

12pt, 1 10 Tracking, Color: White

Name

Font: Chalet,LondonNineteenSixty, All cap

5.5pt, 50 Tracking, Color: White

Title

Font: Chalet,LondonNineteenSixty,


Website, Phone, Fax, Address



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Glo Hotel Logotype





7.5pt, 1 10 Tracking, Color: White

Address


6.5pt, 70 Tracking, Color: Grey

To:

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Rosa Luxemburg Strasse 9-13 10178 Berlin Germany

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type in another typeface

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elements

Sep 23, 2009

Mason Scoot

1510 Fillmore Street

San Francisco, CA 94115

Dear Mr Scoot,

Glo Hotel officially opened its new hotel tower February 12 at 5 p.m. EST, officials an-

nounced. The 30 story, 400 room tower offers a modern and contemporary design

accented by luminescent blue glass windows.

“We are excited and proud of the new hotel tower,” said Randall A. Fine, The Fine Point

Group Managing Director and recently appointed (subject to regulatory approvals) Chief

Executive Officer of Greektown Casino-Hotel. “Greektown Casino-Hotel was a great

property before this new addition, but now we have even more to offer our patrons,

from luxurious accommodations to fine dining, and outstanding meeting and conven-

tion space. I offer special thanks to the Minister of Tourism and his staff for the leader-

ship exhibited in helping to make this happen. At more than 420,000 square feet, space

for amenities abound. The hotel lobby itself is a work of art, boasting an immense

hand-blown glass chandelier in the image of a torch flame. Dutch metal gold leaf cov-

ers the lobby walls as well as enormous concrete decorative elements with curves that

compliment the linear planes of the retro-chic modern decor.

We live in new and testing times Barbados will therefore have to look to new, ingenious

and imaginative ways to extract progress from an increasingly challenging environment.

The old order that was so comforting for so long in Agriculture, and which especially

supported a culture of production centred around a sugar industry is slowly being

eroded by the loss of traditional markets and guaranteed price.

Sincerely,

Yashanyu Qi

President

G LoHOTEL

G LoHOTEL

G LoHOTEL

a: Rosa Luxemburg Strasse 9-13 10178 Berlin Germany f : 030.9362560 w: www.glohotel.com

GL

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YASHANYU QI . President


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Sep 23, 2009

Mason Scoot

1510 Fillmore Street

San Francisco, CA 94115

Dear Mr Scoot,

Glo Hotel officially opened its new hotel tower February 12 at 5 p.m. EST, officials an-

nounced. The 30 story, 400 room tower offers a modern and contemporary design

accented by luminescent blue glass windows.

“We are excited and proud of the new hotel tower,” said Randall A. Fine, The Fine Point

Group Managing Director and recently appointed (subject to regulatory approvals) Chief

Executive Officer of Greektown Casino-Hotel. “Greektown Casino-Hotel was a great

property before this new addition, but now we have even more to offer our patrons,

from luxurious accommodations to fine dining, and outstanding meeting and conven-

tion space. I offer special thanks to the Minister of Tourism and his staff for the leader-

ship exhibited in helping to make this happen. At more than 420,000 square feet, space

for amenities abound. The hotel lobby itself is a work of art, boasting an immense

hand-blown glass chandelier in the image of a torch flame. Dutch metal gold leaf cov-

ers the lobby walls as well as enormous concrete decorative elements with curves that compliment the linear planes of the retro-chic modern decor.

We live in new and testing times Barbados will therefore have to look to new, ingenious

and imaginative ways to extract progress from an increasingly challenging environment.

The old order that was so comforting for so long in Agriculture, and which especially

supported a culture of production centred around a sugar industry is slowly being

eroded by the loss of traditional markets and guaranteed price.

Sincerely,

Yashanyu Qi

President

G LoHOTEL

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feelde

mayhen–Björk Tour Book 2011–

challenge Design Björk tour book 2011. Björk Gudmundsdottir was born in Rey-kjavik, Iceland. Having grown up in a highly musical household, Björk released her first album of traditional Icelandic folk songs when she was only evelven. She is one of the wildest vocalists in all of popular music, she has spent most of her life creating artful, experimental music that defies classification. Her song serves as a testimony to the chaos of not only her dream, but that particular region’s reality. Björk brings chaos to earth.

results Design chaos may be the antithesis of classic design ideas and principles or it may be one of the most important elements of all. Emotions are by nature chaotic and perhaps a design that successfully touches emotion has to embrace a certain amount of chaos. This tour book portrays the emotions of chaos, impa-tience and urgency, important to Björk’s work.

Björk07

deliverablescourse

da

te

Event IdentityWebsitePostersE Newspaper

Univers

typefaces

Project

Print 1

instrctor

Troy Alders

Spring 2011

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

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Heavy

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103Title Catrgorybjörk print

107Title Catrgorybjörk print

purepurelypurity

–Evian Skincare Package Design–

challenge A French nobleman discovered that a particular spring’s water cured his ailments. Now that water from the Alps is used for drinking and bathing to promote health and a youthful body and mind. Evian water originates from a spring in the French Alps that was a hundred million years in the making. This project was about creating an line of skin care products for Evian. By under-standing this company’s rich background, brand equity, and image, the goal was to create compelling packaging for the retail market and a cohesive product extension with an in-store display.

results I want to create a brand that is not just luscious and memorable, but also captures Evian’s long rich history. Water is often calm and beautiful, gentle and healing. Since my theme was about purity. Water is century of Evian, so I used all see-through materials with actual water in the display. The colour palette was from the original logo which is aqua blue and magenta red. Every effort was taken in order to make the typography the hero of the design along with water.

Purity08

deliverablescourse

da

te

Event IdentityWebsitePostersE Newspaper

Univers

typefaces

Project

Print 1

instrctor

Troy

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Fresh

Clean

Sheer

Nature

Delicate

Beauty

design attributes

113Title Catrgorypurity package

expect the unexpected

–Kohl’s Private Lable Rebranding–

mission statement In order to better compete with major retailers, such as Tar-get and Macy’s department store, Kohl’s will introduce higher quality private-brand products paired with improved packaging design. This strategy will in-troduce private labels into its brand, its encouraging sales within its already established higher-tier items that currently represent 16% of its overall sales.

design strategy Kohl’s current tag line is “Expect Great Things.” The package designs will focus on the expectation of what the customer is buying and also add unexpected elements to make the packaging more interactive and fun. Since none of Kohl’s current private brands are positioned in the “better” or “best” catego-ries in terms of quality, one main goal will be to expand their merchandise into these “luxury” categories through design.


da

te

Private Labelfor Kolh’s.various products

Various

typefacesKO

HL’S

Project

Package 4

instrctor

Thomas McNulty

Sring 2011

typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

Promising

Exciting

Unexpected

Quality [

Interactive

Welcoming

design attributes

market square

surface

twinkle

villa collection

blue ribbon

prodect line

prodect line

prodect line

prodect line

prodect line

key words

key words

key words

key words

key words

Dry Packaged Foods by Kohl’s

Kitchen Appliances by Kohl’s

Baby Products by Kohl’s

Bathroom Decor by Kohl’s

Orgainc Pet’s Food by Kohl’s

Coffee, cereal, jam, spices, dry mix, pasta, juice.

Glassware, Dishes, Pots, Pans, Knives, Cutting Boards, Serving Dishes, Salad Bowl, Utensils and Dining set.

Clothes, Socks, Diapers, Wipes, Powder, Shampoo, Lotion, Bottles, Pacifiers and Baby Food.

Towels, Hand Towels, Washcloths, Curtain Rings, Rug, Wastebasket, Soap Pump Soap Dish, Toothbrush Holder, Candle and Spary.

Car Dry Food and Can Food, Dog Dry Food and Can Food.

Appetizing, Health, Gourmet.

Modern, Bright, Bold, Upbeat.

Hand Craft, Care, Fun, Quirky and Colorful

Highend, Luxury, Romantic, Classic

Natural, Health, Fresh, Friendly

123Title Catrgorykohl’s package, identity

market square

prodect line

key words

Dry Packaged Foods by Kohl’s

Coffee, cereal, jam, spices, dry mix, pasta, juice.

Appetizing, Health, Gourmet.

129Title Catrgorymarket square package, identity

131Title Catrgorymarket square package, identity

surface

prodect line

key words

Kitchen Appliances by Kohl’s

Glassware, Dishes, Pots, Pans, Knives, Cutting Boards, Serving Dishes, Salad Bowl, Utensils and Dining set.

Modern, Bright, Bold, Upbeat.

139Title Catrgorysurface package, identity

141Title Catrgorysurface package, identity

twinkle

prodect line

key words

Baby Products by Kohl’s

Clothes, Socks, Diapers, Wipes, Powder, Shampoo, Lotion, Bottles, Pacifiers and Baby Food.

Hand Craft, Care, Fun, Quirky and Colorful

0-6 m

SIZE

size

527+ lbs

Product by KOLH’S Product by KOLH’S

2 y

12+ m

0-6 m

3 y

1 y

6-12 m

PARENT’S CHOICE

size

110 bls

size

210-14 lbs

size

314-22 lbs

size

422-27 lbs

size

527+ lbs

size

635+ lbs

KOHL’S.com/twinkle

SHAMPOOBaby

by twinkleDIAPERSBaby

by twinkle

Natural Babycare

6-12 m

GRIPTABS

size

527+ lbs

0-6 m

SIZE

size

527+ lbs

Perfect Comfort Fit

Flexible fit for better leakage protection

Umbilical cord cutout for added comfort

Soft, cloth-like cover

Ultra absorbent core

25 Jumbo Pack


DIAPERSBaby

by twinkle

Help make potty training easier with Twinkle Natural babycare. Twinkle Natural babycare train without the mess during the day and help protect against leaks at night. The Feel ‘n Learn Liner helps your little girl learn to stay dry. Pampers Easy Ups Trainers hold approxi-mately 25% more liquid than the leading Huggies Training Pants.

Twinkle Easy Ups Training Pants:* HELPS MAKE POTTY TRAINING EASIER* PROTECTS AGAINST LEAKS AT NIGHT* HOLDS APPROXIMATELY 25% MORE THAN THE LEADING TRAINING PANTS* DESIGNED FOR CHILD TO WEAR THROUGHOUT THE NIGHT* FEEL ‘N LEARN LINER HELPS YOUR LITTLE GIRL LEARN TO STAY DRY* FEATURES DORA THE EXPLORER GRAPHICS

6-12 m

GRIPTABS

size

527+ lbs

BY

Kohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s in Illinois.

25 Jumbo Pack

Natural Babycare


Lightly Scented 350 Counts Soft cloth for skin

Hypoallergenic Free of dyes and fragrances

WIPESBaby

by twinkle

Natural Babycare

all age

CHLORINE FREE

WIPESBaby

by twinkle

Only the best for your baby! Our fragrance free, hypoallergenic wipes clean baby’s bottom with plant-derived ingredients. Whitened without chemicals containing chlorine, these soft cloth wipes do not contain alcohol, synthetic cleaners, dyes or fragrances. They’re a safe and soft choice that cleans with power of nature to help keep your baby’s skin pure and clean.

Product Features:* ALCOHOL-FREE* SOFT CLOTH FOR BABY’S SKIN * COMFORTING, BABY POWDER SCENT* WHITENED WITHOUT CHEMICALS

BY


all age

CHLORINE FREE

KOHL’S.com/twinkleProduct by KOLH’S

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

Product by KOLH’S

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

Natural Babycare

0-6 m

SIZE

size

527+ lbs

Product by KOLH’S Product by KOLH’S

2 y

12+ m

0-6 m

3 y

1 y

6-12 m

PARENT’S CHOICE

size

110 bls

size

210-14 lbs

size

314-22 lbs

size

422-27 lbs

size

527+ lbs

size

635+ lbs


SHAMPOOBaby

by twinkleDIAPERSBaby

by twinkle

Natural Babycare

6-12 m

GRIPTABS

size

527+ lbs

0-6 m

SIZE

size

527+ lbs

Perfect Comfort Fit

Flexible fit for better leakage protection

Umbilical cord cutout for added comfort

Soft, cloth-like cover

Ultra absorbent core

25 Jumbo Pack


DIAPERSBaby

by twinkle

Help make potty training easier with Twinkle Natural babycare. Twinkle Natural babycare train without the mess during the day and help protect against leaks at night. The Feel ‘n Learn Liner helps your little girl learn to stay dry. Pampers Easy Ups Trainers hold approxi-mately 25% more liquid than the leading Huggies Training Pants.

Twinkle Easy Ups Training Pants:* HELPS MAKE POTTY TRAINING EASIER* PROTECTS AGAINST LEAKS AT NIGHT* HOLDS APPROXIMATELY 25% MORE THAN THE LEADING TRAINING PANTS* DESIGNED FOR CHILD TO WEAR THROUGHOUT THE NIGHT* FEEL ‘N LEARN LINER HELPS YOUR LITTLE GIRL LEARN TO STAY DRY* FEATURES DORA THE EXPLORER GRAPHICS

6-12 m

GRIPTABS

size

527+ lbs

BY


25 Jumbo Pack

Natural Babycare


Lightly Scented 350 Counts Soft cloth for skin

Hypoallergenic Free of dyes and fragrances

WIPESBaby

by twinkle

Natural Babycare

all age

CHLORINE FREE

WIPESBaby

by twinkle

Only the best for your baby! Our fragrance free, hypoallergenic wipes clean baby’s bottom with plant-derived ingredients. Whitened without chemicals containing chlorine, these soft cloth wipes do not contain alcohol, synthetic cleaners, dyes or fragrances. They’re a safe and soft choice that cleans with power of nature to help keep your baby’s skin pure and clean.

Product Features:* ALCOHOL-FREE* SOFT CLOTH FOR BABY’S SKIN * COMFORTING, BABY POWDER SCENT* WHITENED WITHOUT CHEMICALS

BY


all age

CHLORINE FREE

KOHL’S.com/twinkleProduct by KOLH’S

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

Product by KOLH’S

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

350 Counts

all age

CHLORINE FREE

Natural Babycare

149Title Catrgorytwinkle package, identity

kolh’s.com/twinkle.comkolh’s.com/twinkle.comproduct by KOLH’S 5oz PES Bottle BPM Free

oz00

20

40

110

60

120

80

130

100

140

150

1

2

3

4

5

ml

0-3 m

Twinkle Natural Feeding Bottles are clinically proven to reduce fussiness,

especially during night time, and colic in infants two weeks of age versus feeding with a conventional bottle.

* BPA FREE

* EASY TO COMBINE BREAST AND BOTTLE FEEDING

* HIGHLY DURABLE AND EASY TO CLEANSLOW

FLOW

MEDIUMFLOW

FASTFLOW

0-3 m

3-6 m

6+ m

BY


CUSTOM FLOW

BOTTLEBaby

by twinkle

Glass Vidrio


0-12 m

PROTECT PLUSNutrition Facts

Serving Size 8.9 gServings Per Container

Amount Per Serving

Calories 100

% Daily Value*

Sodium 27mg

27mg

Potassium 108mg 2.2g

Vitamin A 300IUVitamin C 12mgVitamin D 60IUVitamin E 2IUVitamin K 8mcgThiamin 100mcgVitamin B6 75 mcgVitamin B12 0.33mcgBiotin 4.4mcgPantothenic Acid 450mcgZinc 0.8mgSelenium 3mcgManganese 7mgChloride 65mg

(-) Information is currently not available for this nutrient.

* Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs:**

** Percent Daily Values listed below are intended for adults and children over 4 years of age. Foods represented or purported to be for use by infants, children less than 4 years of age, pregnant women, or lactating women shall use the RDI’s that are specified for the intended group provided by the FDA.

Calories: 2,000 2,500

Total Fat Less than 65g 80g

Sat. Fat Less than 20g 25g

Cholesterol Less than 300mg 300mg

Sodium Less than 2400mg 2400mg

Potassium 3500mg 3500mg

Total Carbohydrate 300mg 375mg

Dietary Fiber 25mg 30mg

Calories per gram:

Fat 9 · Carbohydrate 4 · Protein 4

Product by KOLH’S NET WT 23.2 oz 658g

**Average amont perm100 ml made up formula1 Litre=127g of powder + 900ml of waterScoop Weight=4.3g

Infant Formula

Complete Nutrition

POWDER FORMULA

Gentle

by twinkle

with Iron

*Partially broken down whey protein

*Milk Based Formula

*Added DHA and ARA

153Title Catrgorykohl’s package, identity

0-12 m

PROTECT PLUS

Advance Powder Formula Product by KOLH’S

POWDER FORMULA

Gentle

by twinkle

with Iron

MANUFACTURER: BRISTOL MYERS NUTRITIONAL. Enfamil Enfacare Lipil Milk Based Infant Formula Powder, Iron Fortified Enfamil Enfacare is scientifically formulated to support the growth and develop-ment of growing babies born prematurely or with low birth weight. High-quality nourishment for growing babies born prematurely. INGREDIENTS: Per 100 Calories (4. 5 Fl. Oz. ): Protein 2. 8 g; Fat 5. 3 g; Carbohydrate 10. 4 g; Water 120 g; Linoleic Acid 950 mg; Vitamin A 450 IU; Vitamin D 80 IU; Vitamin E 4 IU; Vitamin K 8 mcg; Thiamin (Vitamin B1) 200 mcg; Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 200 mcg; Vitamin B6 100 mcg; Vitamin B12 0. 3 mcg; Niacin 2000 mcg; Folic Acid (Folacin) 26 mcg; Pantothenic Acid 850 mcg; Biotin 6 mcg prepared formula should be fed within 24 hours or discarded. WARNINGS: Do not use a microwave oven to warm formula. Serious burns may result.

BY


Complete Nutrition

POWDER FORMULA

by twinkle

*Partially broken down whey protein

*Milk Based Formula

*Added DHA and ARA

Infant Formula

villa collection

prodect line

key words

Bathroom Decor by Kohl’s

Towels, Hand Towels, Washcloths, Curtain Rings, Rug, Wastebasket, Soap Pump Soap Dish, Toothbrush Holder, Candle and Spary.

Highend, Luxury, Romantic, Classic

Rustica

Inclueds 1 Bath Towel 2 Hand Towel 1 Washcloth Textile Material 100 % Cotton

BATHROOM TOWELSf

BATHROOM TOWELS

Royal BathBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

f

Villa Collection’s Rustica spa-quality towels are made of 100% sustainable resources, so they are as gentle on the earth as on the skin. Made exclusively for Kohl’s, these luxuriously soft and absorbent towels are 75% Bamboo Rayon and 25% Certified Organic Cotton, softly colored with low-impact organic dyes.

Bathroom Decorf

Bathroom Decorf

Care and cleaning: Antimicrobial Resistant to mold and mildew Machine wash cold

Inclueds 1 Bath Towel 2 Hand Towel 1 Washcloth

Rustica

Includes 1 Soap Dish 1 Liquid Soap Lotion Dispenser 1 Bathroom Tumbler Material Metal

BRONZE BATHROOM SETf

Villa Collection’s Rustica powdered bronze bathroom set features two coordinating bathroom necessities with a bold bronze look. Crafted from powdered bronze, this set features a unique profile that will compliment any bathroom decor.

BRONZE BATHROOM SET

Bathroom Decorf

f

Powdered BronzBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

Bathroom Decorf

Care and cleaning: Not dishwasher safe Wipe clean with soap and water

Includes 1 Soap Dish 1 Liquid Soap Lotion Dispenser 1 Bathroom Tumbler

Rustica

Material Porcelain

CERAMIC BATHROOM SETf


CERAMIC BATHROOM SET

Bathroom Decorf

White CeramicBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

Bathroom Decorf

f




Rustica

Includes 1 Soap Dish 1 Liquid Soap Lotion Dispenser 1 Bathroom Tumbler Material Metal

BRONZE BATHROOM SETf


BRONZE BATHROOM SET

Bathroom Decorf

f

Powdered BronzBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

Bathroom Decorf



Rustica

Material Porcelain

CERAMIC BATHROOM SETf


CERAMIC BATHROOM SET

Bathroom Decorf

White CeramicBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

Bathroom Decorf

f





Rustica

Inclueds 1 Bath Towel 2 Hand Towel 1 Washcloth Textile Material 100 % Cotton

BATHROOM TOWELSf

BATHROOM TOWELS

Royal BathBYPlease Visit us online at: KOHL’S.comKohl’s® and Kohl’s brand names are trademarks of Kohl’s Illinois.

f

Villa Collection’s Rustica spa-quality towels are made of 100% sustainable resources, so they are as gentle on the earth as on the skin. Made exclusively for Kohl’s, these luxuriously soft and absorbent towels are 75% Bamboo Rayon and 25% Certified Organic Cotton, softly colored with low-impact organic dyes.

Bathroom Decorf

Bathroom Decorf

Care and cleaning: Antimicrobial Resistant to mold and mildew Machine wash cold

Inclueds 1 Bath Towel 2 Hand Towel 1 Washcloth

157Title Catrgoryvilla collection package, identity

blue ribbon

prodect line

key words

Orgainc Pet’s Food by Kohl’s

Car Dry Food and Can Food, Dog Dry Food and Can Food.

Natural, Health, Fresh, Friendly

161Title Catrgoryblue ribbon package, identity


typography

print

identity

package

branding

web

NAsomatto

one DAYON EARTH

ve r i z N

G LoHOTEL

MASSERIEdiSant’Eramo

11/11/11

I would like to thanks all my family, friends and instructors. I would like to give my special thanks to my mum Ying Wang for encouraging me and supporting me. Thanks to my boyfriend Zhiran Chen for believing in me. Thanks to my roommates also best friends Chen Chen and Mengyue Qiu, all the crazy thing we did , will be the best memories. Thanks to my friends for being me with me, Li Wang, Sa Nguyen, Haoji Zhou, Wei Dai.

I would like to thanks all my instroctors for insporing me. Mary Acott, Thomas McNulty, Sammi Saaud, Laura Milton, Carolina de Bartolo, Scot Crisp, Christine George, Tory Alders.

thank you

Design Portfolio yash-an-yu

Phone 415.590.8491

Email [email protected]

Web www.yashanyuqi.com

School academy of art university

Art director mary scott

Class senior portfolio

Design yashanyu qi

Writing yashanyu qi

Photography yashanyu qi, haoji zhou, phill wang

Cover materials mohark

Text stock Ensheets paper source

Printer prepress

Bindnery the key printing and binding

Typefaces chalet, didot

Software adobe indesign, photoshop, illustrator

Copyright © 2011. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of Yashanyu Qi.

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