BeyondAll

Directions

EssaysontheBuddhistPath

By

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu

(GeoffreyDeGraff)

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Copyright2013ṬhānissaroBhikkhuThisworkislicensedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonComercial3.0Unported.Toseeacopyofthislicensevisithttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/.“Comercial”shallmeananysale,whetherforcommercialornon-profitpurposesorentities.

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Acknowledgements

Manypeoplehavereadearlierversionsoftheseessaysandhavekindlyofferedsuggestionsforimprovements.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothankthemonkshereatthemonastery,aswellasMichaelBarber,Bok-LimKim,AddieOnsanit,NathanielOsgood,XiaoquanOsgood,DaleSchultz,MaryTalbot,andJaneYudelman.Anymistakesthatremain,ofcourse,aremyownresponsibility.

Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycle,ShambhalaSun,andInsightJournal.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsofthesejournalsfortheirhelpinmakingthewritingclearerandmorecoherent.Thefactthattheessayswereoriginallyintendedfordifferentaudiencesexplainstheoverlapthatoccasionallyoccursamongthem,aswellastheinconsistentuseofSanskritandPāliterms:karma,dhamma,andnibbāna.Ihopethatthisposesnodifficulties.

TheseandotheressaysonBuddhistpracticeareavailableontheInternetatwww.dhammatalks.org.

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

MettaForestMonasteryValleyCenter,CA92082-1409August,2013

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BeyondAllDirectionsRefugeintheBuddha,Dhamma&Sangha

Ifyou’dhadtheopportunitytoapproachtheBuddhaandasktobehisstudent,hewouldhaveexpectedafewthingsofyou:tobehonestandobservant,toshowhimrespect,topayhimcarefulattention,andtotryyourbesttomastertheskillshetaught.Whenyoumettheseconditions,heinturnwouldhavefeltsomeobligationstoyou:togiveyouthoroughinstructions,totestyoutomakesureyouunderstoodtheinstructions,and—mostinterestingly—toprovidewhathecalled,“protectioninalldirections.”

TheideathatteachersshouldofferprotectiontotheirstudentswasapparentlycommoninancientIndia.Thisisoneofthereasonswhypeoplewouldseekoutteachers.Italsoexplainswhymanypeople,onbecomingconvincedthattheBuddhawastheteachertheywanted,wouldtakerefugeinhim,inhisDhamma(histeachings),andinhisSaṅghaofmonks.Theywantedtheprotectionofferedbyhim,histeachings,andthosewhoalsolivedbythoseteachings.

ThetypeofprotectionofferedbydifferentteachersinancientIndiawoulddependontheskillstheytaughtandthedangersfromwhichtheyfeltthoseskillswouldofferprotection.ThiswasnotsimplyaculturaloddityfromtheBuddha’stime.Researchershavefoundthatpeoplearemostlikelytomasterskillswhentheyhaveakeensenseofthedangersthatcomefromnotmasteringthoseskills,andofthesafetythatcomeswhentheskillsarethoroughlymastered.

IntheBuddha’scase,theskillhetaughtledtothesafetyofnibbāna,freefromthedangersofaging,illness,anddeath.Infact,althoughwethinkofnibbānaasthenameforthefinalgoalofhisteachings,itwasonlyoneofmanynameshegavetothatgoal.Someofthosenames—shelter,island,harbor,security,andrefugeitself—makethepointthathisteachingisaimedatsafety.Others—theageless,theundecaying,thebeyond,thedeathless,theultimate—indicatethatthissafetyisofanextraordinarysort:theultimateprotectionfromanyandalldangers,theultimaterefugetowhichanyonemightgo.Onceyou’vereachedthisrefuge,theBuddhahasmorethanfulfilledhisresponsibilitytoprotectyouinalldirections,for

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he’spointedyoutoarefugethatgoesbeyondalldirections,aprotectiontranscendingtheconfinesofspaceandtime.

However,theBuddhaalsosawtwotypesofdangerswithinspaceandtimethatcanstandinthewayofyourachievingthisrefuge:outsidedangersandinsideones.Theworldaroundyouisadangerousplace;andyourmind,adangerousmind.Outsidedangerscomeintheformofotherpeople’sexamplesandteachingsthatmightdiscourageyoufrommakingtheefforttofollowthepathtonibbāna.Insidedangerscomefromyourowngreed,aversion,anddelusion,whichcantotallyblockanydesiretofollowthepath.

Infact,theseinsidedangersarewhatleaveyoususceptibletounskillfuloutsideinfluencestobeginwith.Ifyouwereinnatelytrustworthyandgood,badoutsideinfluenceswouldhavenopoweroveryou.But,astheBuddhapointedout,themindiscapableofanything.Andalthoughhewasamasteroffindingaptanalogies,hehadtoadmitthathecouldfindnonetoadequatelydescribehowquicklythemindcanreverseitself.Lovecanturntohate,goodqualitiestoviciousones,andeven“theflashofaneye”isslowbycomparison.Onlywhentrainedcanthemindbecomeitsownrefuge,andonlywhengainingasenseofheedfulness—therealizationthatitsactionscancauseharm,butthattheharmcanbeavoidedthroughcarefuleffort—willitwillinglyundergotraining.Onlywhenitseesthedangersit’scapableofproducingwillitlookforexternalrefugesunderwhichtotrain.

Thisiswhy,inhiscapacityasaresponsibleteacher,theBuddharecommendedthathisstudents—aftergainingasenseofheedfulness—takerefugeintheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghaasafirststepinovercomingboththeoutsideandinsidedangersthatstandinthewayoftheultimaterefugeofnibbāna.

When,havinggonetotheBuddha,Dhamma,&Saṅghaforrefuge,youseewithrightdiscernmentthefournobletruths—

stress,thecauseofstress,

thetranscendingofstress,&thenobleeightfoldpath,thewaytothestillingofstress:that’sthesecurerefuge,

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that,thesupremerefuge,thatistherefuge,havinggonetowhich,

yougainreleasefromallsuffering&stress.—Dhp190–192

Toofferprotectionagainstoutsidedangerstothatsupremerefuge,theBuddhaofferedhimselfaswhathecalledan“admirablefriend.”Throughtheexampleofhislifeandthecontentofhisteachings,hemadeitpossibleforotherstorealizethatnibbānaisanattainableanddesirablegoal.Inafamousexchange,whenhisdiscipleĀnandathoughtitwasgeneroustosaythathavingadmirablefriendsishalfoftheholylife,theBuddharepliedNo:It’sthewhole.Ofcourse,giventhenatureofthepathtonibbāna,theBuddhacouldn’ttreadthepathforhisstudents.Hewasn’tasufficientcausefortheirawakening,buthewasanecessaryone.Onlybyhavinghisexampleandhisteachingswouldhisstudentspossessareliabletouchstoneagainstwhichtheymightmeasureotherexamplesandteachingsastowhathumanbeingscanandshouldattain.Withoutthattouchstone,theycouldeasilyfallpreytoteachingsthatwouldlowertheirsights—andtotheirowninternalqualitiesthatwouldbehappytokeeptheirsightslow.Havingthattouchstonewouldallowthemtoexpandtheirhorizonsandraisetheiraspirationstoahigherlevel.

Becausehewouldn’tliveforever,theBuddhaalsotrainedhisstudentssothattheycouldbeadmirablefriendsforsucceedinggenerations.ThisiswhytheSaṅgha—inbothitstraditionalforms,monasticandnoble—iscountedasoneofthethreerefuges.ThemonasticSaṅghahaskepttheteachingsalive;andthenobleSaṅgha—theSaṅghaoftheBuddha’sawakeneddisciples,bothlayandordained—havekepthisexamplealivetothepresentday.(Themodernsenseofsaṅgha,asanygroupthatmeditates,cannotprovidethesesortsofrefuge,whichiswhyawisepolicywouldbetorevivethetraditionalnameforsuchagroup—parisā—toavoidconfusion.)It’sbecauseofbothtypesofSaṅghathatadmirablefriendsonthepatharestillwithus.

AsfortheDhamma,itoffersexternalprotectioninmakingclearwhatshouldandshouldn’tbedoneifyouwanttofollowthepathtonibbāna.ThebasicoperatingprincipleoftheDhammaisthatyouractions—thoughts,words,anddeeds—makeadifference,andthatthedifferencecanrangefromlong-termsufferingthroughlong-termhappiness,andontothehappinessofnibbāna,which,becauseit’sbeyondspaceandtime,isbeyondlong-term.

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Thisiswhytheteachingsonaction,orkarma,aresocentraltotheBuddha’smessage.Contrarytopopularbelief,theBuddhadidnotteachfatalism.Infact,hewasextremelycriticaloffatalism—thebeliefthatyourexperiencesarealreadydeterminedfromcausesinthepast—becausefatalismdeniesthatyourpresentactionscanmakeadifference.Inoneofhisdiscourses,henotesthatfatalismleavesyouwithoutprotection,foritallowsnofoundationforeventheideaofwhatshouldandshouldn’tbedone.Ifeverythingispredetermined,there’snowayofsayingthatoneactionisgoodandanotherbad.Everythingisjustthewayithastobe.

TheBuddha’steachingonkarma,however,focusesonthefactthatwhileyourexperiencesareinfluencedtosomeextentbyactionsfromthepast,thewayyouexperiencethoseinfluencesdependsonwhatyoudowiththeminthepresent.Infact,withoutthekarmaofyourpresentactions,youwouldn’texperienceanythingatall.

SotheBuddha’steachingonkarmaisoneofthewaysinwhichtheDhammaoffersexternalprotection:Itemphasizestheimportanceofyourpresentactions—providingforthepossibilityof“shouldbedone”and“shouldn’tbedone”—atthesametimeofferingclearguidelinesforfiguringout,inanysituation,wheretheshouldsandshouldn’tslie.ThisisoneofthewaysinwhichtheBuddha’sDhammaoffersexternalprotectioninalldirections.Itgivesyoutoolstodiscern,regardlessoftimeorplace,whichactionsalwaysleadtolong-termsuffering,whichonesalwaysleadtolong-termhappiness,andthenletsyoudecideforyourselfwhichpathyouwanttofollow.

InchoosingtofollowtheBuddha’spathtohappiness—bothlong-termandbeyondlong-term—whichyou’velearnedfromtheexternallevel,youbegintotakerefugeontheinternallevel.Inotherwords,youinternalizetheexamplesprovidedbytheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅgha,developingtheminyourownthoughts,words,anddeeds.Thisisaformofrefugeinthatyouprotectyourselffromthedangersthatwouldcomefromfollowingunskillfulactionsandhabitsofmind.

InternalizingtherefugeoftheBuddhameansdevelopingthethreemainqualitiesheembodied:discernment,compassion,andpurity.Todothis,youlooktotheDhammaforadviceonhowtofosterthesequalitieswithinyourself.Discernment,itsays,comesfromtryingtofindananswertothequestion,“What,whenIdoit,willleadtomylong-termwelfareandhappiness?”Compassioncomesfromrealizingthatotherbeingslovethemselvesasmuchasyouloveyourself,andsoyourhappinessshouldneverdependoncausingthemharm.Otherwise,itwon’tlast.Puritycomesfromexaminingtheactualresultsofeachaction—before,during,

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andaftertheaction—toseeifitwillcause,iscausing,orhascausedanyoneanyaffliction.Ifitwillcauseaffliction,youdon’tdoit.Ifitiscausingaffliction,youstop.Ifithascausedaffliction,youtalkitoverwithareliablefriendandthenresolvenevertorepeatthatmistake.Ifitdidn’tcauseanyaffliction,youtakejoyinbeingharmlessandcontinuewithyourtraininginskillfulactions.

Thebeautyofthesebasicinstructionsforcultivatingdiscernment,compassion,andpurityisthattheyharnessourdesireforgenuinehappiness.FromtheBuddha’spointofview,thepursuitofhappinessdoesn’thavetobenarroworselfish.Whenconductedintelligently,itcanleadtonoble,expansivequalitiesofmind.Atthesametime,theseinstructionsshowthatthevirtuesoftheBuddhagrowwithinyou,notbydenyingyourdesireforhappiness,butbytrainingittobetrulyeffective.Althoughthistrainingrequiresdoingbattlewiththegreed,aversion,anddelusionwithinyou,itdoesn’trequirethatyoudenywhat,deepdowninside,youreallywant:ahappinessyoucantrust.Thisiswhathelpstomakeyourinnerrefugesecure.

InternalizingtherefugeoftheSaṅghameansdevelopingthesesamethreequalitiesofdiscernment,compassion,andpurity,forthesearethequalitiesthatthenobleSaṅghahavedevelopedastheythemselveshaveinternalizedtherefugeoftheBuddha.ThenobleSaṅghaalsoprovidetheaddeddimensionofshowingtheadvantagesofpracticingtheDhammainlinewiththeDhammaastheBuddhataughtit,andnotinlinewiththeirownpreconceivednotions.Inotherwords,insteadofrevisingtheDhammatofitinwiththeirpreferences,theyputtheirpreferencesasideandadjustthemselvestofitwiththeDhamma.Whenyoufollowthisexample,yougainaninternalrefugeofreliableconduct.

You’realsointernalizingtherefugeoftheDhamma.AllthegoodqualitiestaughtbytheDhamma,whenyoudeveloptheminyourthoughts,words,anddeeds,provideprotectionontheinternallevel.ButmostinterestinginthisregardaretheteachingsthattheBuddhaspecificallycitedasofferingprotection.Inonediscourse(AN7:63),hecomparesthequalitiesofminddevelopedinthepracticetotherequisitesofawell-defendedfrontierfortress.Inanother(AN10:17),heliststenexternalhabitsandinnerqualities,callingeachofthema“protector.”Inyetanother(Sn2:4),heanswersaquestionaboutprotectivecharmsbyciting38habitsandqualities—fromavoidingfoolstoattainingnibbāna—asgenuinelyeffectiveprotectivecharms.

Thesethreediscourses,whichfollowthisarticle,describeindetailtheprinciplestointernalizetogiveyourselfprotection.Butasanoverview,it’s

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importanttonotethatprotectiontouchesonallaspectsofyourthoughts,words,anddeeds—thewayyouengagewithotherpeople,thewayyoulookafteryourlivelihood,andthequalitiesyoudevelopwithinyourselfindealingwithyourownmind.Youavoidcausingharmwhile,atthesametime,masteringskillsthatallowyoutobetrulyhelpfultoothersandtolookafteryourselfwithease.Asyoudothis,you—throughyourthoughts,words,anddeeds—becomeDhamma.TakingrefugeintheDhammaontheinternallevelallowsyoutobegintorelyonyourself.

Yourownselfisyourownmainstay,forwhoelsecouldyourmainstaybe?Withyouyourselfwell-trainedyouobtainthemainstayhardtoobtain.—Dhp160

Onlywhenyou’vethoroughlytrainedyourselftopracticetheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhammacanyoureliablyactasyourownrefuge.Yourmindbecomeslessquicktoreverseitself,andlessinclinedtocauseharm.Thisiswhy,intheBuddha’sinjunctiontobeyourownrefuge,heequatesitwithtakingtheDhammaasrefuge,definingbothininternalterms:thepracticeofthefourtypesofrightmindfulness,whichinturnfunctionasthethemesofrightconcentration,theculminatingfactorofthepath.

“Andhowdoesamonklivewithhimselfashisisland,himselfashisrefuge,withnootherashisrefuge;withtheDhammaashisisland,theDhammaashisrefuge,withnootherashisrefuge?Thereisthecasewhereamonkremainsfocusedonthebodyin&ofitself—ardent,alert,&mindful—subduinggreed&distresswithreferencetotheworld.Heremainsfocusedonfeelingsin&ofthemselves…mindin&ofitself…mentalqualitiesin&ofthemselves—ardent,alert,&mindful—subduinggreed&distresswithreferencetotheworld.…Forthosewho,noworwhenIamgone,livewiththemselvesastheirisland,themselvesastheirrefuge,withnootherastheirrefuge;withtheDhammaastheirisland,theDhammaastheirrefuge,notwithanotherastheirrefuge,willbemyforemostmonks:thosewhoaredesirousoftraining.”—DN16

Oncethepathiscompletelyinternalizedanddeveloped,itopenstotheultimaterefugeofthedeathless.Thepathdoesn’tcausethedeathless—ifthedeathlesswerecaused,itwouldn’tbedeathless,foritwoulddie

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whenitscausesranout—butthepracticeofthepathleadstothedeathless,inthesamewaythataroadleadingtotheGrandCanyondoesn’tcausetheGrandCanyontobe,butfollowingitcantakeyouthere.That’swhythepathiscalledthepath:Ittakesyoutowhereyouwanttogo.

So,allinall,theactofgoingforrefugeoccursonthreelevels:external,internal,and—beyondexternalandinternal—thelevelofnibbāna.Thesethreelevelscanbesummarizedintwodifferentways:intermsofwhattheyprotectyoufrom,andintermsofwhattheydependontoprotectyou.

Intermsofwhattheyprotectyoufrom:Thefirstlevelprotectsyoufromtheunskillfulactionsofothers;thesecondlevel,fromyourownunskillfulactions;andthethirdlevel,fromtheresultsofallactions,skillfulandnot.Afterall,evenskillfulactionsdon’tlastforever.Theycanprovidelong-termhappiness,butlong-termisn’tforever.Onlywhenyou’vereachedthedimensionbeyondtimeareyoutotallyfreefromthevagariesoftime.Onlythenisyourhappinesstotallysecure.

Intermsofwhatthethreelevelsdependon:Inthefirstlevel,youlearntochooseothersyoucanreliablydependon.Inthesecondlevel,youlearntomakeyourselfreliablesoyoucandependonyourself.Inthethirdlevelyouabandonboth“self”and“others,”foryou’vefoundsomethingthat,becauseit’sunconditioned,doesn’tneedtodependonanyoneoranythingatall.

Onceyourhappinessissecureinthisway,youcanengageintheworldwithoutbeingexposedtoitsdangers—foryourmindisfreefromthedangersitusedtoposeforitself.Andyouposenodangerstotheworld.Becauseyoudon’tneedothersforyourhappiness,yourrelationshipswiththemcanbepure.Infact,nowthatyouareamemberofthenobleSaṅgha,youcanofferthemanexternalrefugeaswell,intheexampleofyourthoughts,words,anddeeds.

Inthisway,theactofgoingforrefugeisagiftnotonlytoyourself.It’sagift—anofferingofsafetyandprotection—thatextendstoeveryoneineverydirection.

Readings

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasafoundationpost—deeplyrooted,wellembedded,immovable,&unshakable—fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewayadiscipleof

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thenobleoneshasconviction,isconvincedoftheTathāgata’s[Buddha’s]Awakening:‘Indeed,theBlessedOneisworthyandrightlyself-awakened,consummateinknowledge&conduct,well-gone,aknowerofthecosmos,anunexcelledtrainerofthosepersonsreadytobetamed,teacherofhuman&divinebeings,awakened,blessed.’Withconvictionashisfoundationpost,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasamoat,bothdeep&wide,fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesameway,thediscipleofthenobleoneshasasenseofshame.Hefeelsshameat[thethoughtofengagingin]bodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,mentalmisconduct.Hefeelsshameatfallingintoevil,unskillfulactions.Withshameashismoat,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasanencirclingroad,bothhigh&wide,fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesameway,thediscipleofthenobleoneshascompunction.Hefeelscompunctionabout[thesufferingthatwouldresultfrom]bodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,mentalmisconduct.Hefeelscompunctionaboutfallingintoevil,unskillfulactions.Withcompunctionashisencirclingroad,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasmanyweaponsstored,botharrows&thingstobehurled,fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesameway,thediscipleofthenobleoneshasheardmuch,hasretainedwhathehasheard,hasstoredwhathehasheard.Whateverteachingsareadmirableinthebeginning,admirableinthemiddle,admirableintheend,that—intheirmeaning&expression—proclaimtheholylifethatisentirelycomplete&pure:thosehehaslistenedtooften,retained,discussed,accumulated,examinedwithhismind,andwell-penetratedintermsofhisviews.Withlearningashisweapons,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasalargearmystationedwithin—elephantsoldiers,cavalry,charioteers,bowmen,standard-bearers,

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billetingofficers,soldiersofthesupplycorps,notedprinces,commandoheroes,infantry,&slaves—fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewayadiscipleofthenobleoneskeepshispersistencearousedforabandoningunskillfulmentalqualitiesandtakingonskillfulmentalqualities,issteadfast,solidinhiseffort,notshirkinghisdutieswithregardtoskillfulmentalqualities.Withpersistenceashisarmy,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasagatekeeper—wise,experienced,intelligent—tokeepoutthosehedoesn’tknowandtoletinthosehedoes,fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewayadiscipleofthenobleonesismindful,endowedwithexcellentproficiencyinmindfulness,remembering&abletocalltomindeventhingsthatweredone&saidlongago.Withmindfulnessashisgatekeeper,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Justastheroyalfrontierfortresshasramparts—high&thick&completelycoveredwithplaster—fortheprotectionofthosewithinandtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewayadiscipleofthenobleonesisdiscerning,endowedwithdiscernmentofarising&passingaway—noble,penetrating,leadingtotherightendingofstress.Withdiscernmentashiscoveringofplaster,thediscipleofthenobleonesabandonswhatisunskillful,developswhatisskillful,abandonswhatisblameworthy,developswhatisblameless,andlooksafterhimselfwithpurity.…

“Thesearetheseventruequalitieswithwhichheisendowed.“Andwhicharethefourjhānas—heightenedmentalstatesthat

provideapleasantabidinginthehere-&-now—thathecanobtainatwill,withoutdifficulty,withouttrouble?

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofgrass,timber,&waterforthedelight,convenience,&comfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,quitesecludedfromsensuality,secludedfromunskillfulqualities,enters&remainsinthefirstjhāna—rapture&pleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthought&evaluation—forhisowndelight,convenience,&comfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofrice&barleyforthedelight,convenience,&comfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthose

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without;inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withthestillingofdirectedthoughts&evaluations,enters&remainsinthesecondjhāna—rapture&pleasurebornofconcentration,unificationofawarenessfreefromdirectedthought&evaluation—internalassurance—forhisowndelight,convenience,&comfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresofsesame,greengram,&otherbeansforthedelight,convenience,&comfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withthefadingofrapture,remainsequanimous,mindful,&alert,andsensespleasurewiththebody.Heenters&remainsinthethirdjhāna—ofwhichthenobleonesdeclare,‘Equanimous&mindful,hehasapleasantabiding’—forhisowndelight,convenience,&comfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Justasaroyalfrontierfortresshaslargestoresoftonics—ghee,freshbutter,oil,honey,molasses,&salt—forthedelight,convenience,&comfortofthosewithin,andtowardoffthosewithout;inthesamewaythediscipleofthenobleones,withtheabandoningofpleasure&pain,aswiththeearlierdisappearanceofjoy&distress,enters&remainsinthefourthjhāna—purityofequanimity&mindfulness,neither-pleasure-nor-pain—forhisowndelight,convenience,&comfort,andtoalightonUnbinding.

“Thesearethefourjhānas—heightenedmentalstatesthatprovideapleasantabidinginthehere-&-now—thathecanobtainatwill,withoutdifficulty,withouttrouble.

“Whenadiscipleofthenobleonesisendowedwiththeseseventruequalitiesandcanobtainatwill—withoutdifficulty,withouttrouble—thesefourjhānas,heightenedmentalstatesthatprovideapleasantabidinginthehere-&-now,heissaidtobeadiscipleofthenobleoneswhocan’tbeundonebyMara,can’tbeundonebytheEvilOne.”—AN7:63

“Livewithaprotector,monks,andnotwithoutaprotector.Hesuffers,onewholiveswithoutaprotector.Andthesetenarequalitiescreatingaprotector.Whichten?

“Thereisthecasewhereamonkisvirtuous.HedwellsrestrainedinaccordancewiththePāṭimokkha[thebasiccodeofmonasticrules],consummateinhisbehavior&sphereofactivity.Hetrainshimself,havingundertakenthetrainingrules,seeingdangerintheslightestfaults.Andthefactthatheisvirtuous…seeingdangerintheslightestfaults,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

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“Thenagain,themonkhasheardmuch,hasretainedwhathehasheard,hasstoredwhathehasheard.Whateverteachingsareadmirableinthebeginning,admirableinthemiddle,admirableintheend,that—intheirmeaningandexpression—proclaimtheholylifethatisentirelycompleteandpure:thosehehaslistenedtooften,retained,discussed,accumulated,examinedwithhismind,&well-penetratedintermsofhisviews.Andthefactthathehasheardmuch…well-penetratedintermsofhisviews,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkhasadmirablefriends,admirablecomrades,admirablecompanions.Andthefactthathehasadmirablefriends,admirablecomrades,admirablecompanionsisaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkiseasytospeakto,endowedwithqualitiesthatmakehimeasytospeakto,patient,respectfultoinstruction.Andthefactthatheiseasytospeakto…respectfultoinstruction,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkisadeptatthevariousaffairsinvolvinghisfellowsintheholylife;isvigorous,quick-wittedinthetechniquesinvolvedinthem,isuptodoingthemorarrangingtogetthemdone.Andthefactthatheisadeptat…doingthemorarrangingtogetthemdoneisaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkisonewhodesirestheDhamma,endearinginhisconversation,greatlyrejoicinginthehigherDhamma&higherDiscipline.AndthefactthatheisonewhodesirestheDhamma,endearinginhisconversation,greatlyrejoicinginthehigherDhamma&higherDiscipline,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkkeepshispersistencearousedforabandoningunskillfulqualitiesandfortakingonskillfulqualities.Heissteadfast,solidinhiseffort,notshirkinghisdutieswithregardtoskillfulqualities.Andthefactthathekeepshispersistencearoused…notshirkinghisdutieswithregardtoskillfulqualities,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkiscontentwithanyoldrobeclothatall,anyoldalmsfood,anyoldlodging,anyoldmedicinalrequisitesforcuringsicknessatall.Andthefactthatheiscontentwithanyoldrobeclothatall,anyoldalmsfood,anyoldlodging,anyoldmedicinalrequisitesforcuringsicknessatall,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkismindful,endowedwithexcellentproficiencyinmindfulness,remembering&recollectingwhatwasdoneandsaidalongtimeago.Andthefactthatheismindful,endowedwith

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excellentproficiencyinmindfulness,remembering&recollectingwhatwasdoneandsaidalongtimeago,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Thenagain,themonkisdiscerning,endowedwithdiscernmentofarising&passingaway—noble,penetrating,leadingtotherightendingofstress.Andthefactthatthemonkisdiscerning,endowedwithdiscernmentofarising&passingaway—noble,penetrating,leadingtotherightendingofstress,isaqualitycreatingaprotector.

“Livewithaprotector,monks,andnotwithoutaprotector.Hesuffers,onewholiveswithoutaprotector.Thesearethetenqualitiescreatingaprotector.”—AN10:17

“Notconsortingwithfools,consortingwiththewise,homagetothosedeservingofhomage:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Livinginacivilizedland,havingmademeritinthepast,directingoneselfrightly:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Broadknowledge,skill,well-mastereddiscipline,well-spokenwords:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Supportforone’sparents,assistancetoone’swifeandchildren,consistencyinone’swork:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Generosity,livinginrectitude,assistancetoone’srelatives,deedsthatareblameless:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Avoiding,abstainingfromevil;refrainingfromintoxicants,beingheedfulofthequalitiesofthemind:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Respect,humility,contentment,gratitude,hearingtheDhammaontimelyoccasions:

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Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Patience,composure,seeingcontemplatives,discussingtheDhammaontimelyoccasions:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Austerity,celibacy,seeingthenobletruths,realizingUnbinding:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Amindthat,whentouchedbythewaysoftheworld,isunshaken,sorrowless,dustless,secure:

Thisisthehighestprotectivecharm.

Everywhereundefeatedwhenactinginthisway,peoplegoeverywhereinwell-being:

Thisistheirhighestprotectivecharm.”—Sn2:4

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LostinQuotation

Manypeoplewhodon’tknowmuchaboutoldBuddhisttextsoftenknowonepassagefromthePaliCanon:thepartoftheKālāmaSutta(AN)3:65)statingthatoldtextscan’tbetrusted.

Quotesfromthispassagecomeinmanyshapesandsizes.Someofthemareshortsoundbites,likethemessagethatwasrubber-stampedontheenvelopeofaletterIoncereceived:

Followyourownsenseofrightandwrong.—TheBuddha

There’salsothedesktopwallpaper:

Believenothing,nomatterwhosaidit,notevenifIsaidit,ifitdoesn’tfitinwithyourownreasonandcommonsense.—TheBuddha

Evenscholarlycitationsofthesuttagivethesamemessage.Here’stheentirequotefromthesuttainarecentbook:

“Whenyouknowforyourselvesthatthesethingsarewholesome…thesethings,whenentereduponandundertaken,inclinetowardwelfareandhappiness—then,Kālāmas,havingcometothemyoushouldstaywiththem.”

Takentogether,thesequotesjustifyourtendencytopickwhatwelikefromtheoldtextsandthrowingtherestaway.NoneedtounderstandthelargercontextoftheDhammatheyteach,theBuddhaseemstobesaying.You’rebetteroffrollingyourown.

ButifyoulookattheentirepassageintheKālāmaSutta,youdiscoverthatthesequotesgiveonlypartofthepicture.TheBuddha’sskepticismtowardreliableauthoritiesextendsinsideaswellasout:

“Sointhiscase,Kālāmas,don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicaldeduction,byinference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,‘Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.’”

Noticethewordsinplainface,theonesthatusuallygetdroppedfromthequoteorsloughedoverwhenthey’reincluded.WhentheBuddhasays

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thatyoucan’tgobylogicaldeduction,inference,oranalogies,he’ssayingthatyoucan’talwaystrustyoursenseofreason.Whenhesaysthatyoucan’tgobyagreementthroughponderingviews(i.e.,whatseemstofitinwithwhatyoualreadybelieve)orbyprobability,he’ssayingthatyoucan’talwaystrustyourcommonsense.Andofcourse,youcan’talwaystrustteachers,scriptures,ortraditions.Sowherecanyouplaceyourtrust?Youhavetoputthingstothetestinyourownthoughts,words,anddeeds,toseewhatactuallyleadstosufferingandwhatleadstoitsend.

“Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammasareunskillful;thesedhammasareblameworthy;thesedhammasarecriticizedbythewise;thesedhammas,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtoharm&tosuffering’—thenyoushouldabandonthem.”

“Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammasareskillful;thesedhammasareblameless;thesedhammasarepraisedbythewise;thesedhammas,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtowelfare&tohappiness’—thenyoushouldenter&remaininthem.”

Theword“dhamma”inthesepassagesmeansthreethingsinone:teaching,mentalquality,andaction.Teachingsarenaturallyrelatedtothemindstatesandactionstheyinspire,sotheyshouldbejudgedbytheresultstheygivewhenputintoaction.Truedhammaiswhatworksinleadingtogenuinewell-being.Falsedhammaiswhatdoesn’t.

Butevenwhenjudgingtheresultsofyourownactions,youcan’tsimplytakeyourownideasof“whatworks”asatrustworthystandard.Afterall,youcaneasilysidewithyourgreed,aversion,ordelusion,settingyourstandardstoolow.Sotocheckagainstthistendency,theBuddharecommendsthatyoualsotakeintoconsiderationtheviewsofthewise,sothatyoucanraiseyourstandardstotheirs.

Now,ifyou’reexpectingquickaccesstoatotallyreliableauthority,thismaysoundlikeacatch:Ifyou’renotwiseenoughtotrustyourownjudgment,howcanyourecognizewho’sreallywise?Butit’snotacatch.It’ssimplythewaywehavetooperatewhendevelopinganykindofskill—yourappreciationofgoodcarpentry,forexample,growsasyoumastercarpentryyourself—andtheBuddhaismakingthepointthatthisishowtoapproachthedhamma:asaskilltobemastered.Aswithanyskill,yourinnersensitivityandassuranceastowho’strulywiseintheskillgrowsonlythroughyourwillingnesstolearn.

Ingivingadviceonhowtolearnthisskill,theBuddhaisspeaking,notwiththeauthorityofyourcreatorwhocantellyouwhatyouhaveto

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believe,butwiththeauthorityofanexpertinhisfield,onewhoknowsfromexperiencewhatdoesanddoesn’twork.Ifyouwanttolearnfromhim,you’rewisetoaccepthisobservationsonhowit’sbestdone.Thefirstthingtorecognizeisthatthereareotherswhohavemasteredtheskillbeforeyouandthattheyhavesomeimportantthingstoteach.

Amongthethingsthey’llteachyou,ofcourse,iswhatthey’velearnedfromthewisebeforethem,goingbacktotheBuddha.Someofthisknowledgecanbepassedoninwords,butinalistofthequalitiestolookfor—andtolearnfrom—thewise,theBuddhashowsthatthere’smoretowisdomthanjustwords.Apersonworthyofrespect,hesaysatAN7:64,shouldhaveasenseofseventhings:thedhamma,itsmeaning,oneself,enough,therighttimeandplace,socialgatherings,andhowtojudgeindividualpeople.

What’sstrikingaboutthislististhatonlythefirsttwoqualitiesdealwithverbalknowledge.HavingasenseofthedhammameansknowingwhattheBuddhadidanddidn’tsay;havingasenseofmeaningmeansknowinghowtoexplainthedhamma’sdifficultconceptsandideas:thegeneralprinciplesthatexpressitsvalues,andthebasictechniquesforimplementingthem.Thesearethingswecanpickupfromdhammatalksandbooks.

ButtheBuddhadidn’tteachaone-size-fits-all-in-every-situationtechnique.Evenhisseeminglyabstractprinciplesaremeantforparticularstagesinthetraining.“Not-self,”forexample,isusefulinsomeinstances,andharmfulinothers.ThisiswhytheBuddhaaddedthelastfivemembersofthelist:thesensitivitiesthatturnthetechniquesandprinciplesintogenuineskills.

Havingasenseofoneselfmeansknowingyourstrengthsandweaknessesintermsofconviction,virtue,learning,generosity,discernment,andquick-wittedness.Inotherwords,youknowwhichqualitiesareimportanttofocuson,andcanassessobjectivelywhereyoustillhavemoreworktodo.

Havingasenseofenoughappliesprimarilytoyouruseoftherequisitesoflife—food,clothing,shelter,andmedicine—butitcanalsoapplytointangibles,suchaswhenyouneedlessdesire,effort,concentration,orthinkinginyourpractice,andwhenyouneedmore.

Havingasenseoftimemeansknowingwhentolisten,whentomemorizewhatyou’veheard,whentoaskquestions,andwhentogooffintoseclusionandpracticeonyourown.

Havingasenseofsocialgatheringsmeansknowinghowtospeakand

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behavewithpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundsandclassesofsociety.Havingasenseofindividualsmeansknowinghowtojudgewhich

peopleareworthyofemulationintheirpursuitofthedhammaandwhichonesarenot.

Eventhoughwecantalkabouttheselastfivequalities,wecan’tembodythemthroughwords.They’rehabits,andtheonlywaytopickupgoodhabitsisbybeingaroundgoodexamples:peoplewho’vealreadybeentrainedtoembodythesequalitiesinthewaytheylive.

ThisiswhytheBuddha—intryingtoestablishthedhammaforfuturegenerations—didn’tjustleaveabodyofteachings.Healsosetupthemonasticsaṅghaandorganizedittocarryonthetraditionofallsevenofthesequalities:hishabitsaswellashiswords.Toensurethatthestandardofthedhammawouldlastovertime,hefirstmadeitclearthathedidn’twantanyonetamperingwithhisteachings.

“Monks,thesetwoslandertheTathāgata.Whichtwo?OnewhoexplainswhatwasnotsaidorspokenbytheTathāgataassaidorspokenbytheTathāgata.AndonewhoexplainswhatwassaidorspokenbytheTathāgataasnotsaidorspokenbytheTathāgata.ThesearethetwowhoslandertheTathāgata.”—AN2:23

It’seasytounderstandwhytheBuddhaphrasedthissostrongly.Hehadchosenhiswordswithgreatcare,andwantedthesamelevelofcareinthosewhoquotedhim.Fidelity,inhiseyes,wasanactofcompassion.Heintendedhiswordstobetakenasastandardforwhatwasandwasn’tdhamma—anythingconsistentwithhiswordswastobeacceptedasdhamma;anythinginconsistent,toberejectedasnot—soit’sonlynaturalthathe’dwarnhisfollowersnottomuddythestandard.Otherwise,latergenerationswouldhavenotrustworthyguideintheirsearchtoendsuffering.

Soinadditiontoestablishingprinciplesfordeterminingwhathedidanddidn’tteach,healsosetupprotocolsforhowthesaṅghashouldsettledisagreementsonthisissuewhentheyarose.

Toensurethatthemeaningofthedhammawouldbepassedon,heestablishedtheprinciplethatteachersshouldbeopentoquestioning.Hedidn’twantthemtoengageinwhathecalledbombast:emptywords“theworkofpoets,theworkofoutsiders,artfulinsound,artfulinexpression.”Heencouragedhisstudentstofocusonteachingtheendofsuffering,andtoencouragetheirstudentstodissectthoseteachingstomaketheirmeaningclear.Understandingoccursbestwhenthere’sanopportunityfor

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anopendialogueingoodfaith.Totransmitthehabitsofthedhamma,theBuddhadesignedtheideal

teacher-studentrelationshiponthemodelofanapprenticeship.Youlivewiththeteacherforaminimumoffiveyears,attendingtotheteacher’sneeds,asawayofobserving—andbeingobservedby—theteacherinallsortsofsituations.

Andtoallowforthefactthatyoursenseofjudgmentdevelopsovertime,theBuddhadidn’tforceyoutocommittoateacherforlife.Youlookforsomeonewho,asfarasyoucansee,hasintegrity,butifyousensewithtimethatintegrityislacking,you’refreetolookforanewteacher.

Atthesametime,theBuddharealizedthatnoteveryonewouldhavethetimeorinclinationtoundergothisapprenticeship,sohearrangedadivisionoflabor.Themonksandnunswhohadpassedthroughapprenticeshipweretolive,notincloisters,butinplaceswherelaypeoplewouldbefreetocomeandlearnfromthefruitsoftheirtraining.

Soit’sobviousthattheBuddhadidn’thaveacasualorcavalierattitudetowardthepreservationofhiswordsandhabits.Knowingthedifficultieshe’dencounteredindiscoveringthedhamma,hedidn’ttrustus—withourgreed,aversion,anddelusion—todiscoveritonourown.Heknewwe’dneedhelp.Andalthoughheforesawthathisteachingswouldsomedaydisappear,hedidn’tsimplyresignhimselftochangeortrustthatitwouldalwaysworkoutforthebest.Heestablishedawiderangeofsafeguardstoensurethatreliablewordsandmodelsofbehaviorwouldsurviveaslongaspossible.

Butinthecut-and-pasteBuddhismdevelopingaroundusintheWest,manyofthesesafeguardshavebeendropped.Inparticular,theideaofapprenticeship—socentralinmasteringthehabitsofthedhammaasaskill—isalmosttotallylacking.Dhammaprinciplesarereducedtovaguegeneralities,andthetechniquesfortestingthemarestrippedtoabare,assembly-lineminimum.

Wereassureourselvesthatthechangeswe’vemadeinBuddhismareallforthebest—thatBuddhismhasalwaysadapteditselftoeverycultureitenters,andwecantrustittoadaptwiselytotheWest.ButthistreatsBuddhismasifitwereaconsciousagent—awiseamoebicforcethatknowshowtoadapttoitsenvironmentinordertosurvive.Actually,Buddhismisn’tanagent,anditdoesn’tadapt.Itgetsadapted—sometimesbypeoplewhoknowwhatthey’redoing,sometimesbypeoplewhodon’t.Justbecauseaparticularadaptationsurvivesandprevailsdoesn’tmeanthatit’sgenuinedhamma.Itmaysimplyappealtothedesiresandfearsofitstarget

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audience.CertainlyweintheWestareeasytargetsfortheideathattheBuddha

wantsustocutandpastehisdhammaaswelike.Manyofushavebeenburnedbyreligiousauthoritiesandwedon’twanttoriskgettingburnedagain.There’salsoourculturalpride:WeliketothinkthatwecanseemoreclearlythanAsianBuddhistwhat’sofgenuinevalueintheirtraditionsandwhat’ssimplyculturalbaggage—asifwedidn’thaveculturalbaggageofourown.Andhowdoweknowwhat’s“justbaggage”?Abeat-upoldsuitcasemightcontainyourjewelryandkeys.

Soisadesignerdhammawhatwereallywant?AstheBuddhanoted,oneofthenaturalreactionstosufferingistosearchforsomeonewhocangivegoodadviceonhowtoputanendtoit.Whenofferedthechoice,wouldn’tyoupreferreliableguidanceonhowtoendyoursufferingratherthanado-it-yourselfkitwithvagueinstructionsandnoguarantees?

Oraretherethosewhowouldbenefitifyouboughtthekit?Peoplesometimesarguethatinourdiverse,postmodernworldweneedapostmodernBuddhisminwhichnoone’sinterpretationcanbecriticizedaswrong.Butthat’stradingthepossibilityoftotalfreedomfromsufferingforsomethingmuchless:freedomfromcriticism.Anditignorestheothersideofthepostmodernistequation:thatourperceivedwantscanbeoverwhelminglyshapedbytheinterestsofinstitutionswhowantsomethingoutofus.Oneofthecommonrusesofprivatizationistoofferusless,dressitupasmore,sothatwe’llpaymoreforit.Isthatwhat’shappeninghere?

TheBuddhawasn’tsonaïveastothinkthatwecanalwaysknowwhat’sinourownbestinterest.Hesawlongbeforethepostmodernsthatthere’splentytomistrustbothinoldtextsandinourownideasofwhatseemsreasonable.Yethedidthepostmodernsonebetterbyofferingasolutiontothisdilemma.Itwouldbeashameif,soldontheideaofdesigningourownDhamma,welethissolutiondie.

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AnAll-aroundEye

Weliveinaculturethatlikestoreducethingstosoundbites,catchwords,buzzwords,quickandeasywaysofboilingthingsdown.Asaresult,whenwecometotheDhamma,wefindsoundbiteDhamma,catchwordandbuzzwordDhamma.We’retoldthatBuddhismboilsdowntooneparticularpractice,likenoting,mindfulness,orspreadingthoughtsoflovingkindness.Sometimeswe’retoldthatitteachesjustahandfulofbasicprinciples:lettinggo,equanimity,emptiness,contentment,compassion.Ifthat’sallweknowoftheDhamma,wemissthefactthatithasmanydimensions.Itdoescontainallofthesethings,butitalsocontainsmore.Itcan’tbereducedtojustoneprinciple.

Whenyouapproachthepractice,youhavetobealerttoitsmanydimensions:sensitivenotonlytohowyoudealwithyourownmind,butalsotohowdealingwithyourownmindaffectsyourrelationshipstootherpeopleandtothethingsyoudependonforlife.Whenyouwanttogaugehowthepracticeisgoing,andtogainasenseofwhichteachingsreallyareusefulwhenappliedinaparticularway,youhavetolookatthingsfromseveralangles.JustastheBuddhawassaidtohavean“all-aroundeye,”youhavetolookatyourpracticefromallsides.

TheBuddhataughthisstepmother,Mahāpajāpatī,thismultipleperspective,givingheralistofeighttestsforwhatcountsandwhatdoesn’tcountasDhammaandVinaya(AN8:53).“Dhamma,”here,meansteachings,actions,andmentalqualities.“Vinaya”meansthehealthy,effectivewayofdiscipliningthoseactionsandqualities.Youwanttomakesurethatyouractionspassalleighttestsifyourpracticeisgoingtostayonthepath.

Thelistfallsintothreeparts.Itstartswithtwoprinciplesfocusedprimarilyonthegoal:beingdispassionateandbeingunfettered.Italsoincludestwoprinciplesconcerninginnerattitudesthathelpyoureachthegoal—persistenceandcontentment—aswellasfourprinciplesgoverningthewayyouinteractwithotherpeopleasyoupractice:beingmodest,sheddingyourpride,findingseclusion,andbeingunburdensome.Whenyougaugeanyteaching,action,ormentalquality,youhavetolookatitfromallthreeoftheseanglesifyouwanttoknowwhetherit’strueDhammaornot.

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Thequalitiesofthegoal—dispassionandbeingunfettered—arefirstinthelisttoshowwherealltheothersareaimed.Thisiswhatthepracticeisallabout:learningdispassion,learningtofreethemindfromthewaysinwhichitfettersitself.Thesetwoqualitiesarecloselyconnected.Thepassionthatwefeelfortheobjectsofthesenses,includingobjectsofthemind,isthefetterthatkeepsustieddown.Theobjectsthemselvesdon’ttieusdown.We’retheoneswholatchontothem,andourclingingiswhatkeepsustrapped.

ThisfactisreflectedintheimagetheBuddhausestotalkaboutpassion,thewaywecling.Thewordforclinging—upādāna—appliesnotonlytoholdingon,butalsototakingsustenance,thewayafiretakessustenancefromitsfuel.Infeedingonthefuel,thefirehastoclingtoit;inclinging,it’strapped.Onlywhenthefireletsgoisitreleased.

Thesamewiththemind:Whenwelearnhowtoletgoofourpassionforsensualobsessions,andthenonadeeperlevelourpassionforexperiencesofformsorformlessphenomenainstrongconcentration,onlythenarewetrulyfree.

Infollowingthisprogram,thewayyoupracticeisgoingtohaveanimpactonotherpeople.You’vegottotakethatintoconsideration,alongwithyourresponsibilityforthematerialthingsyoudependon.ThisiswhytheBuddhaincludesothertestsinhislistaswell.

Intermsofyourinteractionswithothers,theBuddhasaysthattrueDhammateachesyoutobemodest,toshedyourpride,tofindseclusionasmuchasyoucan,andtobeunburdensome.Theseprinciplesaremutuallyreinforcing.Ifyoulearntobemodest,ithelpswithseclusion.Inotherwords,you’reworkingongoodqualitiesofthemindtocureyourself.You’renottryingtoshowoff.You’renottryingtoimpresspeople.You’repracticingbecausethemindislikeasickperson.Itneedsmedicinetocureitsillnessesofgreed,aversion,anddelusion.Practiceislikegoingtothedoctorandtakingthemedicineheprescribes.You’renotdoingittoimpressanybody.Yougobecauseyou’vegotanillnessandyouneedacure.

Theseprinciplestieinwiththeremainingtwo,whichdealdirectlywithinnerattitudes.Thefirstofthetwoispersistence:puttingrighteffortintopractice,theeffortofdevelopingskillfulqualitiesthatfosterthehealthofthemindandabandoningtheunskillfulonesthatkeepitdiseased.Thiseffort,inadditiontoleadingtodispassion,alsoneedstomakeuseofwhateverdispassionyoucanmuster.That’sbecausewealltendtoviewourunskillfulqualitiesasourfriends—welikeourgreed,

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aversion,anddelusion—andonlybydevelopingdispassionforthemcanweseethroughthattheirfriendshipisfalse.

Thesecondinnerattitudeiscontentmentwiththephysicalconditionssurroundingyou:thefoodyoueat,theclothesandtherobesyouwear,theshelteryouhave.Yourealizethatwhateveryougetisenoughforpractice.Contentmentfitsinwithbeingunburdensomeandunentangled,becausewhenyou’recontent,there’slessneedtobeaburdenonotherpeople—andlessneedtobeinvolvedwiththemaswell.Ifyou’reconstantlywantingsomething,you’regoingtobelookingforsomeonetoprovideit.Ifyoulearntobecontentwithwhatyou’vegot,it’seasiertostayinseclusion.

Sotheseeightprinciplesreinforceoneanother.Theyalsobalanceoutpossibleimbalancesthatcouldoccurifyoupursuedoneprincipleonitsown.Forinstance,beingdispassionateandbeingcontent,takenontheirown,couldbeinterpretedaslettingthingsbeastheyarewithouttryingtochangeanything.Butsimplylyingaroundintotalacceptanceaccomplishesnothing.Persistence,though,balancesthis.

TheBuddhamadeacleardistinctionbetweenphysicalcontentmentandcontentmentwiththestateofyourmind.Physicalcontentmentisagoodthing;contentmentwithyourpracticecanleadtocomplacency.Oneoftheprimaryfactorsthatledtohisawakening,hesaid,wasthathedidn’tallowhimselftobecontentwiththelevelofskillfulnesshehadattaineduntilhereachedtheultimate.That’swhyheusedtheimageofthepersonwhoseheadisonfiretoillustratetheproperattitudetowardyourunskillfulqualities.Yourouseallyourmindfulnessandardencytoputthefireoutimmediately.Youcan’tjustwatchwithdispassionorcontentmentwhenyourhairisinflames.Ifthereareproblemsinthemind,you’vegottodealwiththemasquicklyasyoucan.

There’salsotherelationshipbetweencontentmentandbeingunburdensome.Thediscourseonthetraditionsofthenobleones(AN4:28)listsfourqualities,startingwithcontentmentwithfood,clothing,andshelter.Knowingthattherearefourrequisites,you’dexpectthatcontentmentwithmedicinewouldbethefourthquality,butit’snot.Thefourthqualityistakingdelightindeveloping,takingdelightinabandoning.Whathappenedtomedicine?Lookingafteryourhealthisapartofbeingunburdensome.TherearemanyrulesintheCanonaboutwhichmedicinesandtreatmentsareallowedtothemonks:somanythatwhenBuddhismmovedfromIndiatoothercultures,itcarriedIndianmedicinealongwithit.Monksareexpectedtoknowhowtocareforoneanotherwhenthey’reill,totreatoneanother’sdiseases.Ifthebodygets

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diseased,itbecomesaburdentootherpeople,especiallynowthatmedicineandtreatmentsaresoexpensive.Oneofourresponsibilitiesaspractitionersistomakesurethatwestayhealthy—althoughwehavetofightthetendencytogetpassionateaboutperfectingthebodyandbeingreallyfit.That’sonewayyouhavetolookforabalancesothatcontentmentandbeingunburdensomefollowthemiddlewayofmoderation.

Anothersetofbalancingqualitiesarecontentmentontheonehand,andsheddingprideandbeingmodestontheother.Somepeopleliketomakeashowofhowfrugaltheyare.This,theBuddhasaid,isthedangerofdevelopingcontentmentforthewrongmotive.Youhavetodevelopmodestyandworkatsheddinganypridearoundyourcontentment.Again,thereasonforcontentmentisnottoshowoff.It’smedicineforthemind’sdiseases.Andaswithmanymedicines,ifyoumisuseit,itcanmakeyourillnessevenworse.

Theremanystoriesfromtheforesttraditionaboutteachersmakingsurethattheirstudentslookatthingsfrommanysides,orinAjaanLee’swords,thatthestudentsaren’tpeoplewithaneyejustononeside.There’sthestoryofAjaanMahaBoowatakingontheasceticpracticeofnotacceptinganyfoodafterhisalmsround.Hewasverystrictwithhimselfaboutthat.Hecouldn’thelpnoticing,though,thatothermonkswhohadtakenthesamevowatthebeginningoftheRainsretreatwere,onebyone,beginningtogiveintopressurefromlaypeoplewhowouldcomelateandsay,“Pleaseacceptourfood.”Thismonkgavein,thatmonkgavein,butAjaanMahaBoowadidn’tgivein—andwasveryproudofthefact.Hewasgoingtosticktohisvownomatterwhat.TwoorthreetimesduringtheRainsretreat,though,whilehesatwaitingforthemealtobegin,hisbowlinorder,hiseyesclosed,AjaanMunwouldappearoutofnowherewithfoodinhishandtoplaceinthebowl:foodthathadbeenbroughtbylate-comingdonors.Hedidn’tdoitsooftenthatpeoplewouldthinkthatstickingtothevowwaswrong—justenoughtowarnAjaanMahaBoowatowatchoutforpride.

AnotherstorydealswithAjaanChahsurveyingthedamageinhismonasteryafterastorm,discoveringthatoneofthehutshadhalfitsroofblownoffbythewind.Heaskedthemonklivinginthehut,“Whyaren’tyoufixingtheroof?”Themonkreplied,“I’mpracticingequanimity,sleepinginthehalfofthehutthat’sstillsheltered.”AjaanChahsaid,“That’stheequanimityofawaterbuffalo.Fixtheroof.”

Sowhenyou’relookingatthepractice,youhavetolookatitfrommanysides.InAjaanChah’scase,hewaspointingouttheneedtobalance

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contentmentwiththedutyofpersistentlycaringforthefruitsofotherpeople’sgenerosity.Peoplehavebeenkindenoughtoprovideyouwithfood,clothing,andshelter.You’vegottolookafterthesethings.Youhavetoberesponsible.Youcan’tletyourcontentmentmakeyoulazy,oryourdesiretobeunfetteredmakeyouapathetic.Takinggoodcareofthingsispartofbeingunburdensome.

Asalivinghumanbeing,therearemanydimensionstowhatyou’redoing.Youractionshaveanimpactonyourownmind,onotherpeople,andonyourphysicalenvironment.Youhaveresponsibilitiesinalltheseareas.Learnhowtokeeptheminbalance.

OnecommonmisunderstandingisthattheBuddhainstitutedrulestopleaselaypeople,sothatwhateverlaypeoplewant,themonksshouldoblige.Thatwasnotalwaysthecase.Therearemanycaseswherepeoplewantedthemonkstobehaveinaparticularway,andtheBuddhasaidNo.Whenmonkswentoutoftheirwaytobesmiley,friendly,andperformservicesforlaypeopleinwaystheBuddhafeltwereinappropriate,heaccusedthemof“corruptingfamilies.”Inotherwords,youcorruptthembygivingthemallthewrongideasabouttheroleofmonks.Sodespitewhatthelaypeoplewanted,theBuddhainstitutedrulesagainstthatsortofthing.

AjaanFuangtalksaboutbeingayoungboylivinginavillagetemplebackinthedayswhenvillagemonkswereexpectedtobedoctorsforthevillagers—eventhoughtherearerulesagainstmonksperformingthatsortofservice.AjaanFuanglostcountofhowmanytimessomeoneinthevillagewouldfallsickatnight,andtheabbothadtogolookafterthatperson.AjaanFuangwasthetempleboywhohadtotagalongtocarrythemedicines.Peoplegotusedtothatkindofservicefromthemonks,andthemonksendedupwithnotimetopractice.Theforesttraditionsarereallystrictaboutthis.Themonksarehereprimarilytocleansetheirminds,toputforththeefforttogetridofpassionandtounfettertheirminds.Wedon’twanttotiethemdownwithresponsibilitiesthatgetinthewayoftheirprimaryduty.

ThisiswhytheBuddhadidn’tinstitutemeditationretreatcenters.Heinstitutedcommunitiesthatwouldlivetogether,lookaftertheirsurroundings,interactwithlaypeopleand,attheveryleast,bedependentonthemforfood.Thiswasdesignedtoprovideanenvironmentinwhichboththelaypeopleandthemonasticscouldbecomesensitivetoallthesedifferentdimensionsofthepractice.Thisway,whatmightlookgoodfromaone-dimensionalpointofviewgetsputintoamultidimensionalperspective,andfromthisall-aroundperspectiveyoucanseewhenthere’s

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adefilementlurkingsomewhereintheshadows,likethepridethatcancomeinbeingoverlymodestorcontent,orthelazinessthatcanhidebehindbeingcontentordispassionate.

So,rememberthattheBuddhadidn’tteachinsoundbites.Hetaughtanall-aroundtraining.Webenefitall-aroundwhenwekeepthesemultipledimensionsinmind.

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MettaMeansGoodwill

AjaanFuang,myteacher,oncediscoveredthatasnakehadmovedintohisroom.Everytimeheenteredtheroom,hesawitslipintoanarrowspacebehindastoragecabinet.Andeventhoughhetriedleavingthedoortotheroomopenduringthedaytime,thesnakewasn’twillingtoleave.Soforthreedaystheylivedtogether.Hewasverycarefulnottostartlethesnakeormakeitfeelthreatenedbyhispresence.Butfinallyontheeveningofthethirdday,ashewassittinginmeditation,headdressedthesnakequietlyinhismind.Hesaid,“Look,it’snotthatIdon’tlikeyou.Idon’thaveanybadfeelingsforyou.Butourmindsworkindifferentways.It’dbeveryeasyfortheretobeamisunderstandingbetweenus.Now,therearelotsofplacesoutinthewoodswhereyoucanlivewithouttheuneasinessoflivingwithme.”Andashesattherespreadingthoughtsofmettatothesnake,thesnakeleft.

WhenAjaanFuangfirsttoldmethisstory,itmademestopandreconsidermyunderstandingofwhatmettais.Mettaisawishforhappiness—truehappiness—andtheBuddhasaystodevelopthiswishforourselvesandeveryoneelse:“Withmettafortheentirecosmos,cultivatealimitlessheart.”(Sn1:8)Butwhat’stheemotionalqualitythatgoesalongwiththatwish?Manypeopledefineitas“lovingkindness,”implyingadesiretobethereforotherpeople:tocherishthem,toprovidethemwithintimacy,nurture,andprotection.Theideaoffeelingloveforeveryonesoundsverynobleandemotionallysatisfying.Butwhenyoureallystoptothinkaboutallthebeingsinthecosmos,therearealotofthemwho—likethesnake—wouldreacttoyourlovingkindnesswithsuspicionandfear.Ratherthanwantingyourlove,theywouldratherbeleftalone.Othersmighttrytotakeunfairadvantageofyourlovingkindness,readingitasasigneitherofyourweaknessorofyourendorsementofwhatevertheywanttodo.Innoneofthesecaseswouldyourlovingkindnessleadtoanyone’struehappiness.Whenthisisthecase,you’releftwonderingiftheBuddha’sinstructionsonuniversalmettaarereallyrealisticorwise.

ButasIlearnedfromAjaanFuang’sencounterwiththesnake,mettaisnotnecessarilyanattitudeoflovingkindness.It’smoreanattitudeofgoodwill—wishingtheotherpersonwell,butrealizingthattruehappinessissomethingthateachofusultimatelywillhavetofindforhimorherself,

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andsometimesmosteasilywhenwegoourseparateways.ThisunderstandingofmettaisborneoutinthePaliCanon,firstofall

intheworditself.ThePalilanguagehasanotherwordforlove—pema—whereasmettaisrelatedtothewordmitta,orfriend.TheBuddhaneverrecommendsdevelopinguniversalpema—for,ashenotes,lovecaneasilyleadtohatredwhenthepeopleyouloveareill-treatedbyothers—buthedoesrecommenddevelopinguniversalmetta:friendlinessforall.ThefactthatthisfriendlinessequateswithgoodwillisshowninthefourpassagesintheCanonwheretheBuddharecommendsphrasestoholdinmindwhendevelopingthoughtsofmetta.Thesephrasesprovidehisclearestguidenotonlytotheemotionalqualitythatunderliesmetta,butalsototheunderstandingofhappinessthatexplainswhyit’swiseandrealistictodevelopmettaforall.

ThefirstsetofphrasescomesinapassagewheretheBuddharecommendsthoughtstocounterillwill.ThesephrasesarechanteddailyinTheravadacommunitiestheworldover:

“Maythesebeings—freefromanimosity,freefromoppression,andfreefromtrouble—lookafterthemselveswithease.”—AN10:176

Noticethatlaststatement:“Maytheylookafterthemselveswithease.”You’renotsayingthatyou’regoingtobethereforallbeingsallthetime.Andmostbeingswouldbehappierknowingthattheycoulddependonthemselvesratherthanhavingtodependonyou.IonceheardaDhammateachersaythathewouldn’twanttoliveinaworldwheretherewasnosufferingbecausethenhewouldn’tbeabletoexpresshiscompassion—whichwhenyouthinkaboutit,isanextremelyselfishwish.Heneedsotherpeopletosuffersohecanfeelgoodaboutexpressinghiscompassion?Abetterattitudewouldbe,“Mayallbeingsbehappy.Maytheybeabletolookafterthemselveswithease.”Thatwaytheycanhavethehappinessofindependenceandself-reliance.

AnothersetofmettaphrasesisintheKaraṇīyaMettaSutta.Theystartoutwithasimplewishforhappiness:

Happy,atrest,mayallbeingsbehappyatheart.Whateverbeingstheremaybe,

weakorstrong,withoutexception,long,large,middling,short,subtle,blatant,

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seen&unseen,near&far,born&seekingbirth:

Mayallbeingsbehappyatheart.

Butthentheycontinuewithawishthatallbeingsavoidthecausesthatwouldleadthemtounhappiness:

Letnoonedeceiveanotherordespiseanyoneanywhere,orthroughangerorresistancewishforanothertosuffer.—Sn1:8

Inrepeatingthesephrases,youwishnotonlythatbeingsbehappy,butalsothattheyavoidtheactionsthatwouldleadtobadkarma,totheirownunhappiness.Yourealizethathappinesshastodependonaction:Forpeopletofindtruehappiness,theyhavetounderstandthecausesforhappinessandactonthem.Theyalsohavetounderstandthattruehappinessisharmless.Ifitdependsonsomethingthatharmsothers,it’snotgoingtolast.Thosewhoareharmedaresuretodowhattheycantodestroythathappiness.Andthenthere’stheplainqualityofsympathy:Ifyouseesomeonesuffering,it’spainful.Ifyouhaveanysensitivityatall,it’shardtofeelhappywhenyouknowthatyourhappinessiscausingsufferingforothers.

Soagain,whenyouexpressgoodwill,you’renotsayingthatyou’regoingtobethereforthemallthetime.You’rehopingthatallbeingswillwiseupabouthowtofindhappinessandbethereforthemselves.

TheKaraṇīyaMettaSuttagoesontosaythatwhenyou’redevelopingthisattitude,youwanttoprotectitinthesamewaythatamotherwouldprotectheronlychild.

Asamotherwouldriskherlifetoprotectherchild,heronlychild,evensoshouldonecultivatealimitlessheartwithregardtoallbeings.

Somepeoplemisreadthispassage—infact,manytranslatorshavemistranslatedit—thinkingthattheBuddhaistellingustocherishalllivingbeingsthesamewayamotherwouldcherishheronlychild.Butthat’snotwhathe’sactuallysaying.Tobeginwith,hedoesn’tmentiontheword“cherish”atall.Andinsteadofdrawingaparallelbetweenprotectingyouronlychildandprotectingotherbeings,hedrawsthe

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parallelbetweenprotectingthechildandprotectingyourgoodwill.ThisfitsinwithhisotherteachingsintheCanon.Nowheredoeshetellpeopletothrowdowntheirlivestopreventeverycrueltyandinjusticeintheworld,buthedoespraisehisfollowersforbeingwillingtothrowdowntheirlivesfortheirprecepts:“Justastheoceanisstableanddoesnotoverstepitstideline,inthesamewaymydisciplesdonot—evenforthesakeoftheirlives—overstepthetrainingrulesIhaveformulatedforthem.”—Ud5:5

Theversesherecarryasimilarsentiment:Youshouldbedevotedtocultivatingandprotectingyourgoodwilltomakesurethatyourvirtuousintentionsdon’twaver.Thisisbecauseyoudon’twanttoharmanyone.Harmcanhappenmosteasilywhenthere’salapseinyourgoodwill,soyoudowhateveryoucantoprotectthisattitudeatalltimes.Thisiswhy,astheBuddhasaystowardtheendofthesutta,youshouldstaydeterminedtopracticethisformofmindfulness:themindfulnessofkeepinginmindyourwishthatallbeingsbehappy,tomakesurethatitalwaysinformsthemotivationforeverythingyoudo.

ThisiswhytheBuddhaexplicitlyrecommendsdevelopingthoughtsofmettaintwosituationswhereit’sespeciallyimportant—andespeciallydifficult—tomaintainskillfulmotivation:whenothersarehurtingyou,andwhenyourealizethatyou’vehurtothers.

Ifothersareharmingyouwiththeirwordsoractions—“evenifbanditsweretocarveyouupsavagely,limbbylimb,withatwo-handledsaw”—theBuddharecommendstrainingyourmindinthisway:

“Ourmindswillbeunaffectedandwewillsaynoevilwords.Wewillremainsympathetic,withamindofgoodwill,andwithnoinnerhate.Wewillkeeppervadingthesepeoplewithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwilland,beginningwiththem,wewillkeeppervadingtheall-encompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwill—abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.”—MN21

Indoingthis,theBuddhasays,youmakeyourmindasexpansiveastheRiverGangesoraslargeastheearth—inotherwords,largerthantheharmthosepeoplearedoingorthreateningtodotoyou.HehimselfembodiedthisteachingafterDevadatta’sattemptonhislife.AshetoldMara—whohadcometotaunthimwhilehewasrestingfromapainfulinjury—“Iliedownwithsympathyforallbeings.”(SN4:13)Whenyoucanmaintainthisenlargedstateofmindinthefaceofpain,theharmthatotherscandotoyoudoesn’tseemsooverwhelming,andyou’relesslikelytorespondinunskillfulways.Youprovideprotection—bothforyourself

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andforothers—againstanyunskillfulthingsyouotherwisemightbetemptedtodo.

Asforthetimeswhenyourealizethatyou’veharmedothers,theBuddharecommendsthatyouunderstandthatremorseisnotgoingtoundotheharm,soifanapologyisappropriate,youapologize.Inanycase,youresolvenottorepeattheharmfulactionagain.Thenyouspreadthoughtsofgoodwillinalldirections.

Thisaccomplishesseveralthings.Itremindsyouofyourowngoodness,sothatyoudon’t—indefenseofyourself-image—reverttothesortofdenialthatrefusestoadmitthatanyharmwasdone.Itstrengthensyourdeterminationtostickwithyourresolvenottodoharm.Anditforcesyoutoexamineyouractionstoseetheiractualeffect:Ifanyofyourotherhabitsareharmful,youwanttoabandonthembeforetheycausefurtherharm.Inotherwords,youdon’twantyourgoodwilltobejustanungrounded,floatingidea.Youwanttoapplyitscrupulouslytothenitty-grittyofallyourinteractionswithothers.Thatwayyourgoodwillbecomeshonest.Anditactuallydoeshaveanimpact,whichiswhywedevelopthisattitudetobeginwith:tomakesurethatittrulyanimatesourthoughts,words,anddeedsinawaythatleadstoahappinessharmlessforall.

Finally,there’sapassagewheretheBuddhataughtthemonksachantforspreadinggoodwilltoallsnakesandothercreepingthings.Thestorygoesthatamonkmeditatinginaforestwasbittenbyasnakeanddied.ThemonksreportedthistotheBuddhaandherepliedthatifthatmonkhadspreadgoodwilltoallfourgreatfamiliesofsnakes,thesnakewouldn’thavebittenhim.ThentheBuddhataughtthemonksaprotectivechantforexpressingmettanotonlyforsnakes,butalsoforallbeings.

Ihavegoodwillforfootlessbeings,goodwillfortwo-footedbeings,goodwillforfour-footedbeings,goodwillformany-footedbeings.

Mayfootlessbeingsdomenoharm.Maytwo-footedbeingsdomenoharm.Mayfour-footedbeingsdomenoharm.Maymany-footedbeingsdomenoharm.Mayallcreatures,

allbreathingthings,allbeings

—each&everyone—meetwithgoodfortune.

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Maynoneofthemcometoanyevil.

LimitlessistheBuddha,limitlesstheDhamma,limitlesstheSaṅgha.Thereisalimittocreepingthings:

snakes,scorpions,centipedes,spiders,lizards,&rats.

Ihavemadethissafeguard,Ihavemadethisprotection.

Maythebeingsdepart.—AN4:67

Thelaststatementinthisexpressionofmettatakesintoconsiderationthetruththatlivingtogetherisoftendifficult—especiallyforbeingsofdifferentspeciesthatcanharmoneanother—andthehappiestpolicyforallconcernedisoftentoliveharmlesslyapart.

Thesedifferentwaysofexpressingmettashowthatmettaisnotnecessarilythequalityoflovingkindness.Mettaisbetterthoughtofasgoodwill,andfortworeasons.Thefirstisthatgoodwillisanattitudeyoucanexpressforeveryonewithoutfearofbeinghypocriticalorunrealistic.Itrecognizesthatpeoplewillbecometrulyhappynotasaresultofyourcaringforthembutasaresultoftheirownskillfulactions,andthatthehappinessofself-relianceisgreaterthananyhappinessthatcomesfromdependency.

Thesecondreasonisthatgoodwillisamoreskillfulfeelingtohavetowardthosewhowouldreactunskillfullytoyourlovingkindness.Thereareprobablypeopleyou’veharmedinthepastwhowouldrathernothaveanythingtodowithyoueveragain,sotheintimacyoflovingkindnesswouldactuallybeasourceofpainforthem,ratherthanjoy.Therearealsopeoplewho,whentheyseethatyouwanttoexpresslovingkindness,wouldbequicktotakeadvantageofit.Andthereareplentyofanimalsouttherewhowouldfeelthreatenedbyanyovertexpressionsoflovefromahumanbeing.Inthesecases,amoredistantsenseofgoodwill—thatyoupromiseyourselfnevertoharmthosepeopleorthosebeings—wouldbebetterforeveryoneinvolved.

Thisdoesn’tmeanthatlovingkindnessisneveranappropriateexpressionofgoodwill.Yousimplyhavetoknowwhenit’sappropriateandwhenit’snot.Ifyoutrulyfeelmettaforyourselfandothers,youcan’tletyourdesireforwarmfeelingsofloveandintimacyrenderyouinsensitivetowhatwouldactuallybethemostskillfulwaytopromotetruehappinessforall.

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OnDenyingDefilement

Theconceptofdefilement(kilesa)hasapeculiarstatusinmodernWesternBuddhism.LiketraditionalBuddhistconceptssuchaskarmaandrebirth,ithasbeendroppedbymanyWesternBuddhistteachers.Butunlikethoseconcepts,peoplerarelymentionthatit’sbeendropped.Eitherit’snotmentionedor—ifitis—it’sdismissedasalwayshavingbeendismissedintheBuddha’steachings.FewWesternBuddhistsrealizethattheconcepteverplayedmuchofaroleintraditionalBuddhismatall.

ThedenialofdefilementisespeciallystrikingwhenyourealizehowcentralithasbeentothehistoryofBuddhistpractice.OneofthePaliCanon’sprimaryimagesforthepathofpracticeisthatofcleansingandpurifyingthemindofdefilements,whichMN14listsasgreed,aversion,anddelusion.MN5containsasimilarlistofdefilements,replacinggreedwiththemoregeneraldefilementofpassion.MN128containsalonglistofderiveddefilements—suchasdoubt,fear,inattention,slothandtorpor—thatobscurethemind’sinnervisionanditsabilitytogainsteadyconcentration.Dhp277–279—alongwithmanyotherpassagesintheCanon—describethepathtotheendofsufferingasthepathtopurity.

InthecenturiessincetheBuddha’stime,teacherswhofollowthecanonhaveadoptedthevisionofthepathaspurification,stressingtheneedtocleansethemindofitsdefilementsifawakeningistooccur.IntheThaiWildernesstradition,forinstance,teachersfrequentlydescribeDhammapracticeasanattempttooutwitthedefilementssoastoendtheirobscuringinfluenceinthemind.Topractice,theysay,istolearnhowlittleyoucantrustthemind’surgesandideasbecausethey’redarkenedwiththedefilementofdelusion,whosedarknessinturncanallowgreed,aversion,andalltheotherderiveddefilementstogrow.Onlybyquestioningthemind’surgesandideascanyoufreeyourselffromtheinfluenceofthesedefilements,leavingthemindtotallypure.

ButmanymodernWesternteachers—anticipatingthattheirlistenerswouldreactunfavorablytohearingtheirmindscalleddefiled—haveabandonedtheconceptentirely.Evenwhendiscussingtheproblemsofgreed,aversion,anddelusion,theytendtoavoiddescribingthemas“defilements.”Theclosesttheycomeiscallingthem“poisons,”whosesourcetheytrace,nottothemind,buttoitsexternalconditioningandits

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mistakenbeliefthatthesepoisonsarereal.Awakening,inthisview,isamatternotofwashingawaydefilement,butofacceptingthemindasitis,realizingthatit’salreadypure.

Thereareseveralreasonsforwhymodernteachersareprobablycorrectinanticipatinganegativereactiontotheideaofthemindasdefiled,theprimaryreasoncomingfrommodernWesternpsychology.Manypsychotherapistshaveidentifiedlowself-esteemasaprimecauseofmentalsuffering,andtheabilitytosilencethevoiceoftheinnerhypercriticastheprimewaytoendthatsuffering.Becausethenotionofdefilementiscriticalofsuchnormalmindstatesasgreed,aversion,anddelusion,theyseeitasunhealthy:acauseofsufferingratherthanatooltobringsufferingtoanend.

ThisviewissometimesbolsteredbyappealstoWesternculturalhistory.PeoplecomingtoBuddhismareoftenreactingtothedoctrineoforiginalsin,whichtellsthemthatthenatureoftheirmindisbasicallydepraved.Many—unawareofthesource—haveadoptedthestandardWesterncounter-argumentstothisdoctrine.OneistheideaadvancedbyEuropeanRomanticsandAmericanTranscendentaliststhattheurgesinthemindareessentiallydivineinoriginandthusbasicallygood.Anotheristhepostmodernideathatanydiscourseofdefilementordepravityisapoliticalattempttogainpoweroverothersbytellingthemthattheirmindsaresodefiledthattheycan’ttrustthemselvestothinkstraight,andsoneedoutsidehelp.

However,themostpowerfulsupportfortheideathatthere’snothingwrongwithgreed,aversion,anddelusioncomesfrommodernmarketing.Advertising,whichhasbecomeourmostpervasivesourceofculturalnorms,tradesalmostentirelyonthenotionthatpeopleshouldgratifytheirgreed,aversion,anddelusion.Soagreatdealofmoneyhasbeenspenttoturnpeopleintoconsumerswhofeelgoodaboutcultivatingthesetendencies.Theresultisthatpeopleareaccustomedtohavingthesetendenciesindulged,andsowouldresisthearingthattheyareinanywaydefiled.

Forthesereasons,theresistancetotheideaofmentaldefilementissopervasivethatevenwhenWesternBuddhistsencountertheBuddha’smostemphaticstatementontheneedtounderstandthewayinwhichthemindisdefiled,theyinterpretittosaythatdefilementisbasicallyunreal.

TheBuddha’sstatementisthis:

“Luminous,monks,isthemind.Anditisdefiledbyincomingdefilements.Theuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersondoesn’tdiscernthat

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asithascometobe,whichiswhyItellyouthat—fortheuninstructedrun-of-the-millperson—thereisnodevelopmentofthemind.”

“Luminous,monks,isthemind.Anditisfreedfromincomingdefilements.Thewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleonesdiscernsthatasithascometobe,whichiswhyItellyouthat—forthewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleones—thereisdevelopmentofthemind.”—AN1:51–52

Thestandardmodernapproachininterpretingthesepassagesistofocusonthefirsttwosentencesineachparagraph.Thefirstsentenceisreadasimplyingthattheoriginalnatureofthemindisbasicallypure.Thesecondsentenceisreadasimplyingthatbecausedefilementsareincomingvisitors(thewordāgantukameansbothincomingandvisitor),theyareessentiallyunreal.Whenyourealizetheunrealityofthedefilements,youseethattheyneverreallywereaproblem.

Butwhatthesepassagesactuallysayissomethingelseentirely:thatthemindisbothluminousanddefiled.There’snothingabouttheluminositybeing“original”orthedefilementsbeingunreal.Afterall,astheBuddhastatesinAN2:30,it’sbecausethemindisdefiledthatitdoesn’tgainrelease.Sothedefilementsarerealenough,andtheminddefiledenough,tocausegenuinetrouble.AndastheconcludingstatementsinAN1:51–52makeclear,ifyoudon’tunderstandhowthemindisbothbrightanddefiled,youcan’teffectivelytrainit.FromtheBuddha’spointofview,theideaofdefilementhastobetakenseriouslyifyouwanttotrainthemindtogainrelease.

Tounderstandwhat’sdefilingaboutthedefilements,andwhat’sbrightaboutthemind,it’sinstructivetolookattheBuddha’smostbasicinstructionsinmentaltraining,whichhegavetohisson,Rāhula,whenRāhulawasonlyseven.HestartsbytellingRāhulatoinspecthisbodily,verbal,andmentalactionsashewouldinspecthisfaceinamirror.InotherpassagesintheCanon(suchasMN20),theBuddhausesthesimileofamirrortodescribepeopleinspectingtheirfacestomakesurethatthey’recleanandpure.TheconclusionoftheBuddha’sinstructionstoRāhulaindicatesthatthesamemessageisbeingconveyedhere:WhattheBuddhaisteachingisamethodofpurification.

Here’showpurificationisachieved:Insteadofsimplygoingwiththeflowofadesiretoactinthought,word,anddeed,youstoptoaskyourselfquestionsaboutyouractionanditsconsequences.First,beforeyouact,askyourselfwhatresultsyouanticipatefromyouraction.Ifyouanticipateanyafflictionforyourself,toothers,ortoboth,don’tdoit.Ifyoudon’t

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anticipateaffliction,youcangoaheadanddoit.But,becauseyouranticipationsmightbecloudedbydelusion,youdon’tstopquestioningthere.Whileyou’reengagedintheaction,trytonoticeifit’scausingaffliction.Ifitis,thenstop.Ifitisn’t,youcancontinuewithit.Finally,aftertheactionisdone,questionitagain.Ifyounoticethatitdidcauseaffliction,thenifitwasabodilyorverbalaction,confessittosomeonewhoismoreexperiencedinthepracticethanyouare,bothtodevelopthehabitofadmittingyourmistakesandtogainadvicefromtheotherpersonastohowtoavoidthatmistakeinthefuture.Iftheactionwasmental,there’snoneedtoconfessit,butyoushoulddevelopahealthysenseofshamearoundmentalactionsofthatsort.Ineverycase,though,youshouldresolvenottomakethatmistakeagain.

Iftheactiondidn’tcauseanyimmediateorlong-termaffliction,thenyoushouldtakejoyinthatfactandcontinueyourtraining.

AstheBuddhastatesattheendoftheseinstructions,thisishowallpeopleinthepast,present,andfuturehavepurified,arepurifying,andwillpurifytheiractionsinthought,word,anddeed.

Theseinstructionsteachthreeimportantlessonsaboutthenatureofmentaldefilement.Thefirstisthatdefilementisaquality,notoftheinnatenatureofthemind,butofitsintentionsandactions.TheBuddhaisnotaddressingthequestionofwhetherthemindhasaninnatenature,or—ifitdoes—whetherthatnatureisbasicallybrightordefiled.He’ssimplypointingthattheactionscomingfromthemindcanbedefiledbuttheycanbecleansedofthatdefilement.

Thesecondlessonisthatactionsaredefiledtotheextentthattheycauseaffliction.ThetrainingrecommendedbytheBuddhadealswiththetwobasicwaysinwhichthisafflictioncanhappen:outofoutrightignorance,whenyoudon’tevenknowthatyouractionsareafflictive;andoutofwilledignorance,whenyouknowbutdon’tcare—yousimplydecidetoturnablindeyetotheafflictionyoucause.Inbothcases,theignoranceiswhatdarkensanddefilesthemind.

ThethirdlessonfromtheBuddha’sinstructionsrelatestotheluminosityofthemindmentionedinAN1:51–52.InthecontextofthetrainingtheBuddharecommendstoRāhula,thisluminosityreferstothemind’sabilitytoseewhenitsactionsaredefiled,andtotrainitselftoactinwaysthatareundefiledandpure.Inotherwords,theimageofluminosityisnotastatementoftheinnategoodnessorpurityofthemind.Afterall,astheBuddhastatesinAN4:199,theideathat“Iamgood”expressesasmuchcravingforidentityastheideathat“Iambad.”Instead,the

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luminosityofthemindissimplyitsabilitytoperceiveaffliction,toseehowthatafflictionisrelatedtoitsactions,and—whenit’swilling—tostopengaginginactionsthatcauseaffliction.Ifthemindweredark,itwouldn’tbeabletodoanyofthesethings.

Thesethreelessons,takentogether,showhowcentraltheconceptofdefilementistotheBuddha’steachings,fortheyrelatedirectlytohismostfundamentalteaching,thefournobletruths.Becausedefilementisamatterofaffliction,andbecauseafflictionisatypeofsufferingandstress,thefactofdefilementrelatesdirectlytothefirstnobletruth:thefactofsuffering.Thefactthatdefilementiscausedbyactionsrelatestothesecondnobletruth,thatsufferingiscausedbyactionsinthemind.Themind’sabilitytoseethishappeningiswhatallowsforthefourthandthethirdnobletruths:thatthemindisabletodevelopqualitiesthatcanabandonanyactionsthatcausesuffering,andsobringsufferingtoanend.

ThesethreefactsinturnshowwhythegeneralWesternresistancetotheconceptofdefilementisaseriousobstacletoreachingtheendofsufferingandstressandtoreapingthebenefitsofthepracticealongtheway.Inlightofthefirsttwofacts—thatdefilementisaqualityofactionsmeasuredbytheextenttowhichtheycauseaffliction—anunwillingnesstoaccepttheideaofdefilementtranslatesintoanunwillingnesstoexamineyourownactionstoseeiftheycauseharm.Thisisaformofnarcissismthatmakesitimpossibletoseetheconnectionbetweenthesecondandfirstnobletruths.Ifyourefusetoaccepttheideathatyourthoughts,words,anddeedscausesuffering,youwon’tbeabletoseethesourcesofsufferingcomingfromwithinthemind.

Inlightofthethirdfact—thatthebrightnessofthemindisitsabilitytorecognizedefilementanddosomethingaboutit—anunwillingnesstoaccepttheideaofdefilementtranslatesintoawilledignorancearoundone’sownactionsandtheireffects.Thisisaformofrepressionthatstandsinthewayofdevelopingthefourthnobletruth.Inotherwords,resistancetotheideaofdefilementisitselfadefilement—delusion—thatcompoundsthedarknessofotherdefilementsandprotectsthemsothattheycancontinuetoflourishandgrow.

ThefurtherfactthatresistancetotheideaofdefilementisaformofnarcissisticrepressionturnsthetablesontheargumentdrawnfrommodernWesternpsychologythattheideaofmentaldefilementisunhealthy,foreveninthevocabularyofmodernpsychology,narcissismandrepressionarerecognizedasunhealthystates.Anysenseofself-esteembasedonnarcissismandrepressionisdangerousanddeluded,whereastheBuddha’steachingondefilementoffersawaytodevelophealthyself-

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esteem.Thiswayisbasedbothonhealthyself-criticism—theinnercriticisn’talwaysbad—andahabitworthyofesteem:thewillingnesstolearnfromyourmistakes.TofollowtheBuddha’swayalsodevelopsthehealthyconfidencethatcomesfromseeingyourbehaviorimproveasaresult.Thisformofself-esteemandconfidenceisgoodnotonlyforyou,butalsoforallpeopleaffectedbyyouractions.

AsfortheWesternculturalargumentsagainsttheteachingondefilement,theBuddha’sinstructionstoRāhulashowthatthoseargumentsareallbesidethepoint.Becausehisteachingondefilementdoesn’tdealwiththeinnatenatureofthemind,it’sinnowayrelatedtotheideaoforiginalsin.Becauseitpointstothefactthatgreed,passion,aversion,anddelusioncauseaffliction,itcallsintoquestiontheRomantic/Transcendentalistnotionthatthesenaturalandnormaltendenciescanbetrustedasdivinelyinspired.Andbecauseitexplainswhythemindcantrainitselftoenditsself-inducedafflictionsbylearningtoquestionthem,theteachingondefilementisnotanattemptatgainingcontroloveranyone.It’smeanttoempoweryouandgiveyoucontroloveryourself.

Infact,theBuddha’steachingondefilementisoneofthemosteffectivestrategiesforfreeingthemindfromtheinfluencesofmassmarketingandothermodernmethodsofthought-control.Whenyoulearntorecognizeyourgreed,aversion,anddelusionasdefilementsandareabletofreeyourselffromtheirinfluence,noonecanpandertotheminanattempttocontrolyourthoughtsandactions.Amindwithoutdefilementisliberatednotonlyfromitsownunskillfulinfluences,butalsofromtheunskillfulagendas—anddefilements—ofanyoneelse.

SoeventhoughthenarcissisticrepressionoftheideaofdefilementisapervasivedarknessinmodernWesternsociety,it’snotinescapable.Becauseit’sadefilement,it’sanincomingvisitor.Asavisitorit’snotunreal,butitisunnecessary.Whenyoudecidethatit’soutstayeditswelcome,youcanusherittothedoor.Youcanthenbeginworkingonmakingthemindfullypure.

Thisisbecausethemind’spotentialforbrightness—itsabilitytorecognizetheharmcausedbyitsactionsandtostopcausingharm—isalwaysthere.Simplyapplythatbrightnesstoanymentalactionthatattemptstodenythefactofdefilement.Whenyouseetheharmcausedbythataction,alongwiththefactthatit’soptional,thenyou’rethatmuchclosertobeingridofitandalltheotherdefilementsit’sbeenprotecting.Thenkeeponfollowingthatbrightnessuntilitleadsyoutotheevengreaterclaritythatcomeswithtotalfreedomfromsufferingandstress.

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Whenyou’vereachedthepureclarityofthatfreedom,you’llseethatthegreed,aversion,anddelusionthatobscureditreallyweredefilements,foryou’renowinapositiontoknowwhatgenuinepurityreallyis.

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VirtueWithoutAttachment

Sīla—atermthatcanbetranslatedas“virtue,”“precept,”or“habit”—isthefirstofthethreetrainingsthatleadtotheendofsuffering.Theothertwoareconcentrationanddiscernment.Inthenobleeightfoldpath,sīlacoversthreefactors:rightspeech,rightaction,andrightlivelihood.Rightspeechinvolvesabstainingfromtellinglies,fromspeakingdivisively,fromspeakingharshly,andfromengaginginidlechatter.Rightactioninvolvesabstainingfromkilling,fromstealing,andfromengaginginillicitsex.Rightlivelihoodinvolvesabstainingfromharmfulordishonestwaysofmakingaliving.

However,attachmenttosīlaandvata—whichmeans“practice”or“protocol”—isoneofthethreefettersabandonedwhenallthefactorsofthenobleeightfoldpathcometogetherinafullymaturewayandyieldafirstglimpseofawakening.Andthepathleadingfromthefirstglimpseofawakeningtofullawakeningalsocontainsthefactorsofrightspeech,rightaction,andrightlivelihood.Thismeansthatthepathrequirespracticingsīlainawaythatatthesametimefreesyoufromattachmenttosīla.

Sohowisthatdone?Ifyoupicturethepathasatrailthroughasandstonewilderness,thisisasectionwherethepathfollowsanarrowledge.Ontheonesideisapileofbouldersthatblockyourprogress;ontheotherisasheerdrop-offintoachasm.Thebouldersrepresentattachment;thechasm,apracticewithouttheprotectionofferedbythethreesīlafactorsofthepath.Ifyoudon’tnegotiatethissectioncarefully,youwon’tgetsafelybeyondit.

I’veencounteredthreedifferentanswerstothequestionofhowtopracticesīlawithoutbeingattachedtosīla,andtheirdifferenceshingeontwoissues.Thefirstissueconcernswhat,inthepracticeofsīla,canactasafetter.This,inturn,dependsonthesecondissue:whatthewordsīlameansinthenameofthefetter,“attachmenttosīlaandvata.”

Twopopularanswerstothequestionofhowtopracticesīlawithoutattachmentbothtreatsīlainthenameofthefetterasmeaning“precept,”buttheydifferintheirinterpretationofwhatinthepracticeofthepreceptscanactasafetter.Thefirstinterpretationholdsthatthepreceptscanoftenbetoonarrowandone-dimensionalintheguidancethey

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provide:Ifyoufollowthemtoostrictly,youlimityourabilitytorespondtoanygivensituationinawiseandcompassionateway.Thisinterpretationoftencitesexampleswhereitclaimsthatawiseorcompassionateresponsewouldinvolvebreakingapreceptderivedfromthesīlafactorsofthenobleeightfoldpath,suchaskillingtermitesthatthreatentodestroyahome,killinganindividualwhothreatenstokillmanyotherpeople,lyingtoauthoritieswhoplantotortureapersonsequesteredinyourattic,orstealingaloafofbreadfromawealthyfamilytofeedastarvingchild.Inthisinterpretation,practicingsīlawithoutattachmenttosīlameansweighingthepreceptsagainsttheprinciplesofwisdomandcompassion,andbeingwillingtobreakapreceptwhenitrunscountertothoseprinciples.

Thesecondinterpretationagreesthatthepreceptscanoftenbetoonarrowaguidetocompassionateaction,butitalsoseesanotherdangerinthepracticeoftheprecepts:thejudgmentalpridethatcandeveloparoundadheringstrictlytotheprecepts.Accordingtothisinterpretation,prideinyourpreceptscreatesastrongsenseofselfthatmakesyouharshinjudgingothers.Italsostandsinthewayofthetotallettinggothatleadstoawakening.Thewaytoavoidthisfetter,itsays,isconsciouslyanddeliberatelytobreakthepreceptsinawaythatremovesallpridearoundyourbehavior.This,fromthesecondinterpretation’spointofview,iswhatpracticingwithoutattachmenttosīlameans.

However,theBuddha’sownanswertothisquestion,asrecordedinthePaliCanon,differsradicallyfrombothoftheseinterpretations.Tobeginwith,thecontextthatsurroundshisprimarydiscussionofthisissue(inMN78)showsthatsīlainsīla-and-vatadoesn’tmeanpreceptorvirtue.Itmeanshabit,forthepassagediscussesbothskillfulsīlaandunskillfulsīla.Inotherwords,thefetterabandonedatthefirstglimpseofawakeningdealswithattachmentnotonlytothegood,virtuoushabitsoftheprecepts,butalsotobadhabitsthatbreaktheprecepts.Andthismakessense.Whywouldattachmenttobadhabitsbeanylessofafetterthanattachmenttogood?

Secondly,theBuddhastatesthatthedangerofbeingfetteredtoahabitoccursontwolevels.One,ifthehabitisunskillful,thehabititselfposesdangerstothepersonfollowingit.Whenyouactunskillfully,youharmbothyourselfandthelivingbeingsaroundyou.Two,regardlessofwhetherthehabitisskillfulorunskillful,yourattitudetowardthehabitcanfetteryouaswell.Inparticular,theBuddhapointstotwodangerousattitudes:(a)seeingthehabitastheessenceandgoalofyourpractice(Sn4:9);and(b)fashioningasenseofidentityaroundthehabit,usingitto

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definewhoyouare(MN78)ortoexaltyourselfoverothers(Sn4:5).TheBuddha’ssolutiontobothlevelsofattachmentisterse:tobe

endowedwiththevirtuesoftheprecepts,butnottobefashionedofthosehabits.Inotherwords,youfollowthepreceptsstrictlybutdon’tcreateasenseofselfaroundthem.

Theimplicationsofthisexplanationareworthteasingout,fortheyhelpyouseenotonlyhowdefttheBuddha’ssolutionis,butalsohowdeficienttheothertwointerpretationsare.Hisanswerleadsyouacrossthenarrowledge;theirstakesyouoffthecliff.

Toensurethatyoudon’texposeyourselftothefirstdangerofattachmenttohabits—i.e.,attachmenttounskillfulhabits—theBuddhanotesthatallawakenedpeopleconsistentlybehaveinlinewiththebasicpreceptsofthepath.This,infact,isoneofthedefiningcharacteristicsoftheawakenedones:thattheywouldneverintentionallybreakthoseprecepts.AN3:87statesthatawakenedonesmightbreaksomeoftheminorrulesofthemonasticdiscipline,butasforthepreceptsbasictotheholylife,theirvirtueispure.AndinUd5:5,theBuddhapraisesthemonkswhoarewillingtoholdtotheirpreceptsevenwhenitmightcostthemtheirlife.

Sothepreceptsofthenobleeightfoldpatharenotsimplyatemporarystandardofbehaviortobedroppedwhenreachingawakening.They’reatraininginhowawakenedpeoplebehaveandencourageotherstobehaveaswell.

Byencouragingthisstandardofbehavior,theBuddhaisprovidingyouwithsafetybothonexternalandoninternallevels.Ontheexternallevel,ifyoufollowhisencouragement,yougainashareoftheuniversalsafetythatcomeswhenyougivesafetyuniversallytoallbeings:safetyintermsoftheirlives,theirpossessions,theirspousesandchildren,theiraccesstothetruth,andfromthecarelessthingsyoumightdowhenintoxicated.Inthisway,youavoidcreatingthenegativekarmathatwouldcreateneedlessharmaroundyou,placingneedlessdifficultiesinyourpath.Thisalsoprotectsyoufromtheregretsordenialthatwouldeventuallydevelopifyouintentionallybrokethepreceptssimplytoprovetoyourselfthatyouweren’tattachedtothem.

Ontheinternallevel,thepracticeofholdingstrictlytothepreceptscreatestheconditionsfortherightmindfulnessandrightconcentrationthatleadtoliberatingdiscernment.Ifyouhavenoreasontofeelhoundedbyremorseoverhavingharmedyourselforothers,it’seasiertobemindfulatalltimes.Ifyouhavenoreasontoengageindenial—becausenoneof

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youractionshavecausedharm—it’seasierfordiscernmenttousetheclarityandstabilityofconcentrationtopenetratethewallsofignoranceinthemind.

Thepracticeofholdingstrictlytothepreceptswithfullconvictionfostersdiscernmentintwomainways.Tobeginwith,theconvictionthatthesepreceptsarethestandardsofawakenedbehaviorforcesyoutoconfronttheattitudethatwouldotherwiselookforwardtoawakeningasanopportunitytodowhateveryou—theunawakenedyou—wouldwanttodo.Ifyoubelievethatnon-attachmenttopreceptsmeansbeingabletobreakthem,youfosterthebeliefthatwhenawakeningarrives,you’llbefreetobreakthepreceptsasyoulike.Practiceinthemeantimebecomessimplyamatterofbidingyourtime.Theunderlyingdishonestyofthisattitudemakesitimpossibletotakethepreceptsseriously,ortoallowthemtogenuinelychallengeyourunskillfultendencies.

Atthesametime,thepracticeofholdingstrictlytothepreceptsevenwhenyourmindtellsyouthatithascompassionatemotivesforbreakingthembringstothesurfaceallthemind’sunskillfultendenciesthatwouldgoagainsttheprecepts.Knowingthatyoucan’tgiveintotherationalizationsofcompassionallowsyoutoseethoserationalizationsforwhattheyare:defilementsthatcloudyourunderstandingofwhat’sgoingoninyourmind.You’reforcedtoacknowledgethelust,aversion,ordelusionthatlurkbehindthoserationalizations.Whilethesimplefactofconfrontingtheseunskillfultendenciesmaynotalwaysbeenoughtokeepyoufromfallingforthem,it’sanimportantfirststepinhelpingtoprotectyoufromthem—i.e.,inprotectingyourselffromyourself.

Thispointisinsharpcontrasttothefirstofthetwoalternativeapproachestopracticingsīlawithoutattachment:breakingapreceptwhenyoufeelthatcompassionrequiresyoutodoso.UnliketheBuddha’sapproach,thesimplefactthatthisalternativeallowsforotherconsiderationstooverridethepreceptsmeansthatitprovidesampleroomfordishonestintentionstoslipintoamotivethatonthesurfacepresentsitselfasawiseandcompassionateapproachtoanexceptionalsituation.

Humanhistoryislitteredwithexamplesofunskillfulbehaviorthatjustifieditselfasanexceptionalresponsetoanexceptionalsituation—eventhoughaquicklookbackfurtherinhistorywouldhaveshownthatthesituationwasnotexceptionalatall.Mostwars,forinstance,areproposedasawiseandcompassionatestrategytopreventapotentiallydestructivegroupfromcausingevenmoredestruction.Yettheoutcomeisthatthosewhopresentthemselvesaswiseandcompassionateendupcausingasmuchormoredestructionthemselves.Sowhydidtheyrefuse

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totakethatquicklookbackintothepastbeforecausingharm?Historianshaveshownrepeatedlythatwhatpassedas“wiseandcompassionate”intheoriginalmotivationoftenmaskedmotivesthatwerefarlessnoble.

Soit’snotthecasethatholdingtothepreceptsfetterscompassion;itfettersthedefilementsofgreed,aversion,anddelusion.Onlywhenpeopleareintentonfollowingthepreceptsstrictlyaretheyforcedtoturnaroundandquestiontheirownmotives,lookingfortheirowndefilementsandtakingresponsibilityfortheirownactionsbeforetryingtotakeonthedefilementsandactionsofothers.

Thepracticeofholdingtothepreceptsalsoencouragesthediscernmentofingenuity.Thefirstinterpretationmayclaimthatthepreceptsarenarrow,butactuallytheyforceyoutoexpandyoursenseoftherangeofresponsesavailableinagivensituation.Ifyousticktoyourpromisenottokill,lie,orsteal,thenwhenfacedwithapersonwhothreatenstokillothers,youhavetoseeifthere’sawaytostophimwithoutkillinghim.Ifevilauthoritieswanttosearchyourattic,youhaveseeifthere’sawaytodissuadethemthatdoesn’tinvolvelying.Ifachildisstarving,youhavetofindawaytofeedherthatdoesn’tinvolvestealing.Thewaysarethere,butonlyifyoutakeresponsibilityfortheintegrityofyouractionswillyoufeelthenecessitytolookforthem.Ifthehumanracehadtakentheingenuityusedindevelopingweaponsandhaddevoteditinsteadtofindingwaystosurvivewithoutkillingoneanother,we’dbelivinginamuchmorehumanehumanworld.

Followingthepreceptsstrictlyalsoforcesyoutoexpandtherangeoftimeyouconsiderwhenweighingthepotentialresultsofyouractions.TheBuddhaformulatedthepreceptsashedidbecausehesawthat,overthelongterm,actionsthatgoagainstthepreceptseventuallyendupdoingmoreharmthangood.Infollowingtheprecepts,youalignyouractionswiththeconvictionthattheimmediatebenefitsthatmightcomefrombreakingthepreceptsshouldn’tblindyoutotheharmthatsuchactionswillcreateoveraverylongterm:thecourseofmanylifetimes.Killingapotentialkillermightbringashortrespitefromhisunskillfulactions,butitwillsetinmotionastringofconsequencesthatwillultimatelydomoreharm.Thisiswhyit’swisesttoexerciseyouringenuityinpreventingunskillfulbehaviorinwaysthatdon’trequireyourbeingunskillful,too.

Soit’sclearthatthere’snothingnarrowaboutadoptingthepreceptsasstandardsofbehavior.Byexpandingyourunderstandingofyouractionsandtheirresults,thepreceptshelpyouavoidthedangersthatcomefromlowerorlooserstandardsofbehavior.Theyalsopromotepositivebenefits,

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suchastheinnersafetyofsharpeneddiscernmentintotheworkingsofyourownmind,andtheopportunitytoprovideamuch-neededexamplefortherestoftheworld.

Asforthesecondlevelofdangerthatcomesfromattachmenttohabits—concerningyourattitudetowardyourhabits—theBuddha’sapproachtacklesbothtypesofunskillfulattitudesatonce.Inotherwords,heconfrontsboththeattitudethatyourhabitsareanendinthemselvesandthepridethatcandeveloparoundskillfulhabits.Hedoesthisthroughhisconstantremindersthatthereismuchmoretothepaththanskillfulhabits,andtheprimaryvalueofthepreceptsisinthewaytheyfosterthepath’shigherfactors.Ashesays,thehappinessfosteredbythepreceptsisonlyasmallfractionofthehappinessfosteredbymeditation(Iti27).Soratherthancontentingyourselfwiththeprecepts,youshouldfocusonthequalitiesofmindengenderedbyfollowingthepreceptsthatcanbedevotedtothemeditativedevelopmentofconcentrationanddiscernment.

Forconcentration,thesequalitiesarethree:theardencythatmakestheefforttostickwiththeprecepts,themindfulnessthatremembersyourcommitmenttothepreceptsevenindifficultsituations,andthealertnessthatkeepswatchoveryouractionssothattheyactuallyconformtotheprecepts.Infocusingonthesequalitiesandapplyingthemtothepracticeofmindfulconcentration,youhavenotimetoexaltyourselfoveryourprecepts—ortoviewthemasendsinthemselves—foryourealizehowmuchstrongeryouneedtomakethesethreequalitiesifyourconcentrationistoadvance.

Atthesametime,asthepracticeoffollowingthepreceptsforcesyoutoconfronttheunskillfulmotivationslurkinginthemind,yourealizetheneedtodevelopmuchmorediscernmenttobecometotallyfreefromthem.Thisrealization,too,keepsyoufromcontentingyourselfwithyourprecepts.

Ultimately,whenyoudevelopthediscernmentthatseesthedeathless,unconditioneddimensionatthefirstlevelofawakening,yourealizethatalthoughthepreceptsarehelpfulinallowingyoutogainthatdiscernment,theyarebynomeanstheentirepathandnowherenearconstitutingthegoal.Becausethegoalisunconditioned,whereasthepracticeofthepreceptsisconditioned,there’snowayyoucouldeverdefineyourselfaroundthepreceptseveragain.

Thisishowthefirstglimpseofawakeningcutsthroughthefetterofattachmenttohabitsandprotocolsforgood.

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TheBuddha’sapproachtosolvingthedangersofattachmenttohabitsmaynotbeeasy,butitiselegantandeffective.Youholdtothepreceptstoprotectyourselffromunskillfulhabits,andyoufocusontakingthementalskillsdevelopedbyfollowingthepreceptsandusingthemtomakethepathcomplete.Becausethoseskillsarenothingotherthanthediscernmentandconcentrationfactorsofthepath—rightviewandrightresolveinthecaseofdiscernment;andrighteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentrationinthecaseofconcentration—thisunderlinesasimplebutoftenoverlookedpoint:Thepracticeofsīlawithoutattachmenttosīladoesn’trequirelookingoutsideofthenobleeightfoldpathforguidance.Allyouhavetodoispracticesīlafullyandstrictlyinthecontextoftheentirepath,andattachmenttosīlawillnotbeaproblem.Inthatwayyouprovideagiftnotonlytoyourselfbutalsototheworldatlargeintermsbothoftheharmlessnessofyourbehaviorandofthenobilityoftheexampleyouset.

WhenwecomparetheBuddha’sapproachtothatoftheothertwointerpretations—advisingyoutobreakthepreceptswhenyoufeelyourmotivationfordoingsoiscompassionate,andadvisingyoutobreakpreceptstoundercutanyprideoveryourbehavior—wecanseeclearlyhowinferiorthoseinterpretationsare.Byfocusingonthedangersthatcomefrombeingattachedtotheprecepts,theyleaveyouexposedtobothlevelsofdangerthatcancomefromattachmenttohabitsingeneral.Ontheonehand,bothinterpretationsrecommendexposingyourselftotheneedlessbadkarmathatcomesfrombreakingtheprecepts.Thisharmsnotonlyyou,butalsotheworldatlargeintermsofthedirectresultsofyouractionsandinthecompromisedexampleyouset.Ontheotherhand,thetwointerpretationsleaveyouexposedtothepridethatcancomefromregardingyourselfasabovetheprecepts.Thisisaformofpridemuchhardertoabandonthanprideoverholdingtotheprecepts,forwhenyoutrytoletitgo,you’refacedwiththeharmyou’vecausedtoothersbybreakingtheprecepts.Asenseofprideovercausingnoharmiseasiertoshedthanasenseofpridethatinvolvedcausingharm,becausetheactofdroppingthefirstsortofprideleavesyousafefromremorseanddenial,whiletheactofdroppingthesecondsortofprideleavesyouwithnodefense.

Sowhenyoufacethenarrowledgeofpracticingsīlawithoutattachmenttosīla,rememberthatnoteverytrailguideisreliable.TheBuddha’sinstructions—tofollowthepreceptsstrictlyandtofocusondevotingtheinnerqualitiestheyfostertofurtheringyourmeditation—istheguidancethatcangetyousafelyacross.

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TheLimitsoftheUnlimitedAttitudesTheBrahmaviharasonthePathtoAwakening

ThefirstmeditationinstructionsgiventoachildraisedinaTheravadaBuddhistfamilyusuallyfocusonthepracticeofmettā,orgoodwill.Theparentsteachthechildtospreadthoughtsofgoodwill—awishforhappiness—toalllivingbeingseverynightbeforegoingtosleep.

Asthechildgrowsolder,theinstructionsareexpandedtoincludethreeotherattitudes,which—alongwithmettā—arecalledthebrahmavihāraswhentheseattitudesaredevelopedinanunlimitedway.Thetermbrahmavihāraisacombinationoftwowords:brahma,whichisabeingonahighlevelofheaven,plusvihāra,whichliterallymeans“dwelling,”andfiguratively“attitude”—anattitudeinwhichthemindhabituallydwells.Thebrahmavihārasarethehabitualattitudesofbeingsonahighplaneofexistence.

Unlimitedmettāisthefirstofthefourattitudes,theotherthreebeingunlimitedkaruṇā,orcompassion—awishthatsufferingandthecausesofsufferingwillend;unlimitedmuditā,orempatheticjoy—awishthathappinessandthecausesofhappinesswillcontinue;andunlimitedupekkhā,orequanimity—animpartialacceptanceofwhatcan’tbechanged.

Theseattitudesareunlimitedinthesensethatthey’reextendedtoallbeingseverywhere—includingoneself—withoutbias.Becausehumanbeingsaren’tonthelevelofthebrahmas,theydon’tautomaticallydwellintheseattitudesinanunlimitedway.Theytendtofeelthemmorestronglyforsomelivingbeingsthanforothers.However,humanbeingscanmaketheseattitudesunlimitedthroughconsciouspractice,andinthatwaylifttheirmindstoahigherlevel.

Ifthechilddoesn’ttakeanyfurtherinterestinmeditation,heorshewillprobablyequatemettāorthebrahmavihāraswithmeditationthroughoutlife.Infact,inThailand,wherethelanguagehasatendencytostringwordsofsimilarmeaningtogether,thewordsmettāandbhāvanā—“meditation”—areacommonstring.Andtheattitudesofthebrahmavihārasarehighlyregardedthroughouttheculture.I’veevenknownThaiChristianswhoinsistthatthebrahmavihārasarenota

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specificallyBuddhistteaching.RespectforthebrahmavihārasispartofbeingThai.

Ifthechilddoestakefurtherinterestinmeditationasheorshegetsolder,thedevelopmentofthebrahmavihārasprovidestheframeworkforwhateverotherpracticeheorshemayspecializein.AjaanMun,thefounderoftheWildernesstradition,specializedincontemplationofthebody,butheissaidtohavespenttimedevelopingthebrahmavihārasthreetimesaday:whenwakingupinthemorning,whenwakingupfromhisafternoonnap,andjustbeforegoingtosleepatnight.Hetaughtoneofhisstudents,AjaanKhao,achantexpressingtheattitudesofthebrahmavihārasdirectedtoalltheclassificationsofbeingsinalldirectionsthroughoutthecosmos,achantthattakesagoodhalf-hourtorecite.AjaanLee,anotherofhisstudents—whospecializedinbreathmeditation—popularizedanotherchantfocusedonthebrahmavihārasthattakesasimilaramountoftimetorecite.

WhenyoulookintothePaliCanon—thesourcetextsfortheTheravadatradition—it’seasytoseewhythebrahmavihārasaregivensomuchimportanceinthelivingtradition,fortherethebrahmavihārasareconnectedtoallthreeaspectsofthepathtotheendofsuffering:virtue,concentration,anddiscernment.

Forvirtue,thebrahmavihārasprovidethemotivation.Youundertakethepreceptsbothbecauseyouhavecompassionforothers(Ud2:3)andbecauseyouhavegoodwillforyourself(Ud5:1).TheBuddhaoncetaughtthebrahmavihārastoagroupofnon-Buddhists—whoweren’tsurewhetheractionsleadtoresultsbeyondthislifetime,oreveniftherewasalifebeyondthis—tellingthemthatiftheypracticedinlinewiththeseattitudes,theywouldhavenothingtofearifactionsdidleadtoresultsbeyondthislifetime.Iftherewasnolifeafterdeath,theycouldstillviewthemselvesaspureintermsoftheirconducthereandnow(AN3:65).Inanothercase,theBuddhataughtthatifyourealizethatyou’veharmedanotherpersonthroughyourmisconduct,youshouldrealizethatremorsewillnotundotheharm.Instead,youshouldrecognizethemistake,resolvenottorepeatit,andthendevelopthebrahmavihārasasawayofstrengtheningyourresolve(SN42:8).

Indevelopingconcentration,theconnectionwiththebrahmavihārasisevenmoredirect.TheBuddhataughtthebrahmavihārasasthemesonwhichthemindcanfocustodevelopstrongstatesofmentalabsorption,calledthefourjhānas.Onediscourse(AN8:63)suggeststhateachofthebrahmavihārascanleadallthewaytothefourthjhāna;twootherdiscoursesreadinconjunction(AN4:123and4:125)suggestthatthefirst

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brahmavihāracanleadonlytothefirstjhāna,thesecondonlytothesecond,andsoonuptothefourth.Butineithercase,becausethesejhānascountasrightconcentrationinthenobleeightfoldpath,anyofthefourbrahmavihārascanplayanintegralroleinthepathtotheendofsuffering.

Asfordiscernment,theCanoncontainstwotypesofdiscussionsonhowtheconcentrationbasedonthebrahmavihārascanactasabasisfordiscernment.Thefirsttypefocusesonhowameditatorshouldcontemplatetheconcentrationthatresultsfromanyofthebrahmavihāras.Intwocases,theCanonrecommendsreflectinglikethis(takinggoodwillasanexample):“Onereflectsonthis[stateofconcentration]anddiscerns,‘Thisawareness-releasethroughgoodwillisfabricated&intended.Nowwhateverisfabricated&intendedisinconstant&subjecttocessation’”(MN52;AN11:17).Inanothercase,therecommendedreflectionisthis:“Oneregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perception,fabrications,&consciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self”(AN4:126).

Inbothcases,therealizationthattheserefinedstatesofconcentrationareinconstant,stressful,andnot-selfcangiverisetoasenseofdispassionanddisenchantmentnotonlyforthem,butalsoforallfabricatedthings.Thesenseofdispassioncanthenleadtoall-aroundrelease.

Thesecondtypeofdiscussionontherelationshipbetweendiscernmentandthebrahmavihāras(SN46:54)focusesonthementalqualitiesthatcanbecombinedwiththeconcentrationbasedonthebrahmavihārastoleaditbeyondthefourjhānas.Thesequalitiesarethesevenfactorsforawakening—mindfulness,analysisofqualities,persistence,rapture,serenity,concentration,andequanimity—broughttoaheightenedpitchsothattheyare“dependentonseclusion,dependentondispassion,dependentoncessation,resultinginlettinggo.”Ordinarily,thesevenfactorsforawakeningareusedtogiverisetojhāna,butthefactthatinthiscasetheyaredependentondispassionandcessationmeansthattheyhavebeenrefinedthroughthecontemplationsmentionedinthefirsttypeofdiscussion:inotherwords,thesortofcontemplationthatleadsthroughdispassiontorelease.Forinstance,youcandevelopastateofjhānabasedononeofthebrahmavihārasandthen—inlightofyourrealizationthatit’sfabricatedorstressful—analyzeitsqualitiesasthey’reactuallypresenttodevelopthisknowledgetothelevelofinsightwhereyou’rereallywillingtoletgo.

AccordingtoSN46:54,whenthebrahmavihārasarecombinedwith

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thesevenfactorsforawakeningtothepointoflettinggointhisway,theycanleadattheveryleastfromthefourjhānastoevenhigherstagesofconcentration.Forexample,empatheticjoyinthiscombinationcanleadbeyondthefourthjhānatotheastateofconcentrationcalledthe“dimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.”Equanimityinthiscombinationcanleadevenfurthertoastatecalledthe“dimensionofnothingness.”ButSN46:54adds,withoutfurtherexplanation,thatthesecombinationscanleadstillhigherthanthat.Now,becauseotherpassages(suchasMN118)saythatthesevenfactorsforawakeningdependentonseclusion,etc.,cantoleadallthewaytofullawakening,it’seasytoconcludethatwhenthey’recombinedwiththebrahmavihārastheycanleadthatfaraswell.

Soit’sclearthatTheravada,bothinitslivingtraditionandinitssourcetexts,haslonggivenagreatdealofimportancetothebrahmavihāras,bothasabasicsetofattitudestobepracticedbyallhumanbeingswhohopetoraisetheirmindstoahigher-than-humanhappiness,andaspartofthepathofpracticeleadingtothehighesthappinessofall:nibbāna.

ButrecentlyanumberofWesternscholarsandmediationteachershaveadvancedtheclaimthatthetraditionhasunderestimatedtheimportanceofthebrahmavihāras;thatthebrahmavihārasarenotjustpartofthepathtonibbāna.Theycanactasthewholepath.Allyouneedtodoisdevelopthebrahmavihārasandthey’lltakeyouallthewaytoawakening.

ThisargumenttakesasitsscholarlybasistwopassagesintheCanon.Inthefirstpassage,whichisfoundinDN13,theBuddhateachesthebrahmavihārastotwoyoungbrahmanswhohaveaskedhimhowtoattainunionwithBrahma.TheargumentbasedonthispassagestatesthattheBuddhaishereusingthephrase“unionwithBrahma”asasynonymfornibbāna.Thismeansthatthebrahmavihārascanleadallthewaytonibbāna.Peopleadvancingthisargumentadmitthatthisinterpretationrequiresafairamountofreadingbetweenthelines,fortheBuddhanowherestatesexplicitlythatunionwithBrahmāisanothertermfornibbāna.However,theyfeelthattheargumentcanbejustifiedbyaknowledgeofthecontextinwhichtheBuddhataught—acontextofwhichthelivingtraditionhaslongbeenignorant,butwhichhasnowbeenuncoveredbymodernscholarship.Oncethisreadingofthefirstpassageisaccepted,thesecondpassage(Sn1:8)—whichwewillexaminebelow—canbeinterpretedassupportingit.

Thisinterpretationhasprofoundimplicationsforanyonewantingto

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reachtheendofsuffering.Ifit’strue,therewouldbenoneedtobotherwiththecontemplationsofinconstancy,stress,andnot-self;andnoneedtobotherwiththemoreadvancedformsofthefactorsforawakening.Ifit’snottrue,though,thenanyonewhofolloweditwouldriskmissingoutontheopportunitytoreachanyofthestagesofawakeninginhislifetime.Soit’simportanttoexaminethebasisforthisinterpretation,aswellasitsconsistencywiththerestoftheCanon,toseeifwhat’sreadbetweenthelinesinDN13isconsistentwithwhat’sstatedinthelinesoftheothercanonicaldiscoursestreatingthebrahmavihārasandtheresultstowhichtheylead.Ifitisconsistent,thentheinterpretationisworthyofcredence.Ifnot,it’snot.

DN13isalongdiscoursethatbeginswithanunusualincident.Twoyoungbrahmans,quotingdifferentbrahmanicalteachers,areunabletoagreeonthepathleadingtounionwithBrahma,theirhighestreligiousgoal.SotheydecidetotakethequestiontotheBuddha,fortheyhaveheardthattheBuddhaclaimsknowledgeofthispath.Now,accordingtobrahmanicalorthodoxy,thisissomethingnogoodbrahmanwouldeverdo,becausetheBuddhawasnotabrahman,andbrahmanswouldnevergotonon-brahmansforspiritualadvice.Thispointoforthodoxyhasledsomemodernscholarstoconcludethattheentirediscourseismeanttobeironicalandtongue-in-cheek.However,thePaliCanonisfullofbrahmanscomingtotheBuddhaforadviceonspiritualmattersofallsorts,andmanybecameBuddhistmonksorlay-followersasaresult.SoitwouldseemthatbrahmanicalorthodoxywasnotalwaysstrictlyobservedintheBuddha’stime—whichweknowwasatimeofgreatspiritualupheaval—andtheincidentatthebeginningofDN13mightnothavebeenasoutlandishasbrahmanicalorthodoxywouldmakeitseem.

Onhearingthequestionofthetwobrahmans,theBuddhaagreestoteachthemthewaytounionwithBrahma.Hebeginsundiplomaticallywithaput-downofthebrahmanicalpriesthoodasawhole,sayingthattheirtraditionisnobetterthanastringofblindpeopleledbyablindperson,oramanbuildingastairwaytoapalacewhoselocationhedoesn’tknow.Inotherwords,noneofthebrahmanteacherswhoteachthepathleadingtounionwithBrahmāhaveeverexperiencedunionwithBrahma,sotheydon’tknowwhatthey’retalkingabout.

TheBuddhathenlaunchesintohisdiscussionofthatpath.HestartswithadetaileddescriptionofthepreceptsofaBuddhistmonk—adescriptionthatparallelswordforwordadescriptionthathegivesinseveralotherdiscourses(suchasDN2throughDN12)onthepathleadingtoawakening.Butthen,whencomingtothetopicofmeditation,

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thedescriptionreachesaforkintheroad.Theparallelpassagesatthispointincludeadiscussionofthefourjhānas,followedbythepowersthatcanbedevelopedbasedonthejhānas,includingthedevelopmentofinsightintothefournobletruths,followedbytotalreleaseinthehere-and-now.InDN13,however,thisaccountisreplacedwithanaccountofthefourbrahmavihāras,followedbythestatementthatiftheyaredeveloped,thenafterdeaththemeditatorcanexpecttoattainunionwithBrahma.

Thetraditionalinterpretationofthisdiscoursestakesitatfacevalue:TheBuddhaisteachingsthetwobrahmanshowtoreachthegoaloftheirreligion,eventhoughtheirgoalisinferiortonibbāna.ReadinconjunctionwithDN2throughDN12,DN13isthusanobviousassertionoftheBuddha’ssuperioritytothebrahmans.Notonlydoesheknowthepathtotheirgoal—apaththattheythemselvesdon’tknow—buthealsoknowsthepathtoasuperiordestination:theultimategoaloftotalreleaseinthehere-and-now.

ThemorerecentinterpretationofDN13,however,isthatithastobereadinconjunctionwiththeBṛhad-āraṇyakaUpaniṣad,abrahmanicaltextofwhichtheTheravadatraditionhaslongbeenignorant.TheBṛhad-āraṇyakaUpaniṣadassertsthatthebrahmāworldsaretheultimatespiritualgoal,theonlypost-mortemdestinationfromwhichthesouldoesnotreturn.TheBuddha,inusingthephrase,“unionwithBrahma,”isreferringtothesebrahmāworldsandisalsoadoptingtheideathattheyaretheultimategoal,replacingthebrahmanicalconceptionofwhatconstitutesthatgoalwithhisown.Inotherwords,he’sbeingironic.WhenteachingthewaytounionwithBrahma,he’sactuallyteachingthewaytonibbāna.Thismeansthatthebrahmavihāras,ontheirownandwithoutanyotherstepsofmeditation,leadallthewaytonibbāna.

Ifthisinterpretationholds,thenSN1:8couldconceivablybereadinsupportofit.Thisdiscoursegivesadetaileddescriptionofhowtodevelopthefirstbrahmavihāra,unlimitedgoodwill,followedbythispassage:

Nottakenwithviews,butvirtuous&consummateinvision,havingsubdueddesireforsensualpleasures,

oneneveragainwilllieinthewomb.

Thephrase“neveragainwilllieinthewomb”isadescriptionoftheresultofthepenultimatelevelofawakening,callednon-return.Apersonwhoreachesthislevelwillneveragainbereborninthisworld,andinstead

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willbereborninoneofthebrahmāworldscalledthePureAbodes,whereonlynon-returnersarebornandwheretheyallaredestinedtoreachfullawakening.

Asforpracticeslistedinthispassage—notbeingtakenwithviews,beingvirtuous,beingconsummateinvision,andhavingsubdueddesireforsensualpleasures—thereisnoexplanationofhowtheyrelatetothepracticeofunlimitedgoodwill:whethertheyautomaticallyhappenaspartofthatpractice,orhavetobeaddedontopofittoreachthelevelofnon-return.Thetraditionalinterpretationofthepassageadoptsthesecondreading.Justasthedescriptionofthepracticeofunlimitedgoodwillinthisdiscourseisprefacedbyanumberofpracticesthathavetobedoneseparatelytoprovideafoundationforthepracticeofunlimitedgoodwill,thatdescriptionisfollowedbyaseriesofotherpracticesthathavetobedoneseparatelyinadditiontoittoreachawakening.However,ifwecanacceptthenewreadingofDN13,thenit’spossiblethattheotherinterpretationcouldberight:Unlimitedgoodwillautomaticallyencompassesthesepractices.

Theproblem,however,isthatthenewinterpretationofDN13isdrasticallyinconsistentwithmanyotherpassagesintheCanonthatexplicitlystressthelimitationsofthebrahmavihārasandthebrahmāworldstowhichtheyleadandwhereunionwithBrahmāisattained.

Tobeginwith,AN4:125statesthateachofthebrahmavihāras,whenpracticedonitsown,leadstorebirthinaparticularbrahmāworld,withgoodwillleadingtothelowestofthefour—theAbhassarā,orRadiantbrahmas—andequanimityleadingtothehighest,theVehapphala,orSky-fruitbrahmas.DN1indicatesthattheselevelsarehigherthantheheavenoftheGreatBrahma,andalthoughtheyarenotdestroyedwiththedestructionoftherestoftheuniverseattheendofeachcosmiccycle,thebeingswholivetherecanstillfallfromthereandberebornelsewhere,usuallyonalowerplaneintheuniverse.Infact,AN4:125statesexplicitlythatapersonwhopracticesthebrahmavihāraswithouthavingbecomeanobledisciple—inotherwords,withouthavingreachedthefirstlevelofawakening—can,afterhavinglivedoutthelifespanofabrahmāinanyofthesefourbrahmāworlds,bereborninanyofthelowestrealmsofthecosmos:inhell,asananimal,orasahungryghost.Sofromthetestimonyofthesediscourses,it’shardtoseehowtheattainmentofabrahmāworldcouldbeequaltonibbāna,whichconstitutestotalreleasefromthecosmosasawhole.

Themoderninterpretation,however,assertsthatthesediscoursesshouldn’treallybetakenseriouslybecausetheywerelateradditionstothe

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Canon,composedbyliteral-mindedmonkswhodidn’tunderstandtheBuddha’sironictonewhenreferringto“unionwithBrahma”and“brahmāworlds”indiscourseslikeDN13.However,there’snoproofthatDN13isanyearlierormoreauthenticthanDN1orAN4:125,sotheassertionofwhichdiscoursescamefirstisnothingmorethanidlespeculation.

ButtwootherdiscoursesshowclearlythatthedifferencebetweennibbānaandunionwithBrahmāisanythingbutanidleissue,forittouchesonthelong-termconsequencesofchoicesmadeatthemomentofdeath.Bothdiscoursesstateclearlythatifadyingpersonhashismindsetonanyofthebrahmāworlds,heshouldbetoldthedrawbacksofthoseworldssothathecansethismindonthehighergoalofrelease.

Thefirstdiscourse,MN97,makesthispointinafairlypoignantmanner.ThebrahmanDhanañjānin,aformerstudentofSāriputta,isdyingandasksforSāriputtatovisithim.Dhanañjāninhasbeennegligentasameditator,andSāriputta,onarrival,reflects,“Thesebrahmansaresetonthebrahmāworld.WhatifIweretoteachDhanañjāninthebrahmanthepathtounionwiththebrahmas?”Soheteacheshimthewaytounionwiththebrahmas,andDhanañjānin,ondying,isactuallyreborninabrahmāworld.However,whenSāriputtareturnstotheBuddha,thelatterchideshimfordirectingDhanañjānintoaninferiorgoalatthemomentofdeathwhenhecouldhavedirectedhimtoahigherone.

This,ofcourse,raisesthequestionastowhytheBuddhawouldhavelimitedhisdiscussionwiththetwoyoungbrahmanstothisinferiorgoal,andyetcriticizesSāriputtafordoingjustthesamething.Thisquestion,though,ignoresacrucialdifference:Sāriputta’sinstructionswereDhanañjānin’slastchancetoheartheDhammainthislifetime,whereastheBuddha,whenteachingtheyoungbrahmans,couldusehisknowledgeofthewaytothebrahmāworldtoinducethemtoreturntohimlaterformoreinstructionsonhigherattainments.

Theseconddiscourse(SN55:54)explainswhythebrahmāworldsareaninferiorattainment.Inthisdiscourse,theBuddha’scousin,MahānāmaaskstheBuddhaforinstructionsonhowtoadviseawisepersonwhoisabouttodie.TheBuddharepliesthatifthedyingpersonisplaguedbyworriesabouthisfamily,heshouldberemindedthathisworriesatthispointcannothelphisfamily,soheshouldletthoseworriesgo.Ifheisfixatedonhumansensualpleasures,heshouldbetoldthathumansensualpleasuresarenomatchforthepleasuresofthesensualheavens,soheshouldfocushismindonthoseheavensinstead.Ifhe’sfixatedonthepleasuresofthesensualheavens,heshouldbetoldthateventhoseare

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inferiortothepleasuresofthebrahmāworld,andheshouldinsteadfocushisthoughtsthere.

Ifthedyingpersonisfixatedonthebrahmāworld,heshouldbetoldthateventhebrahmāworldis“inconstant,impermanent,andincludedinidentity.”Inotherworlds,thebrahmāworldsareunstable,andthebeingsreborntherestillhaveasenseofidentificationwiththefiveclinging-aggregates:form,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness.Becausethisidentificationisafetterdroppedevenonthefirststageofawakening,thebrahmanworldsareinferiortothatlevelofattainment.Forthisreason,thedyingpersonshouldbetoldtofocusonthecessationofidentification.Ifhecandothatashedies,theneventhoughhemaybealayperson,hisreleaseisinnowayinferiortothereleaseofamonkwhosemindisreleased.

ThesetwodiscoursesshowclearlythattheBuddharegardedrebirthinabrahmāworldasagoalinferiortonibbāna.Andbecausethedistinctionbetweennibbānaandthebrahmāworldissuchaserious,life-and-deathmatter,it’sunlikelythattheBuddhawouldhavewantedtospeakironicallyaboutit,blurringthedistinctionwhentalkingtothetwobrahmansinDN13.

Thelimitationsofthebrahmāworldsaredirectlyconnectedtothelimitationsofthebrahmavihārasasapath.ThisconnectionisespeciallyclearwhenwereadSN55:54,thediscoursejustcited,inconjunctionwithAN4:178.Thislatterdiscoursepointsoutthatit’spossibletodevelopastateofconcentrationbasedonthebrahmavihārasandyetstillfeelnointerestinbringinganendtoidentification.Thisshowsthatthebrahmavihārasontheirownarenotenoughtoarousethatinterest.Somethingmoreisneeded—suchasthereflectionontheinconstancy,stress,andnot-selfnessofthatstateofconcentration—toarousetheinterestneededtobringidentificationtoanend.

Anotherdiscourse—MN106—makesasimilarpoint:thatit’spossibletodevelopastrongstateofequanimityinthehigherlevelsofconcentrationandyetstillclingtothatequanimity.Onlywhenthereistheaddeddeterminationnottofashionasenseofidentificationaroundtheequanimity(MN137)canthatclingingbeabandoned.

Soit’sobviousthattheunlimitedattitudesofthebrahmavihārasdohaveatleastonelimit.Ontheirown,theycannotleadtoawakening.Asapractice,theycan’tbythemselvesbringaboutdispassionofidentification,andsotheycanleadonlytoaninferiorgoalinwhichidentificationispresentaswell.

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ThismeansthatthenewinterpretationofDN13isunreliableasaguidetopractice.ItalsomeansthattheconcludingpassageofSn1:8hastobeinterpretedinthetraditionalway,asalistofqualitiestobedevelopedinadditiontothebrahmavihārasiftheconcentrationbasedonthebrahmavihārasistoleadtoanyofthestagesofawakening.

Inotherwords,thetraditionalemphasisonthebrahmavihārasasapathtoawakeningisneithertoolittlenortoomuch.Thebrahmavihārascanfunctionaspartofthepathtoawakening,butonlyapart.Toattaineventhefirstlevelofawakening,youhavetoaddotherpracticestoinducethedisenchantmentanddispassionleadingtogenuinerelease.

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TheEssenceoftheDhamma

OneofthemoststrikingfeaturesoftheBuddha’steachingisthewayhecallsintoquestionthesubstantialityofthings,andinparticularthingsthatpeopleatlargeregardashavingsubstance.Theprimaryexampleisoursenseofself.Mostpeoplehaveasensethatthere’ssomethingsubstantialinsidethemthatconstitutestheirtrueself.Butthissense,theBuddhashows,isnothingmorethanafabrication.It’stheresultofclingingtophysicalobjects,suchasthebody,ortomentalactivities—feelings,perceptions,thought-fabrications,andconsciousness—noneofwhichhaveanysubstanceoressence.

Inafamouspassage(SN22:95),hecomparesphysicalphenomenatoglobsoffoamfloatingdownariver;feelingstobubblescausedbyrainfallingonwater;perceptionstoamirage;thought-fabricationstothetrunkofabananatree,devoidofheartwood;andconsciousnesstoamagicshow.Henotesthatallofthesethings—whicharecalledaggregates—areempty,void,andwithoutsubstanceoressence.Thepurposeofthissortofcontemplationistoinduceasenseofdisenchantmentanddispassionforthesethings—and,byextension,foranysenseofselfbuiltaroundthem—sothatthemindcanletgoofthemandfindrelease.

TheBuddharecommendsasimilarapproachtooursenseoftheworld.This,too,hesays,isbestregardedasafabrication,basedoncontactatthesixsenses—countingthemindasthesixth—alongwiththefeelingsthatarisebasedonthatcontact,allofwhichareconstantlydisintegrating(SN35:82).They’reemptyofselforanythingpertainingtoself(SN35:85).Again,thepurposeofthiscontemplationistoinduceasenseofdisenchantmentanddispassionforanysenseoftheworld.This,too,canleadtorelease.

Overthecenturies,peoplehavebeenstruckbytheradicalnatureofthesecontemplations,andmanyhavecometotheconclusionthattheBuddhawasathoroughgoinganti-substantialistoranti-essentialist:someonewhodeniesthatthere’sanysubstanceoressencetoanythingatall.Fromthisconclusioncomesafurtherconclusion:thattheBuddha’sDhamma,orteaching,isalsodevoidofessence.Asidefromthecoreprinciplethatnothinghasanyessence,thisviewholds,thereisnounchangingsubstanceoressencetodefinewhat’sDhammaandwhat’s

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not.Eversincethisviewwasadvanced,ithasbeenusedtojustifychanges

intheDhammawiththepassageoftime.EspeciallynowthatpeopleintheWesthavetakenaninterestintheDhamma,manyofthemhaveclaimedthatthisviewisnotjustaview.It’sanestablishedtruththatsupportsthecreativechangestheyfeeltheDhammarequires.Afterall,theysay,theDhammaembraceschange,andsotheonlyauthenticwaytoexpresstheDhammaistofosterwhatweseeaspositivechangesinit.

BecausethisviewhashadanenormousimpactonhowDhammaistaughtandunderstoodinthemodernworld,it’sworthlookingcarefullyattheargumentsusedtosupportit,toseeiftheyactuallyareinlinewiththeDhamma.Otherwise,iftheDhammareallydoeshaveanessence,werisklosingsomethingofessentialvaluewhenwechangeit.

Therearethreeprincipalargumentsforanessence-freeDhamma.Thefirst,whichoriginatedinancientIndia,isderivedfromtheBuddha’steachingondependentco-arising—hismapshowingthecausesofsufferingandhowtheycanbebroughttoanend.Fromthisteaching,theargumentconcludesthatallthingsexistindependenceonconditions.Becausetheirexistenceisdependentonotherconditionsthatareconstantlychanging,thatexistenceisn’tinherent.Becauseallthingslackinherentexistence,thetheorygoes,theyhavenoinherentnatureorsubstance.So,giventhattheBuddha’sDhammacameintoexistencedependentonconditions,ittooisdevoidofsubstance.

ThesecondsortofargumentcomesfromWesternpostmodernacademicphilosophy.It’sbasedonthepremisethatnowordsinanylanguagecanpointtoanythingoutsideofthelanguage,foreachword’smeaningistotallydeterminedbyitsrelationshiptootherwordsandtherulesofgrammarinthatlanguage.Asaresult,nowordcanpointtoanyunchangingessence,fortherelationshipsamongwordsisalwayschanging.BecausetheBuddha’sDhammaiscomposedofwords,itcanpointonlytootherwords,andnottoanysubstanceoressence.Ithastochangeeverytimeadifferentpersondescribesit.

Thethirdsortofargument,likethesecond,alsoderivesfromcurrentacademicviews,andinparticularfromthescholarlystudyofBuddhismasaforceinhumanhistory.Oneoftheunderlyingpremisesofthisfieldofstudyisthatsocialforcesarealwaystakingonnewidentitiesandformsinresponsetochangingconditionsintheirenvironment.Togiveafairandunbiasedtreatmentoftheseforces,onehastoacceptalltheirmanifestationsasequallyvalid.Anyattempttofindanunderlyingessence

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inanysocialforceistofallintowhatiscalledthe“essentialistfallacy,”forthatwouldfavoroneexpressionofthatforceinhistoryoverothers.(Think,forexample,ofhowpointlessitwouldbetodescribethepast150yearsofAmericanhistorybydefininganyparticularpoliticalpositionas“essentiallyRepublican”or“essentiallyDemocratic.”)BecauseBuddhismisasocialforce,ithasnounderlyingessence.Dhammaiswhateveraself-proclaimedBuddhistsaysitis.NosinglewayofdefiningorexpressingtheDhammaismorevalidthananyother.

EventhoughtheselattertwosortsofargumentstaketheirpremisesfromcurrentacademicviewsoutsideoftheBuddhisttradition,theyderivesomeoftheirforcewithintheBuddhistcommunityfromtheiraffinitywithargumentsofthefirstsort,whichcamefromwithinthetraditionitself.Tosaythatlanguageandsocialforcesarewithoutessenceissimplytoextendtheprinciplethatallconditionedthingsarewithoutessence.Forthisreason,wearetold,Buddhistsshouldaccept—aspartoftheiracceptanceoftheDhamma—theprinciplethattheDhammaiswithoutessenceaswell.TherearevirtuallynolimitstohowfaritcanchangeandstillbeDhamma.

It’sworthnoting,though,thatatleastonevoicefromwithintheBuddhisttraditionwouldn’tagreewiththisview:theBuddha’sown,asrecordedinthePalidiscourses,ouroldestextantrecordofhisteachings.Byhisownaccount,theBuddhawasnotathoroughgoinganti-essentialist.Animportantaspectofwisdom,henoted,wasrecognizingthatsomethingshaveessenceandothersdon’t,andclearlyunderstandingwhichiswhich.

Thosewhoregardnon-essenceasessenceandseeessenceasnon-,don’tgettotheessence,

rangingaboutinwrongresolves.Butthosewhoknowessenceasessence,andnon-essenceasnon-,gettotheessence,

rangingaboutinrightresolves.—Dhp11–12

Thewholepointofhisteachingswastohelppeoplegettotheessence,sohehadtoteachthemhowtodistinguishwhatwasessencefromwhatwasnot.Now,thePaliwordforessence—sāra—alsomeansheartwood:thepartofthetreethat’smostusefulandvaluablebecauseit’salsothemost

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lastingandimpervioustochange.SowhentheBuddhaidentifiedsomethingasessence,hemeantnotonlythatitisimpervioustochange,butalsothatithadhighandlastingvalue.TosaythattheDhammahadnoessence,inhiseyes,wouldbetosuggestthatithadnolastingvalueatall.AndalthoughhedidrecognizethathisteachingoftheDhammawouldn’tlastforever(SN20:7),hemaintainedthat,aslongastheteachingdidlast,itwouldleadthosewhofollowedittosomethingofessence.Thatsomethingisrelease.

AdiscourseintheCanon,AN4:245,identifiesthisreleaseasthereleasetouchedwiththerightendingofdukkha:sufferingorstress.Twootherdiscourses,AN8:83andAN10:58,statethatalldhammashavereleaseastheiressence.Afourthdiscourse,AN9:14,saysthesameofallthoughtsandresolves:Theyhavereleaseastheiressence.Inotherwords,theextenttowhichanyphenomenonormentaleventhasanessencedependsontheextenttowhichitcanleadtorelease.

ThemostextensivediscussionofreleaseastheessenceoftheDhammacomesinMN29and30,twodiscoursesthatexploretheimageryofheartwoodandessencebycomparingdifferentaspectsofamonk’slifetodifferentpartsofatree.Materialgain,honor,andfamearelikethetwigsandbranches;consummationinvirtueisliketheouterbark;consummationinconcentration,theinnerbark;whileknowledgeandvision—thevariouspowersthatcomewithconcentration—arelikethesapwood.

MN29and30don’tmakethepointexplicitly,butifwecomparetheirimageofthetreewiththestatementsaboutessenceinAN8:83and10:58,wecanconcludethatmaterialgain,virtue,concentration,andknowledgeandvision,whentakenasendsinandofthemselves,havenoessence,justastwigs,etc.,whentakenfromthetree,loseallconnectionwiththeheartwood.If,however,theystaywiththetreeandfostertheheartwood,thentothatextenttheyareconnectedwiththeessenceoftheDhamma.

AsfortheactualheartwoodoftheDhamma,MN29and30defineitintwoways:as“non-occasionalrelease”and“unprovokedawareness-release.”

Thesetwowaysofdescribingreleasebasicallymakethesamepoint:thatthereleasethatcountsastheessenceofDhammaisn’tsubjecttochange.Thefirstdescriptionemphasizesthatthisrelease,onceattained,isindependentofspecificoccasions.Itstandsoutsideoftime,sononeofthechangesoftimecanreachit.

TheseconddescriptiondrawsonatheoryusedintheBuddha’stimeto

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explainchangesinnature:bothinthephysicalworldandwithinthemind.Thetheoryisthatphysicalandmentaleventsoccurwhenanunderlyingproperty(dhātu)is“provoked.”Fireshappen,forinstance,whenthefirepropertyisprovoked;windstorms,whenthewindpropertyisprovoked.Withinthemind,sensualdesiresflareupwhenthementalpropertyofsensualityisprovoked.Ineverycase,aneventcausedbyprovocationendswhentheprovocationstops.Thismeansthatanythingcausedbyprovocationisdestined,atsomepoint,tocease.Tosay,however,thatthereleasethatcomeswithawakeningisunprovokedmeansthatit’snotcausedbyprovocationatall.It’snotsubjecttoconditions.Standingoutsideoftime,itstandsoutsidethepossibilityofeverending.

Thisiswhythewaytoreleasefromsufferingandstressiscalled,notthecauseofrelease,butthepathtorelease.Thepathisnotaconditionunderlyingtheexistenceofrelease,butitdoesleadthere.TheBuddhahimselfmadethispointimplicitlywhenhecomparedthepathtoanovergrownroadthroughthejungle,andreleasetoanancient,abandonedcityattheendoftheroad(SN12:65).Theroaddoesn’tcausethecitytobe,butwhencleareditenablespeopletoenterandrepopulatethecity.

Animportantstepinfollowingtheroadtoreleaseisabandoningattachmenttoyoursenseofselfandtheworld.ThisiswhytheBuddhafocusedsomuchofhisteachingstrategyonshowinghowourconstructedsenseofselfandtheworldiswithoutessence.ToborrowthewordsofDhp11–12,hepointedouttopeoplewhatnon-essenceis,sothattheywouldabandonitandarriveattheessence.

Butdidthisstrategyentanglehiminself-contradiction?Bycallingintoquestiontheessenceoftheselfandtheworld,didhealsoinadvertentlycallintoquestionthepossibilitythattheDhammacouldhaveanyessence?ThePalidiscoursescontainnorecordoftheBuddha’shavingbeenaskedaquestionlikethis,buttheydocontainenoughinformationonhowhedescribedreleasetoshowthatthethreesortsofanti-essentialistargumentscarrynoforceagainsthisassertionthatreleaseistheessenceoftheDhamma.

Withregardtothefirstsortofargument,wecanseethatreleaseisnotcausedbydependentco-arising;it’sexperiencedonlywhendependentco-arisingceases(SN12:2).Whenattained,releaseisknownindependentlyoftheaggregatesandsensemediathatprovidetherawmaterialofoursenseofselfandoftheworld.Althoughitisexperiencedasaformofconsciousness(DN11),thisconsciousness—unlikeordinarysensoryconsciousness—isnotknownthroughthesixsensemedia(MN49).

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Becauseit’soutsideofspaceandtime,thisconsciousnessdoesn’tcomeundertheaggregateofconsciousness,whichappliesonlytotheconditionedconsciousnessexperiencedintermsofspaceandtime:nearorfar;past,present,orfuture(SN22:59).Releaseisalsoexperiencedasthehighestbliss,butthisblissisnotclassedasafeeling(SN36:19).

Becausereleaseisoutsideoftheaggregatesandsensemedia,it’snotsubjecttotheBuddha’sdescriptionoftheaggregatesandsensemediaasbeingwithoutessence.ThismeansthatthefirstsortofargumentfailsthetestprovidedbyDhp11–12,inthatitdoesn’trecognizewhatisessenceandwhat’snot.

Similarly,theBuddhawouldnothaveagreedwiththepremisesunderlyingthesecondsortofargument,thattheDhammaisnothingmorethanlanguage,andthatlanguagecanpointtonothingmorethanitself.Ashemaintains,therealmofallthatcanbedescribedgoesnofurtherthanthesixsenses(SN35:23).However,itispossibletoexperiencethedimensionwheretheexperienceofthesixsensesceases(SN35:117).Becauseofthelimitationsoflanguage,wecan’tsaythatanythingremainsordoesn’tremain(orbothorneither)inthisdimension(AN4:173).Butthedimensionitselfdoesexist—youcansaythatmuchaboutittoindicatethatit’snotanimpossibility.

“Thereisthatdimension,monks,wherethereisneitherearth,norwater,norfire,norwind;neitherdimensionoftheinfinitudeofspace,nordimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness,nordimensionofnothingness,nordimensionofneitherperceptionnornon-perception;neitherthisworld,northenextworld,norsun,normoon.Andthere,Isay,thereisneithercoming,norgoing,norstaying;neitherpassingawaynorarising:unestablished,unevolving,withoutsupport[mentalobject].This,justthis,istheendofstress.”—Ud8:1

Infact,ifthisdimensiondidn’texist,theendingofsufferingwouldn’tbepossible(Ud8:3),andtheDhammaasawholewouldbepointless.Butoneoftherealizationsonattainingthisdimensionisthatitotherwiseliesbeyondthelimitsofwhatlanguagecanadequatelydescribe(DN15).

Yetlanguagedoesn’tsimplydescribethings.Itcanalsobeusedtoinduceaction.ThisishowtheBuddhaprimarilyusedlanguagewithregardtorelease:toinducepeopletoactinawaythatwillleadthemtoexperiencereleasedirectlyforthemselves.Thisiswhyhetalkedaboutreleasesooften.Still,indoingso,hemadeheavyuseofmetaphor,paradox,andnegation—focusingonwhatreleaseisnot—toshowthatitcan’tproperlybecapturedinwords.

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WhatthismeansisthattheBuddhaclaimedarangeofexperiencelyingoutsidethehorizonsofpostmoderntheoriesoflanguage,whicharebasedontheassumptionthatexperienceoutsideofspaceandtimeisimpossible.However,postmoderntheoriescanoffernoproofthatthisassumptionistrue,whichiswhytheirclaimshavenoforceagainsttheBuddha’s.Hemightnotbeabletoconvincethemwhenheclaimsthatthewordreleasereferstosomethingoutsideoftheirrangeofexperience,buttheirargumentsagainsthimcan’tinvalidatehisclaim.Theissuehastobesettledbyothermeans.

Asimilarpointholdsforthethirdsortofargument.WhenacademicsaretalkingaboutBuddhismandtheBuddhaistalkingaboutDhamma,theyaretalkingabouttwoverydifferentthings.Buddhism,forthemajorityofscholars,isaphenomenonofsocialhistory;Dhamma,fortheBuddha,isreleaseandthepathtorelease.

TheBuddhareadilyadmittedthateventhoughreleaseisn’ttouchedbytime,histeachingsonthepathtoreleasewould,overtime,beneglectedandreplacedbyothers.Buthedidn’tregardthatfactasahappyone.Hecomparedchangestotheteachingtochangesinadrumwhosewoodenbodyisrepairedbypegseverytimeitsplits,tothepointwherethebodyisgone,andnothingbutpegsremain(SN20:7).Justasadrumofpegswouldbeuselessforsummoningpeoplefromfaraway,inthesameway,“replacementDhamma”(saddhamma-paṭirūpa)wouldbeineffectiveinleadingtorelease.

Again,theseareimportantclaims,andtheyraiseimportantquestions:DidtheBuddhaactuallyreachrelease?Dohisteachingsactuallyleadthere?Isherightinsayingthatotherpathsdon’t?Thehistoricalmethod,eventhoughithastaughtusmanyotherusefulthingsaboutBuddhism,isincapableofansweringthesequestions,which—whenyoucomerightdowntoit—arethemostessentialonesthatanyoneconcernedabouttheendofsufferingshouldaskabouttheDhamma.Toadopttheimageofthetree,academicsdescribingthehistoryofBuddhismare,atbest,reachingthetwigsandbranches.Justasit’simpossibletotellfromatree’sbrancheswhetherthetrunkcontainsheartwood,it’simpossible—usingthehistoricalmethod—toknowwhethertheBuddhawasright:thattheDhammadoeshaveanessence,andthathisteachingsshareinthatessencetotheextentthattheyreallydoleadtorelease.So,likethelinguisticphilosopherswhoareinnopositiontotellwhetherthewordrelease,intheBuddha’smouth,pointsbeyondlanguage,historiansareinnopositiontotellwhethertheBuddhaactuallyattainedrelease.Therulesofthehistoricalmethodhavenoforceagainsthisclaimthathedid.

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Whenlinguistsandhistoriansdon’trecognizethelimitationsoftheirmethodsandclaimthattheDhammahasnoessence,theyareactuallydoingharm—discouragingthemselvesandothersfromtestingtheDhammainpracticetoseeiftheBuddha’sclaimsaboutitsessenceistrue.

SowhenweexaminethethreesortsofargumentsmaintainingthattheDhammahasnoessence,wefindthattheyhavenoaffinitywiththeBuddha’soriginalteachings,andactuallygetinthewayofthepractice.FromtheBuddha’spointofview,thoughtsandphenomenawithintheworldofconditionscanhaveessencetotheextentthattheypointtothedimensionoutside.Thisiswhyhisthirdnobletruth—thetotalendingofsuffering—isatruth;andwhyholdingtothistruthasanessentialpartofthepractice.If,inlinewiththeanti-essentialistarguments,youdenythatthenobletruthscanhavethissortofessence,thenyoucloseoffthepossibilityofeverattainingrelease.

Ofcourse,themerefactthatthePalidiscoursesmaketheseclaimsabouttheBuddhaandhisteachingsdoesn’tmeanthatthey’retrue.Buttheydoposeachallenge:Canyouprovethatthey’renot?If,intheBuddha’swords,you’renotlookingforheartwood,andwouldratherseethediscoursessimplyasoldtextscircumscribedbythehorizonsofyourviewsoflanguageandhistory,you’refreetoignoretheirchallenge.

Butifyouarelookingforheartwood,forsomethingofessence,thenyou’dbewisetorespondtothechallengeposedbytheBuddhaintheonlywayappropriate:byputtingtheDhammatothetestinyourownlife.Thismeansopeningyourselftothepossibilitythatessentialismisnotalwaysafallacy,andthattheDhammajustmighthaveanessencetranscendingyoursenseofselfandtheworld.Onlybywideningyourhorizonswillyouhaveanychanceofseeingwhetherthere’smoretothatessencethanmerewords.

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TheMiddlesoftheMiddleWay

Inhisveryfirstsermon,theBuddhaintroducedhispathofpracticeasamiddlewaythatavoidstwoextremes:acommitmenttosensualpleasuresrelatedtosensualdesires,andacommitmenttoself-affliction.Onthesurface,thisstatementmakesthepathsoundlikeamiddlingway,atablandhalfwaypointonthecontinuumbetweenpleasureandpain.ButifyoureadfurtherintheCanononthemiddleway,yourealizethatitsmiddlenessismuchmorecomplexthanthat.

Tobeginwith,therearetimeswhentheBuddharecommendspursuingpleasantpractice;andothertimeswhereherecommendspainfulpractice.Therearealsotimeswherehetalksofthemiddlenessofhismiddlewayindifferenttermsentirely.Whendiscussingoneofthemoreadvancedstagesofthefirstfactorofthepath,rightview,hedescribesitasaperspectivethatavoidsquestionsrequiringaneither/orresponse,whereboththeeitherandtheorentangleyouinissuesthatdistractyoufromthetaskofputtinganendtosufferingandstress.Thisaspectofthepathismiddleinthesensethatitcutsrightthroughthemiddleofsuchquestionsandthrowsbothalternativesofftotheside.

ThismeansthattheBuddhachosehiswordscarefully.Thepathdoesn’tnecessarilyliebetweentwoextremes.Itavoidstwoextremes.Butexactlywhichdirectionsitgoesinavoidingthemisuptothediscernmentofeachpractitionertofindout.Sometimesyouavoidextremesbyfindingapointofmoderationonacontinuumrunningbetweenthem:apointthatdoesn’talwaysstayrightinthemiddle,andthatcanmoveunexpectedly.Sometimesyouavoidextremesbyleavingthecontinuumentirely.TheBuddha’smiddlewayhasmiddlesofbothsorts.

Intrackingdownandsortingoutthevariousmiddlesofthemiddleway,youhavetouseyourdiscernmentinthesamewayyoudowhenpracticingtomasteraphysicalskill.Tobeginwith,youhavetodiscernwhere,onacontinuumrunningfromtoolittletotoomuch,whatamountofpracticeisjustright.Toolittlepracticedoesn’tmakeadifferenceinyourperformance;toomuchpracticecansimplywearyououtwithoutimprovingyourskills.Thatkindofmiddleliesonacontinuummeasuredintime.Justasimportant—andoftenevenmoreso—youhavetodiscernwhichissuestofocusonwhileyoupracticeandwhichonestoignore.This

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involvesfindingamiddlethatliesoffanycontinuumentirely.Forinstance,ifyou’retryingtobecomeafasterswimmer,youhavetofocusonmaintaininggoodformthroughoutyourtimeinthewaterandtoignorethequestionofwhetheraredoryellowswimsuitwillshavesecondsoffyourtime.Inrealizingthatneitherrednoryellowarerelevanttoyourspeed,youcutrightthroughthemiddleofthatissueandaredonewithit.

TheBuddhahimselfsawtheparallelsbetweenthepathofpracticeleadingtotheendofsufferingandthepracticeinvolvedinmasteringphysicalskills.Inexplainingthepath,heoftendrewsimilesfromthewaysinwhichcooks,carpenters,andarchershadtopracticetohonetheirabilities.Themaindifference,ofcourse,isthatwhilephysicalskillsrequireagreatdealofconcentrationanddiscernment,thepathrequiresevenmore.OncetheBuddha’sattendant,Ānanda,stoppedwhileonhisalmsroundtowatchagroupofyoungprincespracticingarchery.OnreturningtotheBuddha,heexpressedamazementattheaccuracyoftheiraim.TheBuddharesponded,

“Whatdoyouthink,Ānanda?Whichishardertodo,hardertomaster—toshootarrowsthroughatinykeyholewithoutmissing,onerightaftertheother,ortotakeahorsehairsplitintosevenstrandsandpierceatipwithatip?”

“This,lord,ishardertodo,hardertomaster—totakeahorsehairsplitintosevenstrandsandpiercetipwithatip.”

“Andthey,Ānanda,piercewhatisevenhardertopierce:thosewhopierce,asitactuallyhascometobe,that‘Thisisstress’;whopierce,asitactuallyhascometobe,that‘Thisistheoriginationofstress’…‘Thisisthecessationofstress’…‘Thisisthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessationofstress.’”—SN46:45

Inotherwords,thepathtotheendofsufferingisaskillthat,likearchery,requiresaccurateaim,butthelevelofdiscernmentneededtodevelopthataccuracyisofamuchhigherorder.

Sowhentryingtounderstandthevariousmiddlesofthemiddleway—boththosethatareonacontinuumandthosethatareoff—it’susefultokeepinmindthemiddlesdiscernedinmasteringaphysicalskill.

TwoTypesofMiddle

Themiddlesofthemiddlewaythatlieonacontinuumarethoserelatedtothepracticeofmoderation.Thosethatlieoffanycontinuumarerelatedtothepracticeofappropriateattention.Althoughthesetwo

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practicesfocusondifferentaspectsofthepath,theyhaveoneimportantfeatureincommon.Theybothavoidtheextremesofcommitmenttopainandtosensualpleasure,notbyavoidingpainandpleasure,butbyusingpainandpleasureastools,wheneverappropriate,tohelpthemindabandonitsunskillfulqualities.

Inotherwords,neitherpracticetreatspleasureorpainasanevilinandofitself.Instead,theybothtreatpleasureandpainasmeanstoahigherend.Theysimplydifferinthewaytheyusepleasureandpainastools.Moderationusespain,whennecessary,asagoadtoheedfulness,andpleasureasasupportforlifeandforphysicalandmentalhealth.Appropriateattentionencouragesyoutodevelopthepleasureofstrongconcentrationtohelpweanyouawayfromattachmenttosensualpleasures.Thenitencouragesyoutousethementalfirmnessprovidedbyconcentrationtolookcarefullyattheexperienceofpainuntilyoudevelopdispassionforit.This,inturn,allowsyoutofreethemindfromallsufferingandstress.

Sotodevelopthediscernmentthatcanleadtothatfreedom,youhavetoexerciseitwithbothsortsofmiddles:thoseinvolvingmoderation,andthoseinvolvingappropriateattention.

TheMiddlesofModeration

Thepracticeofmoderation,inwhichyoutrytofindanidealpointofbalanceonacontinuumbetweentwoextremes,relatesprimarilytothefactorsofthepathrelatedtovirtueandconcentration,althoughdiscernmentnecessarilyplaysaroleingoverninghowthisisdone.

Forinstance,withvirtue:IfwecomparethepreceptsrecommendedbytheBuddha—nointentionalkilling,stealing,illicitsex,lying,ortakingofintoxicants—withthepreceptstaughtbytheothercontemplativeschoolsofhistime,wefindthattheBuddha’spreceptsliebetweentwoextremes.Onthestrictside,theJainstaughtthatallactivity,intentionalornot,isharmful,andthattheonlyharmlesscourseofactionwastoundergoausteritiesandultimatelytoliedownstillandfasttodeath.Ontheotherextreme,theĀjīvakasandLokāyatastaughtthatactionshavenoeffectonwhathappensintheworld,sothere’snowaythatyoucandoanyoneanyhelporharm.Fromthistheyarguedthatthewholeideaofmoralityisasham,ameresocialconvention,andthatthere’snoneedtoplaceanyrestrictionsonyourbehavioratall.TheBuddha’sinsistencethatactionshaveconsequences,thatharmisreal,andthatyouhavetofocusonnotintentionallycausingharmisamidpointbetweenthesetwoextremes.

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However,it’simportanttonotethatthemoderationofthepreceptstaughtbytheBuddhadoesn’tmeanthattheyshouldbeobservedinamiddlingway,sometimesfollowingthemandsometimesnot.TheBuddhastressedthatthepracticeofthepreceptsgivesitsbestresultswhenyouobservetheminyourdealingswithalllivingbeingsinallsituationsatalltimes.Healsoexpressedadmirationforthosemonkswhokepttotheirpreceptsevenifitcostthemtheirlives(Ud5:5).Onlywhenyoushowthatlevelofcommitmenttothepreceptscantheyexposeanyunskillfulagendasinthemindthatwouldotherwiseliehiddenbehindyourexcusesfornotobservingtheminonesituationoranother.

Soeventhoughthepreceptsaremoderateintheirstrictness,thecommitmenttheycallforisextreme.Thisisoneofthewaysinwhichthemiddlewayisnotamiddlingway.It’sbothmoderateandradicalatthesametime.

Moderation&Concentration

Asimilarprincipleappliestothemoderationofconcentration:Youhavetoberadicallycommittedtodevelopingabalancedstateofmind.Here,however,thepointofmoderationisnolongeronasinglecontinuum.Instead,youhavetofindapointofbalanceonseveraldifferentcontinuaatonce.

Thecontinuumstretchingfromcommitmenttosensualindulgencetocommitmenttoself-afflictionrelatestothepracticeofconcentrationmostdirectlyintheneedtoexercisemoderationintheamountfoodyoueat.Thepathfactorsrelatedtoconcentration—righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration—areaimedatdevelopingastable,full-bodyawarenessatrequiresahealthybodythat’sneitherweakenedfromeatingtoolittlenoroppressedfromeatingtoomuch.Afflictingyourselfbyeatingtoolittlewilldepriveyouoftheenergyyouneedtomaintainfull-bodyfocus;indulgingineatingtoomuchwillmakethebodyheavyandunsettled.Likeanathleteorasoldier,youhavetoavoidbothhatingfoodandlovingfoodforitsflavorsandthesenseoffullnessitprovides.Instead,youhavetoregarditprimarilyasfueltokeepthebodybothlightandstrongatthesametime.

Asforthestateofmindinconcentration,itliesonthemidpointonacontinuumbetweentwootherextremes:statesofmindthatarescatteredandhyperactive,andthosethataretorpidandunalert.Tofindthismidpoint—whichwillvaryovertime—youhavetodevelopthefactorsofawakeninginawaythatmovesyouawayfromeitherextreme.Whenthe

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mindistorpid,yourouseitbydevelopingthreequalities.Thefirstisyourabilitytoanalyzewhat’sskillfulandunskillfulinyourpresentstateofmind:Thisiscalledanalysisofqualities.Thenyoumaketheefforttodevelopwhat’sskillfulandtoabandonwhat’snot—thisiscalledpersistence—untilthebodyandmindarenourishedwithasenseofrefreshmentcalledrapture.Ontheotherhand,whenthemindisoverlyaroused,youfocusnotonthosefactorsbutonadifferentsetofthree:calm,concentration,andequanimity.Theonlyfactorforawakeningthat’salwaysappropriateismindfulness,foritrememberstowatchoverthemindandtoevaluatewhichoftheotherfactorsareneededatanyonetime.

Anothercontinuumrequiringmoderationrelatestotheissueofhowmuchpressuretoapplyinyourfocusontheobjectofyourconcentration.IntheBuddha’ssimile,it’slikeholdingaquailinyourhands.Ifyouholdittootightly,it’lldie.Iftooloosely,it’llflyaway(MN128).

Asconcentrationdevelopstothelevelofjhāna—theabsorptionthatconstitutesrightconcentration—you’llfindthatthefactorsofraptureandcalmcanleadtoextremelyintensefeelingsofpleasure.Thesefeelingsdon’tcountassensualpleasures,inthattheydon’tdependontheexternalsenses.Instead,they’reclassedaspleasuresofform:thesenseofwellbeingthatcomesfromfullyinhabitingyourinnersenseoftheformofthebody.Forthisreason,thesefeelingsarenottobeavoided.Infact,theabilitytoaccessthematwillisanimportantpartofmasteringconcentration,foritnourishesyourabilitytostayonthepath.However,heretooyouhavetoexercisemoderation.Ifyougetstuckonthemoreblatantlevelsofpleasureinthebeginningstagesofjhāna,youpreventyourselffromreachingthemorebalancedstabilityofthehigherstages,inwhichintensepleasureandrapturefadeaway,leavingtheevennessofpureequanimity.

Theconcentrationthatresultsfromfollowingtheseinstructionsisbalancedandmoderate,bothstableandfullyaware.Butthecommitmentitrequiresisextreme.TheBuddharecommendeddevelopingitatalltimesandinallsituations.Hereagainthemoderationofthepathhasitsradicalside.

Discernment&Moderation

Althoughissuesofmoderationfocusprimarilyonthepartsofthepathdealingwithvirtueandconcentration,theyrequirethatyouusediscernment.Afterall,discernmentplaysanecessaryroleinseeingthevalueofmoderationinthefirstplace.Appreciatingmoderation—tosay

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nothingofmasteringit—requiresahigherlevelofintelligencethantheintelligenceusedinchasingafterextremes.Discernmentisalsoneededtoprovideyouwitheffectivereasonstowithstandtheemotionsthatwouldpushyouoff-course.Withoutthissortofdiscernment,it’salltooeasytopushtoohardwhenyoufeelenthusiasmortoslackoffwhenyourenthusiasmwanes,leadingyoutowastetimeswingingbackandforthbetweentwofruitlessextremes.

Discernmentalsoplaysaroleingainingasenseofhowtheenergiesofthemindandthedemandsofthepracticekeepchanging—especiallyinthepracticeofconcentration—sothatyoucanfigureout,atanygivenmoment,whereonthecontinuumthemiddlepointofmosteffectivemoderationactuallylies.Forinstance,youcannoticehowtoday’sneedsdifferfromyesterday’sand—likeaswimmerwhocanreadthestateofhisbodyasheswimshislaps—figureoutwhetheryourconcentrationtodayneedsmoreenergyorless.

Discernmentalsohelpsyoutonoticewhenyoucanpracticeinlinewithyourpleasure,andwhenyouhavetopracticewithpain.Ifyouseethatlivinginaccordwithpleasurefostersunskillfulqualitiesinthemind,youhavetopushthemiddlepointofmoderationinthedirectionofpain:sittinglongerhours,goingwithlessfoodandsleep,practicingwalkingmeditationforlongerstretchesoftime.Whenworkingwithpainhasdoneitswork,themiddlepointofmoderationcanslidebackinthedirectionofharmlesspleasure(MN101).

Anexampleofharmlesspleasureisthepleasurethatcomesfromthebeautiesofwilderness,whereyoucanfindtheseclusionthatfostersconcentration.Atpresentwetendtotakeforgrantedtheideathatwildernessisbeautiful,andforgetthatonlyrecentlyhashumanculturecometoviewwildernessinapositivelight.Formillennia,eversincethebeginningsofagriculture,wildernesswassomethingenduredunderduressandthathadtobetamed.Onlywiththeindustrialrevolutionhavepeopleingeneralcometoregardwildernessasaplacetobeenjoyed.ButthePaliCanonwasfaraheadofitstimeinthisregard.Itcontainstheearliestextantpoetryextollingthebeautiesofwildnature,treatingthosebeautiesbothasinherentlypleasantandastheidealsettingforfindingtheevenhigherpleasuresofawell-concentratedmind.Theabilitytoappreciatethesepleasures,andtorealizethatthisappreciationwasahealthyaidonthepath,requiredsharpdiscernment.

Whatmakesthesepleasureshealthyisthepurposewhichtheyareused—apointthatappliesequallytothemoreeverydaypleasuresoffood,clothing,shelter,andmedicine.Monksareenjoinedeverydaytoreflecton

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whytheyneedthesesupportsonthepath,andtoremindthemselvestousethemstrictlyforthatpurpose,tokeepfromgettingcarriedawaybythepleasuresthesethingscanprovide.Thereflectiononfood,forinstance,givesguidanceonhowtofindthepointofmoderationineatingbykeepingthepurposeofeatingalwaysinmind:

“Andhowdoesamonkknowmoderationineating?Thereisthecasewhereamonk,consideringitappropriately,takeshisfoodnotplayfully,norforintoxication,norforputtingonbulk,norforbeautification,butsimplyforthesurvival&continuanceofthisbody,forendingitsafflictions,forthesupportoftheholylife,thinking,‘Iwilldestroyoldfeelings[ofhunger]&notcreatenewfeelings[fromovereating].ThusIwillmaintainmyself,beblameless,&liveincomfort.’”—AN4:37

Sotheroleofdiscernmentindirectingthemoderationofvirtueandconcentrationshowsthatthepath,inavoidingtheextremesofcommitmenttosensualpleasureandcommitmenttoself-inflictedpain,doesn’trequireyoutoavoidpleasureandpain.Itteachesyoutoavoidcommitmenttoeitherofthetwo.Inotherwords,itdoesn’tvieweitherpleasureorpainasanevil—oragood—inandofitself.Instead,itusesbothofthemastools,wheneverappropriate,forahighergood:cleansingthemindofitsunskillfulqualities.Thisrequiresthatyouuseyourdiscernmenttoseewhenthesetoolsarebestusedandbestputaside,bydetermining—ateachstageofthepath—whereonthepointofeffectivemoderationlies.

TheMiddlesofAppropriateAttention

Whendiscernmentturnstothelargerquestionsofunderstandingtheframeworkofthepractice—inotherwords,whenitfocusesontheprocessesofdiscernmentitself—itsmiddlenessisnolongerashiftingpointonacontinuum.Itbecomesarangeofpointsoffthecontinuumentirely.Incaseslikethis,themiddlenessofthepathislessamatterofmoderationandmoreoneofappropriateattention:knowingwhichquestionstofocusattentiononatanyparticulartime,andwhichtocutthroughthemiddleandputaside.

Thequestionstofocusattentiononarethosedealingwiththedutiesappropriateforthefournobletruths:howtocomprehendsuffering,howtoabandonitscause,howtorealizethecessationofsuffering,andhowtodevelopthepathtothatcessation.Thefocusonsufferingshowsagainthatavoidingcommitmenttopainandsensualpleasuredoesn’tmean

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avoidingpainandpleasureentirely.Youlearntositwiththepainofsufferingsothatyoucanreallycomprehendit;youdevelopthefactorsofthepath—whichincludethenon-sensualpleasuresofstrongconcentration—thatallowyoutositwithpainwithoutfeelingtheneedtorunawayfromitinthedirectionofsensualpleasure.Thisiswhatallowsyoutofulfillthedutiesappropriatetoallthenobletruths,andsotoreachtheendofsuffering.

Tostayfocusedonthequestionsrelatedtothenobletruths,however,youhavetolearntohowputasideanyquestionsthatclingtoissuesthatwouldgetinthewayofperformingthedutiesappropriatetothosetruths.Thisiswherethemiddlenessofappropriateattentionshowsitsradicalside,foritcutsthroughthemiddlemanyofthequestionsthatpeoplenormallyaskthemselvesaboutthemselvesandtheworldaroundthem.

Theseinappropriatequestionsincreaseinsubtletyasyouprogressalongthepath,buttheyallcomedowntotwosortsofclingingthatcandevelopdirectlyaroundthepracticeofthepath:clingingtothepracticesofthepathasiftheywerethegoalofthepath,andclingingtoasenseofidentityfashionedaroundthosepractices.Theneedtoavoidthesetwotypesofclinging—andtheneed,atthesametime,todevelopapathofpracticethatrisksgivingrisetothem—isrelatedtoaconceptcentraltotheBuddha’sanalysisofthestressandsufferingthatthepathisdesignedtoend.Thatconceptisbecoming.

QuestionsofBecoming

Becomingisasenseofidentityinaparticularworldofexperience.Becomingsofthissortcanlastforwholelifetimesor,withinthemind,forfleetingmomentsoftime.Ineverycaseofbecoming,boththeidentityandthesenseoftheworldcoalescearoundaparticulardesire.Theidentityrelatestothedesireintwoways:bothastheselfthatwantstoexperiencetheobjectofthedesire,andastheselfthatwantstodevelop(oralreadyhas)thepowersthatwillbringthatobjectabout.Otheraspectsofyourselfareirrelevanttothatparticularbecoming.

Thesenseoftheworldrelatedtothedesireisalsocomposedoftwothings:thoseaspectsoftheworldthatwillhelpfulfillthedesireandthosethatthreatentostandinthewayofitsfulfillment.Anythingirrelevanttothedesirewon’tcountinthatparticularsenseoftheworld.

Forinstance,supposeyouwantadrinkofwater.Theselfinthebecomingthatcoalescesaroundthatdesireiscomposedofthementalactsthathopetoquenchathirstandthepartsofyourbodyandmindthatwill

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beinvolvedinfindingthewateryouwant.Otheraspectsofyourself—suchasyourlooksoryoumusicalabilities—willbeirrelevanttothatparticularbecoming.Theworldofthisbecomingwillbecomposedofthepartsoftheworldthatwilleitherprovideyouwithwaterorstandinthewayofyourobtainingit.Ifyou’reinadesertfarfromwater,thedesertwillplayahugeroleinthatparticularbecoming.Ifyou’renearastreaminthemountains,thedesert—eventhoughitstillexistsinthishumanworld—won’tcountintheworldofthatbecomingatall.

Processesofbecomingcanoperatesimultaneouslyonmanylevels,bothshort-termandlong.Thefactofyourbeingahumanbeinginthishumanworldisabecomingthatresultedfromadesirethatappearedinthemindasyouwereleavingyourlastlifetime.Withinthislargerbecomingtherearemanyshorter-termbecomingsthatcoalescearoundparticulardesiresrelatedtopossibilitiesinthephysicalworld.Therearealsomanymorefleetingbecomingsthatarepurelymental,aswhenyouconceiveadesiretothinkandtakeontheroleofthethinkerthinkingthethought,orofanactorintheworldofyourthought.Theselevelsofbecomingareinterrelatedinthatphysicallevelsofbecomingcaninspirementalones,andpurelymentalbecomingscanformtheseedforbecomingsonthelevelofthephysicalworldforshortperiodsoftimeorforentirelifetimes.

Theprocessofbecomingisrelatedtotheissueofsufferingandstressbecauseanydesireleadingtobecomingisalsoacauseofstress.Togainfreedomfromstressrequiresputtinganendtoalldesiresleadingtobecoming.TheBuddhaidentifiedthesedesiresasfallingintothreecategories.Thefirsttwoareintuitive:sensualdesireanddesireforbecomingitself.Thethird—thedesiretoputanendtoanyexistingbecoming—iscounterintuitivebutitcanbeexplainedinthatanyactiontodestroyabecomingrequirestakingonanidentitybuiltaroundthedesiretoseeitdestroyed.Thisinturnformstheseedforanewbecoming.

Buteventhoughthisthirdtypeofdesirecanbeexplainedasacauseofbecoming,itpresentsastrategicproblemforanypathofpracticeaimedattheendingofstressandsuffering:howtoallowbecomingtoendwithoutgettinginvolvedinthedesiretodestroybecoming.InIti49,theBuddhapresentshissolutiontothisproblemasamiddlewaybetweenthedesireforbecomingandthedesiretoendanyexistingbecoming.Thatmiddlewayistoseewhathascometobesimplyaswhathascometobe.

Iti49givesnofurtherexplanationofwhatthismeans,butotherpassagesintheCanonconcerningthepathshowthatthisapproachrequiresatwo-stagestrategy.Thefirststageistousevirtue,concentration,

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anddiscernmenttoprovideastablestateofconcentration,apoisedstateofbecomingthatallowsyoutoobservetheprocessesinthemindastheyarehappening—or,inthewordsofIti49,astheyhavecometobe.Thesecondstageistousediscernmentbasedonthisstablebecomingtowatchthoseprocesseswithoutreferencetoa“self”ora“world”(or“noself”or“noworld”)asacontextforthoseprocesses.Inotherwords,youwatchtheprocessessimplyasprocesseswithoutreferencetothequestionofwhetherthereisorisn’taselfwatchingtheprocesses,ortothequestionofwhetherthereisorisn’taselforaworldstandingbehindthem.

Atfirst,thissortofdiscernmentisappliedtoallprocessesoutsideofthoseinvolvedinmaintainingvirtue,concentration,anddiscernment.Ultimately,it’sappliedtothoseprocessesaswell.Thisleadseventuallytoadispassionforallprocesses,atwhichpointthedesiresrelatedtobecomingsimplyendontheirown.That’stheendofallsufferingandstress.

TwoStagesofDiscernment

Inthecontextofthistwo-stagestrategy,theroleofappropriateattention—themiddlenessofdiscernmentthatliesoutsideanycontinuum—istoturnattentionawayfromanyunnecessaryorunskillfulsenseofselfortheworldthatwouldinterferewiththisstrategy.Forinstance,inthefirststage,thepracticeofvirtueandconcentrationrequireshighlevelsofself-esteemandheedfulness,bothofwhichrequireahealthysenseofself.Soappropriateattentionatthisstagedoesn’tcallthatsenseofselfintoquestion.However,anydesiretocompareyourlevelofvirtueorconcentrationwiththatofothersisdetrimentaltothepractice,andsoappropriateattentionfocusesonturningattentionawayfromquestionsthatwouldinvolvecomparingyourselfwithothers.You’reheretocureyourownunskillfulmentalqualities,sothequestionofwhetheryou’rebetterthanothersisreallynoneofyourbusiness.

Forthisreason,themiddlenessofdiscernmentatthisstagewarnsyou,forinstance,nottoexaltyourselfortodisparageothersoverhowcontentyouarewithmeagermaterialgainsorhowmuchdelightyoutakeinthepractice(AN4:28).Anditwarnsyounottoexaltyourselfoverotherpeoplewhoselevelofconcentrationislowerthanyours(MN111)

Soatthisstagethemiddlenessofdiscernmentdealsonlywithbecomingsthatthwartyourpath,whileitencouragesthosethatarenecessarytokeepthepathgoing.

OnthesecondstageoftheBuddha’sstrategy,discernmentundercutseverytypeofbecoming,buthereagainittreadsamiddlepath.

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Themiddlehereliesinturningattentionawayfromanyquestionsconcerningthenatureorexistenceofaselforworldsurroundingtheprocessesofthemind.

Themiddlepaththatcutsthroughthesequestionsisanunderstandingoftheprocessesleadingtosufferingandstress,viewedsimplyasprocesses.Theformalnameforthepatternoftheseprocessesisdependentco-arising(paṭiccasamuppāda).

Althoughdependentco-arisingisateachingthateventheBuddhadescribedascomplex,itsmiddlenessasaformofdiscernmentiseasytoexplain:Itmakesnoreferencetotheexistenceornon-existenceofaselforworldasacontextfortheprocessesleadingtosufferingandstress.Infact,itshowshowanysenseof“self”or“world”isabyproductofthoseprocesses.Inthisway,insteadofplacingtheseprocesseswithinthecontextofaselforaworld,dependentco-arisingprovidesthecontextforunderstandinghowideasofselfandworldcomeaboutasaresultoftheprocessesleadingtostressandsuffering.

Indoingso,itshowshowtoviewtheprocessesofthemindinsuchawaythatleadsultimatelytoasenseofdispassionforanysenseofselforworld,andinsodoingleadstototalreleasefrombecoming,totalreleasefromallsufferingandstress.

Severaldiscourseslistquestionsthatarecutthroughthemiddlewhenyouadopttheperspectiveofdependentco-arising.Someofthesequestionscoverissuesaboutthenatureoftheself.Forinstance:

“Isthebodythesameasthesoul,oristhebodyonethingandthesoulsomethingelse?”—SN12:35

“Isstressself-made,oristheonewhocreatesitdifferentfromtheonewhoexperiencesit?”—SN12:17

“Arepleasureandpainself-made,orisfeelingonethingandtheonewhoexperiencesitsomethingelse?”—SN12:18

Otherquestionscutthroughthemiddlebydependentco-arisingcoverissuesconcerningthenatureandexistenceoftheworld:

“Doeseverythingexist?Doesitnotexist?”—SN12:15“Iseverythingaoneness?Isitaplurality?”—SN12:44

Whendiscernmentisabletoputasidethesequestions—andothersimilarones,suchaswhethertheselfdoesordoesn’texist(SN44:10;MN2)—itcanreachapointofequipoise,callednon-fashioning(atammayatā),wherealltheissuesofbecomingfallaway.It’sinthiswaythattheBuddha’

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middlewaycutsthroughthemiddleofthechallengeposedbythedesireforbecomingandthedesirefornon-becoming,allowingtheexperienceofallbecomings—includingthebecomingofthepath—tofallaway,leavingtotalrelease.

ReleasedfromLocation

Oneofthefeaturesofthisreleaseisthatit’stotallydevoidoflocation,bothphysicalandmental.Afterall,locationisanissueofselvesinworlds,whichinturnareissuesofbecoming.Whenthemindisfreeofbecoming,locationisnolongeranissue,forthere’snosenseofaworldinwhichtobelocated,andnosenseofaselfthathastobelocatedsomewhere.Thisishowthevariousmiddlesofthemiddleway—themiddlesofmoderationandthemiddlesofappropriateattention—preparethemindtocutthroughoneofthefinalmiddlesfacedonthepath:theissueofmovingorstayinginplace.Aslongaslocationisanissue,there’snowaythroughthemiddleofthisquestion.Themindisalwaysfacedwithchoosingonesideortheother:tostaywhereitis,ortogosomewhereelse.Thismeansthatit’salwayshavingtochooseacourseofaction.It’sstillnottotallyfree.Butwhenlocationisnolongeranissue,thequestionofwheretogoorstayiscutthroughthemiddle,andtotalreleaseisfound.

Thisiswhytheconsciousnessofthosewhoaretotallyawakenedissaidtobenowhereestablished(SN22:87)buteverywherereleased(Dhp348).Becausethisreleaseissototal,they’renolongerconcernedwithwho’sexperiencingtherelease,orwhere.Thefactofrelease,onitsown,iscompletelyenough.

PiercingaMovingTarget

It’sworthnotingthatthenumberofdiscoursesdealingexplicitlywiththemiddlenessofdependentco-arising—eight—ismorethantwiceaslargeasthethreedealingexplicitlywiththemiddlenessofthepathasawhole.Thisfactisapparentlyrelatedtothefactthattheissuesofappropriateandinappropriateattentionaremorecomplexandpresentalargernumberofpitfallsthantheissuesofmoderation.

However,what’sevenmorenoteworthyisthatthetotalnumberofbothsortsofdiscoursesissosmallwhencomparedwiththevastnumberofdiscoursesthePaliCanoncontains.TheCanonrarelydiscussestheissueofthemiddlenessofthemiddlewayatall.Thismaybebecausemanyofthoseotherdiscourses,eventhoughtheydon’texplicitlymentionthe

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middlenessoftheBuddha’spath,treatitimplicitly.Theissueofmoderation,forinstance,liesinthebackgroundofeverydiscussionofthepath,whetherdealingwithissuesofvirtueorwithissuesofconcentrationanddiscernment.Appropriateattentionliesinthebackgroundofeverydiscussioncoveringanyofthefournobletruths.

But,moreimportantly,thesmallnumberofdiscoursesdevotedexplicitlytothemiddlewaymayalsoberelatedtothefactthatonlysomuchcanbesaidaboutmiddlenessinwords.Mostoftheissuessurroundingthemiddlenessofthepathcanbesettlednotbythinkingaboutitintheabstract,butbydealingwiththedetailedupsanddownsyouencounterinyourownmind,bothasitcreatessufferingandstress,andasitdevelopsthepathtobringsufferingandstresstoanend.Thechallengeoffindingthemanymiddlesofthemiddleway—whichofteninvolvestryingtopiercethecenterofanerraticallymovingtarget—exercisesandsharpensyourdiscernmentsothatitcanfindtheendofsufferingwhereitmattersmost:notintheabstract,butinthemiddleofyourownheartandmind.

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TheArrowsofThinkingPapañca&thePathtoEndConflict

Inastrikingpieceofpoetry(Sn4:15),theBuddhaoncedescribedthesenseofsaṁvega—terrorordismay—thatinspiredhimtolookforanendtosuffering.

IwilltellofhowIexperiencedsaṁvega.Seeingpeopleflounderinglikefishinsmallpuddles,competingwithoneanother—

asIsawthis,fearcameintome.

Theworldwasentirelywithoutsubstance.Allthedirectionswereknockedoutofline.Wantingahavenformyself,Isawnothingthatwasn’tlaidclaimto.Seeingnothingintheendbutcompetition,Ifeltdiscontent.

Ratherthantryingtosolvetheproblembylookingforalargerpuddleforhimselforhisfellowfish,helookedinsidetoseewhypeoplewouldwanttobefishinthefirstplace.Whathefoundwasanarrowembeddedinhisownheart.

AndthenIsawanarrowhere,soveryhardtosee,embeddedintheheart.

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Overcomebythisarrowyouruninalldirections.Butsimplyonpullingitout

youdon’trun,youdon’tsink.

ThisarrowhasmanynamesinthePaliCanon—theoldestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings—andoneofthemispapañca.Papañcaisatypeofthinkingthatcausesconflictwithinthosewhothinkit,andleadsthemintoconflictwithpeopleoutside.

Asaword,papañcaisnotoriouslyhardtotranslate.Asonescholarhasnoted,thewordchangedmeaningsfrequentlyoverthecenturiesamongIndianBuddhists,theonlyconstantbeingthatitwasalwaysregardedassomethingnegative.ScholarstryingtodecipherwhatitmeansspecificallyinthePaliCanonhaveproposedderivingatranslationfromtheverbalrootfromwhichthewordisderived,onlytorunintotheproblemthatthereisnoobviousrootthateveryonecanagreeon.

Somehaveproposedthatpapañcaderivesfromtheroot√pad,orfoot,andsoshouldmeansomethinglike“impediment.”Somehaveproposedthatpapañcaisrelatedtotheroot√pac,meaningtocook,andsomeanssomething“cookedup”:imaginaryandsarcastic.Othershavesuggestedthatitcomesfromtheroot√pañc,orfive,andsoisareferencetothe“fiving”tendencyinsomeoftheUpanishads,whichseetheworldasevolvingthroughaprocessofmultiplyingthroughcategoriesoffive.Stillothers,notingthattheroot√pañccanalsomean“spreading”or“expansion,”havesuggestedthatpapañcashouldmean“conceptualproliferation.”It’sthroughthislastinterpretationthatthewordpapañcahasenteredthevocabularyofmodernmeditationcircles,torefertothetimeswhenmeditatorssuddenlyfindthemselvesoverrunbythoughtsrunningriot,comingthickandfast,outofcontrol.

Althoughsomeoftheseinterpretationsfitinwiththewaypapañcawasusedinothertextsinlatercenturies,noneofthemcorrespondtothewayinwhichtheBuddhaactuallyusesthewordinthePaliCanon.Hedoesn’tdescribepapañcaasanimpedimenttoprogress;hediscussesitinsteadasasourceofconflictandpain(MN18;DN21).Nordoeshedescribepapañcaassarcastic.Asfor“fiving,”theUpanishadsemploymanyothernumbersinadditiontofivetodescribetheirvarioustheoriesfortheevolutionoftheworld,andtheBuddhahimselfmakesfrequentuseoflistsoffives,sothere’snothinginherentlynon-Buddhistorwrongwith

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“fiving.”Andtheproblemwithpapañcaisnotsomuchtheamountorabundanceofthethinking,asthetypeofmentallabels—categoriesandperceptions—itemploys.ThisisapointthattheBuddhamakesoverandoveragain.Thecategoriesandperceptionsofpapañcaarewhatcauseconflict(MN18;DN22).

Soratherthantryingtounderstandthewordpapañcathroughetymology,itseemsmoreusefultounderstanditthroughthetypesofmentallabelsthatdistinguishitfromthinkingingeneral.Andonthispoint,thePaliCanonisveryclear.TheBuddhapointsoutinSn4:14—thepoemthatthecompilersoftheCanonplacedimmediatelybeforehisexplanationofhissaṁvega,quotedabove—thattherootoftheclassificationsofpapañcaistheperception,“Iamthethinker.”Inotherwords,papañcabeginswhenyourthinkingtakesyou,thethinker,asitsobject.Andaswewillsee,thisobjectrequiresotherobjectsinordertosurvive.Thisiswhy“objectification”seemstobethebesttranslationfortheword.It’sfromtreatingyourselfandtheworldaroundyouasobjects—ratherthanaseventsorprocesses—thattheperceptionscausinginnerandouterconflictderive.

TheCanoncontainsseverallistsoftheseperceptions,andineverycasestatesthattheyensnarethemindinconflictanddifficulty.Forinstance,AN4:199lists18“craving-verbalizations”thatderivefromthisperception,verbalizationsbywhichcravingensnaresthemind:

“Therebeing‘Iam,’therecomestobe‘Iamhere,’therecomestobe‘Iamlikethis’…‘Iamotherwise’…‘Iambad’…‘Iamgood’…‘Imightbe’…‘Imightbehere’…‘Imightbelikethis’…‘Imightbeotherwise’…‘MayIbe’…‘MayIbehere’…‘MayIbelikethis’…‘MayIbeotherwise’…‘Iwillbe’…‘Iwillbehere’…‘Iwillbelikethis’…‘Iwillbeotherwise.’”

MN2lists16questionsthatgrowoutofthethought,“Iam”:

“‘WasIinthepast?WasInotinthepast?WhatwasIinthepast?HowwasIinthepast?Havingbeenwhat,whatwasIinthepast?ShallIbeinthefuture?ShallInotbeinthefuture?WhatshallIbeinthefuture?HowshallIbeinthefuture?Havingbeenwhat,whatshallIbeinthefuture?’…‘AmI?AmInot?WhatamI?HowamI?Wherehasthisbeingcomefrom?Whereisitbound?’”

MN2goesontolistsixviewsthatderivedfromthesequestionsandfetterthemind:

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“Theview‘Ihaveaself’arisesinhimastrue&established,ortheview‘Ihavenoself’…ortheview‘ItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceiveself’…ortheview‘ItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceivenot-self’…ortheview‘Itispreciselybymeansofnot-selfthatIperceiveself‘arisesinhimastrue&established,orelsehehasaviewlikethis:‘Thisveryselfofmine—theknowerthatissensitivehere&theretotheripeningofgood&badactions—istheselfofminethatisconstant,everlasting,eternal,notsubjecttochange,andwillendureaslongaseternity.’”

Thesewaysofthinkingallqualifyasobjectificationbecausetheyderivetheircategories—self/not-self,existence/non-existence,here/there—fromthementallabel,“Iam.”Thefactthattheissuessurroundingthismentallabelcanmultiplysoquicklyandspreadsofargivessomecredencetotheideathatpapañcaisproliferation.However,liberatinginsightscanproliferateaswell,aswhenaninsightintooneofthecausesofsufferingleadsquicklytoinsightsintoothercausesofsuffering.Sothequestionis,whatisitaboutthethought“Iam”or“Iamthethinker”thatleadstowaysofthinkingthatcauseinnerandouterconflict?

TheanswerliesintheBuddha’sexplanationofwhatitmeanstobeabeing.Theactoftakingontheidentityofabeingisprimarilyamentalact.Inotherwords,it’sbecauseyouhavepassion,desire,delight,orcravingforsomethingthatyouidentifywithit(SN23:2).Inidentifyingwithit,youbecometiedthere.That’swhatmakesyouabeing.Yourchoiceofwhattodesiredefinesthetypeofbeingyouare.Thisprocesshappensbothonthemacrolevel—intheeventsleadingfromdeathtorebirth—andalsoonthemicrolevel,asonesenseofidentityisshedforanotheronamoment-to-momentbasisinthemind.

Forinstance,beforeyouleftyourlastbody,youidentifiedyourselfasthethinkerthatcravedcontinuedexistence.Withthedemiseofthatbody,thecravingbornoftherootofobjectification-labelsledtoyourpresentbirth(SN44:9).Yourcontinuedcravingtostayhereiswhatmaintainsyourpresentidentity.Onthemicrolevel,youidentify,inyoursearchforpleasure,withthedesiresforspecificpleasures,aswellaswiththeareasofyourawarenessthatyoucancontrol—“Iamthis”—inthesearchforthosepleasures.

Theactofassuminganidentityoneitherlevelrequireslookingforfood—bothphysicalandmental(SN12:64)—forifyoudon’tfindfoodforthatidentity,youcan’tmaintainit.Infact,theneedtosubsistonfoodistheonethingthatcharacterizesallbeings(AN10:27).Thisfactisso

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centraltotheBuddha’steachingsthatit’sthefirstiteminthecatechismmemorizedbynovicemonksandnuns.It’salsothefactthatshowswhythementallabelsofobjectificationleadtoconflict.Asabeinglookingforfood,youneedaworldtoprovideyouwiththatfood.Withoutaworldtoprovideyouwithfood,youridentityasabeingcouldn’tlast.

Fromthisobservationaboutwhatitmeanstobeabeing,theBuddhistnotionof“becoming”—asenseofidentityinaparticularworldofexperience—derives.Yoursenseofwhoyouarehastoinhabitaworldthatcanprovideforthedesiresaroundwhichyou’redefined.Thisappliesbothontheexternal,physicallevelandontheinternal,psychologicallevel.Thisiswhytheviewsandquestionsofobjectificationcovernotonlywhoyouare,butalsowhereyouare,whereyou’vecomefrom,andwhereyou’regoing.

Externally,asahumanbeingwithhumandesires,youinhabitthesamephysicalworld—thesamepuddle—asotherhumanbeings.Whenyouthinkintermsofobjectificationandlookforfoodinthehumanpuddle,youinevitablyrunintoconflictwithotherbeingsinhabitingthesamepuddlelookingforthesamesortoffood.Thinkingintermsofthecategoriesofobjectificationspawnsthedesiresthatseeyoursourcesoffoodwithinthatpuddleasdear,andanyonewhoblocksthosesourcesasnot-dear.Fromthisdistinctioncomeenvyandstinginess,hostility,violence,rivalry,andillwill(DN22).Theseattitudes,inturn,leadtotheviolenceof“takinguprods&bladedweapons,ofarguments,quarrels,disputes,accusations,divisivetale-bearing,&falsespeech”(MN18).

Asfortheinternalconflictcausedbyobjectification,whenyoufocusonaparticulardesire,onlycertainpartsoftheexternalworldarerelevant.Yourpsychologicalworldisconfiguredaroundwhateverwillfulfillyourdesire,alongwithwhatevergetsinthewayofthatfulfillment.Whenyouwantsomeicecream,you’reinterestedonlyinwhereyoucanfindicecreamandwhatevermightgetinthewayofyoureatingit.Everythingelseiseitherpassivelyignoredoractivelyblockedout.Yourcorrespondingsenseofselfisdefinedbyitsabilityorinabilitytoovercomeobstaclesandfulfillyourdesireintheworldasyoudefineit.Forinstance,ifyouwantsomeicecream,yourbodyandyourfinancialstatusarerelevant.Youlooks—unlessyouplantousethemingettingacheaperpricefortheicecream—arenot.Thisiswhywecanliveinthesameworldphysicallywithotherpeople,butentirelydifferentworldspsychologically.It’salsowhywecanchangeourinnersenseofwhoweareandwherewearefrommomenttomoment.

Iftherewereaworldthatcouldprovideallbeingswithallthefood

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theywant,objectificationmightnotbemuchofaproblem.Butourdesiresaresoinsatiablethat,astheBuddhasaid,evenifitrainedgoldcoins,itwouldn’tbeenoughtofulfillourdesires(Dhp186).ThisiswhytheconflictbetweenthefishintheBuddha’sanalogycanneverberesolvedbyfindinglargerpuddles,fornopuddlecouldprovideallthewaterwewant.Asaresult,objectificationinevitablyleadstoexternalconflict.

Internalconflictalsoinevitablyfollowsfromthethoughtthat“Iamthethinker”becausewhenyoudefineyourself,youlimityourself(SN22:36).Thismayseemcounterintuitive,forpartofyoursenseofwhoyouarerevolvesaroundtheabilitiesyoudeveloptogetpastthelimitationsstandinginthewayofgettingwhatyouwant.Butindoingso,youignorethelimitationsthatcomefromfeelingtheneedtohavedesires.Tobeginwith,youlimityourselftotheconditionofhavingtokeepfindingfood.Thatenslavesyoutotheconditionssurroundingthetypeoffoodyouwant.Ifyouwantphysicalfood,youhavetosubmittoalltheconditionsrequiredforfindingphysicalfoodandfightingoffanyonewhomightwantthesamefood.Youhavetoidentifywithaphysicalbodythathasphysicallimitations.Evenifyouaimformorerarifiedformsoffood,suchasthepleasureandrapturethatcancomefromrefinedstatesofconcentration,yourunintothefactthatconcentrationisconditionedandinevitablyends.

Iftheseweretheonlyformsofhappinessavailable,andifwecouldn’thelpbuttakeontheidentityof“being”inordertofindhappiness,we’dsimplyhavetoputupwiththeseconflictsandtokeeponfightingasbestwecan.ButtheBuddhadiscoveredanotherformofhappiness—nibbāna—thatcanbeexperiencedwhentheexperienceofthesixsensestops.Thishappinessdoesn’trequiretakingonanidentity,isnotsubjecttoconditions,istotallyfreefromhunger,andsoisfreefromconflict.It’ssounobjectifiedthatyoushouldn’tevenaskwhetheranythingisleftoverornot—orbothorneither—onceithasbeenattained(AN4:173),fortheveryconceptsof“leftover”or“notleftover”derivefromthethought,“Iamthethinker”whowouldorwouldnotbeorhaveanythingleftoverwiththeattainment.Thepersonwhoattainsnibbānanolongerhaspassion,desire,delight,orcravingforanything,andsocannotbedefinedevenasa“person”ora“being”(SN22:36).ThisiswhytheBuddhasaidthatarahants,afterdeath,can’tbedescribedasexisting,notexisting,both,orneither,forwhatevercan’tbedefinedcan’tproperlybeclassifiedinthoseterms(SN22:86).However,theunobjectifieddimensioncanbedescribedastheultimatehappiness(Dhp203).Inotherwords,notonlyisittotallyfreeofsufferingandstress,butaftertheexperienceofit,youcan

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alsocomebacktotheworldofthesixsensesandtalkaboutit.That’sthedimensioninwhichallconflictends.

Obviously,touchingthatdimensionrequiresthatyouabandonobjectification,andinparticulartheformsofobjectificationthatwouldstandinthewayoffollowingthepathtotheendofobjectification.Forinstance,ifyoudefineyourselfasbad,there’snowayyoucanhelpyourselfoutofthepredicamentofyoursuffering.Youwouldneedoutsidehelptoovercomeyourinherentbadness.If,toavoidthatproblem,youchoosetodefineyourselfasinherentlygood,youalsorunintoaproblem:Ifyou’reinherentlygood,howdidthatgoodnessallowyoutosuccumbtopressurestobehaveinunskillfulwaysleadingtosuffering?Andifinherentgoodnessissomethingthatcanbelost,what’stopreventyoufromlosingitagainafteryou’vereclaimedit?

Soanecessaryskillinthepathtotruehappinessislearningstep-by-stephowtothinkinawaythatavoidsthecategoriesofobjectification.Thatrequiresaradicalshiftfromthewaypeopleandreligionsordinarilythink.Tobeginwith,itwouldmeanthinkingaboutexperiencewithoutan“Iam”imposedonit,withoutanyreferencetowhatobjectsmightliebehindexperience,eitherintheworld“outthere”ortheexperiencer“inhere.”Instead,youwouldhavetolookdirectlyattheprocessesofexperiencesimplyasprocesses,explainingthemonlyintermsofotherprocessesthatcanbedirectlyexperienced.

Modernphilosophyhasatermforthinkinginthisway:radicalphenomenology.Theterm“phenomenology”isalittledaunting,butyouprobablyhadyourfirsttasteofwhatitreferstowhenyouweresmall.Atsometimeduringchildhoodyouprobablystoppedtowonderwhetheryourexperienceofblueisthesameasanotherperson’sexperienceofblue.Youandotherpeoplecanpointtoanobjectandagreethatit’sblue,butyoucan’tgetintotheirexperiencetoseeifbluelooksthesametothemasitdoestoyou.Similarly,theycan’tcheckyourexperienceofbluetocompareitwiththeirs.Andneitherofyoucangetoutsideyourexperiencetoseewhattheblueobject“really”lookslike.Yousimplyhavetoacceptyoursenseofblueasthephenomenonitisandleaveitatthat.That’sphenomenology.Informalterms,it’stheanalysisofhowexperienceisdirectlyexperiencedasphenomena,withoutgettinginvolvedwiththequestionsofwhetherthereisaworld“outthere”oraself“inhere”lyingbehindthosephenomena.Itlooksatexperience“fromtheinside,”whilemakingthefewestpossibleassumptionsaboutwhatliesoutsideorbehindit.

Thissortofanalysiswouldbesomethingofanidleissue—howyou

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experienceblueisrarelyaproblem—ifitwerenotforthefactthatpainandsufferingarealsophenomena,anddefinitelyareaproblem.Andit’srightherethattheBuddhafocusedhisattention.Hediscoveredthatifyouadoptthephenomenologicalapproachtotheproblemofsuffering,youcanbringsufferingtoanend.Thisiswherehisteachingdiffersfrommodernphenomenology.Hedoesn’tadoptthisperspectivesimplyforthesakeofanalyzingordescribingtheexperienceofphenomena.Heputsthisperspectivetouse,manipulatingfactorsdirectlypresenttoexperiencetoprovideatotalcurefortheprimaryproblemofdirectexperience:sufferingandstress.

TheBuddhahadtwonamesforthetypeofthinkingthatadoptsthisnon-objectifiedperspective.Oneisdependentco-arising(paṭiccasamuppāda):asequenceoffactors,allofwhichcanbedirectlyexperienced,leadingtotheexperienceofsuffering.Thenatureofthissequenceisthatthefactorsthemselvescanbeusedtoturnthesequenceintothepathtotheendofsuffering,atwhichpointtheyalldisband.Thecausalprinciplethatunderliesbothsidesoftheprocess—thecausationofsufferingandthecessationofsuffering—theBuddhacalled,this/thatconditionality(idappaccayatā).Thisnamefocusesonthefactthatalltheconditionsintheprocessareeventsthataredirectlyapparenttoawarenessas“this”or“that.”Youdon’thavetoexplainthecausalsequencebyassuminganythinglyingbehindwhatcanbedirectlyexperienced:eitheraworld“outthere”oraself“inhere.”Everythinginthesequencecanbeexplained—andmanipulated—bywhat’srightthereinthesequence.

Toadoptthissortofperspective,though,themindneedstobeprepared.That’swhytheBuddhadidn’tteachdependentco-arisingtorankbeginnersonthepath.Instead,hefirsttaughtthemhowtousethecategoriesofobjectificationinaskillfulwaythatwouldpreparethemforstagewhentheynolongerneededtothinkinthoseterms.

Inotherwords,objectificationisnotalwaysanegativething.Althoughitinevitablyleadstosomelevelofconflict,thatconflictissometimesstrategicallynecessaryasyoupracticefortheendofsuffering.Ontheoutsidelevel,thereareboundtobepeoplewhowilltrytopreventyoufromfollowingthepath.Youneedastrongsenseofyourselftomaintainasenseofpurposeinthefaceofwhateverobstaclestheymayplaceinyourway.

Similarly,ontheinsidelevel,someformsofobjectificationarehelpfulasskillfulurgesdobattlewithunskillfulurgesinthemind.Tobeginwith,healthyobjectificationcanhelpfightoffanyemotionsthatthreatentopullyouoffthepath.Ifyoufeeldiscouragedinyourpractice,youcanuse

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thethoughtofwhatyouareandwhatyou’recapableofdoingtogiveyourselfencouragement:“Otherpeoplecangainawakening.Thenwhynotme?”(AN4:159)Ifyoufeeltemptedtoabandonthepath,youcanusethethoughtofwhatyouare—andwhatyouwillbecomeifyougobacktoyouroldways,orworse—toremindyourselfofthesufferingsyou’llfaceifyougiveup.Youcanalsousethethoughtofwhatyouaretoremindyouoftheloveandconcernforyourselfthatinspiredyoutopracticeinthefirstplace(AN3:40).

TheBuddhaalsorecommendsusingobjectificationtobecomewhathecallsapersonwithasenseofyourself(attaññū):theabilitytogaugehowfaryou’vecomeindevelopingqualitiesneededonthepath—suchasconviction,virtue,learning,generosity,discernment,andquick-wittedness—sothatyoucanbuildonyourstrengthsandfocusyourenergiesontheareaswhereyou’restilllacking(AN7:64).

However,thetypeofobjectificationthattheBuddhamostfrequentlyadvisesasapartofthepathisderivedfromtheteachingonrebirth.Ifyouadoptrebirthandthepowerofactionstoinfluencerebirthasaworkinghypotheses,itgivesyouausefulperspectiveonthechoicesyouarealwaysmaking.Asyouthinkaboutthepossibilitiesofwhereyoumayhavebeenasyou’vegonethroughlifeafterlifeofstressandsuffering,andofhowmuchsufferingyou’llfaceifyoudon’ttakeonthepathofskillfulactionleadingtorelease,you’remuchmorelikelytoembarkontheskillfulpathandtostickwithit(MN60).Also,reflectingontheuniversalityoflong-termsufferinghelpstoinducethelevelofsaṁveganeededtogiveintensitytoyourpractice(AN5:57).

ThereisevenadiscoursewheretheBuddhausesthissortofreflectiontobringthirtymonkstofullawakening,remindingthemthat—intheirmanypreviousbirthsascommonanimalsandhumanbeingscaughtbreakingthelaw—theyhavelostmorebloodfromhavingtheirheadscutoffthanthereiswaterinalltheoceans(SN15:13).Thiswasaneffectiveuseofobjectificationtogetthemonkstoseethedrawbacksofobjectificationsothattheywouldabandontheobjectificationthatwouldleadtofurtherrebirth.

Inmostcases,though,theBuddharecommendedusingobjectificationprimarilyintheearlystagesofthepath,andtodeveloptypesofthinkingthatavoidthecategoriesofobjectificationonahigherstageofthepractice.

ThispatternfollowstheBuddha’sownpracticeonthenightofhisawakening.Thefirstknowledgehegainedthatnightwasananswerto

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questionsofobjectification:Washeinthepast?Whatwasheinthepast?Wherehadhecomefrom?Pursuingthesequestionsintheclarityofhisconcentratedmind,hegainedknowledgeofhispreviousbirths.Thesecondknowledgehegainedthatnight,dealingintermsofbeingsdyingfromandbeingreborntovariousworldsthroughoutthecosmos,wasalsoaformofobjectification.However,thethirdknowledgehegainedthatnight—theknowledgethatledtofullawakening—abandonedthetermsofobjectification.Thisknowledgecametohimafterhereflectedontheenormoussufferingsofcontinualrebirthandredeaththathehadseeninhissecondknowledge,andsawaneedtogainescapefromthem.Inthecourseoflookingforthatescape,hebegantodropthecategoriesofobjectificationandlookedatbirthanddeathsimplyasprocesses,withoutregardtowhotheywerehappeningtoorwhere.Thisenabledhimtotracethecauseofbirthanddeathtoeventsappearingdirectlytohisawarenessinthepresent(SN12:10).That’swhenhewasabletoabandontheignoranceunderlyingthoseevents,andsogainrelease.

Dependentco-arisingisadescriptionofthelineofthoughtandinvestigationtheBuddhafollowedingoingfromthesecondtothethirdknowledgethatnight.Althoughevenarudimentaryexplanationofdependentco-arisingwouldrequireatleastabook,forourpurposesherewecansimplylookatthelistoffactorsinthesequence.Inforwardordertheyare:ignorance,fabrication,consciousness,name-and-form,thesixsensemedia,contact,feeling,craving,clinging,becoming,birth,andthenallthesufferingsthatfollowonbirth,suchasaging,death,andgrief.What’sstrikingaboutthissequenceisthatnoneofthefactors,evenintheirdetailedexplanations(SN12:2),dealintermsof“Iam,”suchas“mybirth”or“mycraving.”Andtheterm“being”doesn’tappearuntiltheendofthesequence,intheexplanationofthefactorofbirth.

Thismeansthatthesequenceofdependentco-arisingisexpressedintermsthatsidestepthecategoriesofobjectification.However,thesequencecanbeusedtoexplainhowthosecategoriesarise.AsSn4:11pointsout,thecategoriesofobjectificationcomefromtheactivityofperception.Extendedexplanationsofdependentco-arisingintheCanonshowthatperceptionsplayaroleattwopointsinthesequence:priortosensorycontact,inthefactoroffabrication(SN12:2);andaftersensorycontact,followingonfeeling(MN18).Iftheseperceptionsareconditionedbyignorance,theycanbeprimedtoreadasenseof“Iamthethinker”intosensorycontactevenbeforethatcontacthappens;andtheycanfeedonwhateverfeelingthatcontactgivesriseto,toengendertheviewsandverbalizationsthatcausethecategoriesofobjectificationto

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ensnarethemevenfurther.It’sbecauseofthesefeedbackloops—whereonefactorconditionsafactorthatinturnconditionsit—thatdependentco-arisingneedsnooutsidehelptokeepongoingindefinitely.Thefactorsaremutuallysustaining.

However,thisfactcanalsobeusedtoenddependentco-arisingfromwithin.Iftheignoranceunderlyingdependentco-arisingisreplacedwithknowledgeofdependentco-arisingitself,itsfactorsturnintofactorsofthepath.Theactsofattentionandintention,whichcomeundername-and-form,canbeusedtodirectperceptionsawayfromobjectification,andinthiswaythesequencethatordinarilyleadstobecomingandsufferingbreaksdown.Thesenseofbeingabeingisabandoned,andasenseoftheworldisnolongerneededtoprovidefood.

Ultimately,eventheprocessesofdependentco-arisingandthis/thisconditionalityhavetobeabandoned.Afterall,theyaren’tthegoalitself.Theysimplyformapathtoagoal.Totalfreedomfromobjectificationcomesonlywhenallprocessescometoanend(MN18).Butlearninghowtothinkintermsofprocessesisthemosteffectivewaytoreachthatunobjectifiedfreedom.

Becausethehabitsofobjectificationaredeeplyingrainedineverydaythinking,theactoflearninghowtothinkintermsofprocessesgoesagainstthegrain.We’resousedtotakingontheroleofbeingsandlookingforfoodthatit’shardtobreakoutofthepattern.ThisiswhypeopleeversincethetimeoftheBuddhahavetriedtofitdependentco-arisingintotheclassificationsofobjectification.Toallowthis,though,wouldhavemadetheteachingofdependentco-arisingineffective,sotheBuddhaconsistentlyfoughtoffanyattemptstoplacedependentco-arisingintothecontextofthoseclassificationswhilehewasalive.

Onediscourse(SN12:12)tellsofamonkwhowantedtoreadanagentintothesequence,askingforeachfactorofthesequence,“Whoisdoingthis?”Forexample,whentheBuddhasaidthatfeelingleadstocraving,themonkasked,“Whocraves?”TheBuddharespondedthathehadn’tsaid,“craves,”andsothequestion,“Whocraves?”isinvalid.Theappropriatequestionis:“Fromwhatasarequisiteconditioncomescraving?”Theansweris,“feeling.”Andsoondowntheline.

Anotherdiscourse(SN12:35)tellsofamonkwhowantedtopursuethequestionofwhethertherewassomeonetowhomthefactorsofsequencewerehappening.Heasked,forexample,“Whichisthecraving,lord,andwhoseisthecraving?”Again,theBuddhasaidthatthequestionwasinvalid,butthenhewentfurther,sayingthatthisquestionwas

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anotherwayofaskingaquestionthatheconsistentlyputaside:“Isthesoulthesameasthebody,oristhesoulonethingandthebodyanother?”Inotherwords,istheresomethingthatpossessesthebody(orthecraving,oranyotherofthefactors),oristherenot?Thesesortsofquestions,theBuddhasaid,wouldmakeitimpossibletopracticetheholylife.Hedidn’texplainwhy,butthereasonisfairlyclear:Bytryingtolookbehindthesequenceandtoengageinquestionsusingthecategoriesofobjectification,youarenotlookingrightatthefactorsofthesequence.You’retryingtopeekaroundthem.Onlybylookingdirectlyatthosefactors,andbyengaginginthemdirectly,canyouputanendtothemandbringabouttheendofsuffering.

Theattemptstoreadthecategoriesofobjectificationintodependentco-arisingdidn’tstopaftertheBuddhapassedaway.Intheensuingcenturies,manyBuddhistphilosophersgotintoalong-standingdebateoverthetimeframeinwhichthefactorshappen:Dotheyallhappeninaninstant?Aretheyspreadovertimeinasinglelifetime?Oraretheyspreadovermorethanonelifetime?Toaskthesequestions,though,istotrytoplacethesequenceofdependentco-arisingintotheframeworkoftheworldsintowhichbeingsareborn.Thesequenceitself,however,makesnoreferencetotimeframe,andsocouldbeappliedtoanytimeframe.Infact,itexplainshowtimeframesarecreatedascategoriesofthought,andhowtogainfreedomfromtheconstraintsoftimeandotherdimensionsoftheworld(Iti63).

Similarly,whentheideatookholdthattheBuddha’steachingonnot-selfwasactuallyateachingonnoself—thatthereisnoself—dependentco-arisingwaspressedintoserviceasawayofexplaininghowexperiencecanhappenintheabsenceofaself.Thistoo,however,wasanimpositionofthecategoriesofobjectificationondependentco-arising.AsMN2pointsout,thebelief“Ihavenoself”isjustasmuchafetterasthebelief“Ihaveaself.”Bothbeliefsqualifyasformsofobjectificationbecausetheyanswerquestionsthatderivefromthecategoriesofobjectification:“AmI?AmInot?”Onlyifyouabandontheseissuesentirely,andfocusinsteaddirectlyonthefactorsofdependentco-arisingastheyareimmediatelyapparent,canyouavoidtheinnerandouterconflictsthatcomewithobjectification.

Thetendencytoreadthecategoriesofobjectificationintodependentco-arisingcontinuestothepresentday.Modern-daymaterialists—whorejecttheideathatthereisaselforsoulinthebody,andprefertoexplainmentaleventsasmereside-effectsofbiochemicalprocesses—interpretdependentco-arising,withitslackofreferencetoaself,ascompatible

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withtheirideas.This,however,ignoresthehugegulfthatseparatesthefactorsofdependentco-arisingfromthoseofamaterialistviewoftheworld.

Tobeginwith,thematerialistviewdealsinthecategoriesofobjectification.Itidentifiesapersonasabeingexistinginaparticularworld.Ittakesthephysicalworld“outthere”asreal,andregardstheprocessesofthebodythatcanbemeasuredbypeopleorinstruments“outthere”astherealcausesforwhatisdirectlyexperiencedtoawareness.Asforeventsastheyaredirectlyexperiencedtoawareness,thematerialistviewrelegatesthemtoapurelysubjectiverealm,inwhichtheideaofcausationfromwithinawarenessisregardedaspurelyillusory.Youmaythinkthatyou’rechoosingonecourseofactionoveranother,forinstance,butthechoicewasactuallydeterminedbythechemistryinyourbody.Whatyouactuallyareislimitedtowhatpeopleoutside,alongwiththeirinstruments,canmeasure.IntermsofanolddebatefromtheBuddha’stime,materialismmaintainsthatthesoulisthesamethingasthebody.Whenthebodydies,that’sit.

Whatthismeansisthat—unlikephenomenology,whichlooksatexperiencefromtheinside—materialismlooksatitfromtheoutsideandholdsasrealonlytheaspectsofconsciousnessthatcanbeexplainedfromtheoutside.Thisputsmaterialistsinapeculiarposition.Ontheonehand,becausetheyholdthatconsciousnessissimplytheby-productofchemicalprocesses,theycallintoquestiontheideathatconsciousnesscanhaveanaccurateviewoftheworldoutside,for—afterall—howcantheoccurrenceofachemicalprocessguaranteethatitconveystrueknowledgeofanything?Yet,ontheotherhand,theyclaimthattheirknowledgeofthosechemicalprocessesisaprovenfact.Wheredoesthisknowledgecomefrom,ifnotfromtheworldoutsidetheirconsciousness?Andwhentheyconveythisknowledgetousintheirwritings,whathasitcomethroughifnotthroughtheirconsciousness,whoserealityandabilitytoknowtheyhavecalledintoquestion?

Dependentco-arising,however,takesaverydifferentapproach.Insteadoftakingastandonwhetherthesoulisthesameasthebodyordifferentfromthebody,itexplainsexperienceintermsofprocesses“righthere.”Forinstance,itseestheexperienceoftheworld“outthere”—whichtheBuddhaequateswiththeprocessesofthesixsensespheres(SN35:82)—astheresultofmentalprocessessuchasignoranceandfabricationastheyareimmediatelyexperienced.Andasfortheexperienceofthematerialbody,dependentco-arisingshowshowthat,too,dependsonmentalprocesses.Eventhebirthofthisbody,itdescribesinnon-

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objectifiedform,notasrequiringasoulindependentofthebody,butastheresultofactsofcravingandclinging,whichfeedactsofconsciousnessatthesametimetheyfeedoffactsofconsciousness,astheypassfromtheexperienceofonelife“righthere”inconsciousnesstotheexperienceofthenextlife(SN44:9),also“righthere.”

Inotherwords,fromthepointofviewofdependentco-arising,consciousnessisnotmerelytheresultofphysicalprocesses.It’swhatallowstheexperienceofphysicalprocessestooccur.Atthesametime,thecravingandclingingdependentonactsofconsciousnessarewhatallowforactsofconsciousnesstoexperiencethoseprocessesinanewbodyafteranoldbodydies.

What’smore,dependentco-arisingfocusesprimaryattentiononaproblemthatcannotbedetectedbypeopleorinstruments“outthere”:namely,theproblemofsuffering.Nooneoutsidecandetectyourmentalpain.Theymayknowthatcertainphysicalprocessesareaccompaniedbypain,butonlyifyoureportthepaintothem.Theactualpainisaphenomenologicalissue.

Atthesametime,dependentco-arisingtreatssufferingasaproblemthatcanbecuredinaphenomenologicalway:notthroughthemanipulationofbiochemicalprocesses,whichcan’tbedirectlyexperienced—youcan’tdetectfromtheinsidewhichchemicalsarecombininginyourbrain—butthroughmentalfactorssuchasintention,attention,andperception,whichcanbedirectlydetected,orastheBuddhasaysinMN18,“delineated”asstepsinaprocess.Thisisafactofgreatconsequence.Themainproblemofexperience—thesufferingthatcomesfromcraving,clinging,becoming,andbirthintooneconfiningpuddleafteranother—iscausedbyfactorsdirectlypresenttoexperience,andcanalsobesolvedbyfactorsdirectlypresenttoexperience,withouthavingtolookoutsideofdirectexperiencetomaterialornon-materialcauseshiddenbehindit.

Thisiswhythebest-knownanthologyoftheBuddha’spoetry—theDhammapada—beginswiththeselines:

Phenomenaareprecededbytheheart,ruledbytheheart,madeoftheheart.

It’srightattheheart—rightatawareness—wherethecausesandsolutionstothearrowofsufferingcanbefound.Animportantpartofthe

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solutionistorecognizethatthecategoriesandperceptionsofobjectificationareamajorcauseofsufferingincausinginternalandexternalconflict.Althoughthesecategoriesandperceptionsmayhavetheiruses,theyultimatelyhavetobedropped.Andthebestwaytodropthemistoviewthemfromaperspectivethatcanwatchtheminaction,asprocesses,withoutadoptingthem.Toviewtheminthiswaygivesrisetodispassionforthem,andthroughdispassiontheyend.That’stheroleplayedbydependentco-arising.Itsperspectiveforcesaradicalreorientationofhowtolookatexperience—alessonthatwashardtolearnintheBuddha’sday,andisstillhardtolearntoday.Butthebenefitsthatcancomefromlearningit—inawaythatbringstotalfreedomfromsuffering—morethanrepayanydifficultiesinvolved.

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Glossary

Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Pāliform:Ācariya.

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeofdefilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.AtitlefortheBuddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.

Brahman:Amemberofthepriestlycaste,whichclaimedtobethehighestcasteinIndia,basedonbirth.InaspecificallyBuddhistusage,“brahman”canalsomeananarahant,conveyingthepointthatexcellenceisbasednotonbirthorrace,butonthequalitiesattainedinthemind.

Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mentalquality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassagesdescribingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Whencapitalizedinthisbook,Dhammameansteaching.Sanskritform:Dharma.

Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentration,devoidofsensualityorunskillfulthoughts,focusedonasinglephysicalsensationormentalnotionwhichisthenexpandedtofillthewholerangeofone’sawareness.Jhānaissynonymouswithrightconcentration,theeighthfactorinthenobleeightfoldpath.Sanskritform:Dhyāna.

Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.

Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthistermalsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbāna”insomecontextsdenotestheexperienceofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskritform:Nirvāṇa.

Pāli:ThelanguageoftheoldestextantcompleteCanonoftheBuddha’steachings.

Pāṭimokkha:Thebasiccodeofrulesformonksandnuns.Themonks’code

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contains227rules;thenuns’,311.

Saṁvega:Asenseofoverwhelmingterrorordismayoverthepointlessnessoflifeasitisnormallylived.

Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthecommunitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Ontheideal(ariya)level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohaveattainedatleaststream-entry.

Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sūtra.

Tathāgata:Literally,“onewhohasbecomeauthentic(tatha-āgata),”or“onewhoisreallygone(tatha-gata),”anepithetusedinancientIndiaforapersonwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InthePaliCanon,thisusuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhisarahantdisciples.

Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesixvolumesinprintedtext.

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Abbreviations

ReferencesaretotextsfromthePaliCanon:

AN AnguttaraNikayaDhp DhammapadaDN DighaNikayaIti ItivuttakaMN MajjhimaNikayaSN SaṁyuttaNikāyaSn SuttaNipataUd Udana

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Acknowledgements 4BeyondAllDirections 5Readings 11

LostinQuotation 18AnAll-aroundEye 24MettaMeansGoodwill 30OnDenyingDefilement 36VirtueWithoutAttachment 43TheLimitsoftheUnlimitedAttitudes 50TheEssenceoftheDhamma 60TheMiddlesoftheMiddleWay 68TwoTypesofMiddle 69TheMiddlesofModeration 70Moderation&Concentration 71Discernment&Moderation 72TheMiddlesofAppropriateAttention 74QuestionsofBecoming 75TwoStagesofDiscernment 77ReleasedfromLocation 79PiercingaMovingTarget 79

TheArrowsofThinking 81Glossary 96Abbreviations 98

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