Better.English.Pronunciation1. Better.English.Pronunciation

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This is the new edition of a highly successful and widely-usedtext onpronunciation. It provides a systematic and thoroughintroduction to thepronunciation of English to help intermediateand more advanced studentsimprovetheirproductionofthespokenlanguage.

Afterashortintroductiontopronunciationproblemstheauthorexplainshowthespeechorganswork;hethendealswitheachsoundseparatelybeforedealingwithwords in combination,rhythm-patterns and intonation.Practicematerial isgivenatintervals throughoutthebook.Theparticulardifficultiesof thespeakersof certain other languages arc noted, and remedialexercises provided. Arecordingofallthepracticematerialinthebookisavailableoncassettes.

\ . . canquite safelybe said tobe themost effective [book] everwritten tohelptheordinarylearnertoimprovehispronunciation.’

J.WindsorLewisinTheTinesEducationalSupplementThecompletecourseconsistsof:BookSetof2cassettesISBND-521-231S2-3CambridgeUNIVERSITYPRESS

9780521231527

BetterEnglishPronunciationSecondeditionJ.D.O’ConnorProfessorofPhoneticsintheUniversityofLondon

#oo«ooto«o@o»ooo®etc.:?«©•008-^00oeo-io^o#co&oooBRITISHCOUNCILMOSCOWIPCambridgeUNIVERSITYPRESSPUBLISHEDBYTHE PRESS SYNDICATEOF THEUNIVERSITYOF

CAMBRIDGEThePittBuilding,TrumpmgtonStreet,CambridgeCB2irp,UnitedKingdomCAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESSThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, United Kingdom40West

20th Street, New York, ny iooii 4211, USA10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh,Melbourne3166,Australia

©CambridgeUniversityPress1967,1980ThisbookisincopyrightSubjecttostatutoryexceptionandtotheprovisions

ofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewrittenpermissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.

Firstpublished1967Secondedition1980Twentiethprinting1998PrintedintheUnitedKingdomattheUniversityPress,CambridgeAcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibraryLibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdataO’Connor,JosephDesmondBetterEnglishpronunciation.2nded1EnglishlanguageTextbooksforforeigners2EnglishlanguagePronunciationITitleII.Series428'1pei1287941438isbn0521231523Paperbackisbn0521281342Lowpricededitionisbno521263492Setof2cassettes

ContentsAcknowledgementsviiForewordtothesecondeditionix1Problemsinpronunciation11.1Introduction11.2‘Lendmeyourears*31.3WhichEnglish?51.4Thebasicsounds61.5Lettersandsounds71.6Soundsandsound-groups91.7Wordsandutterances11

1.8Exercises122HowthespeechorgansworkinEnglish2.1Thevocalcords132.2Thepalate152.3Theteeth172.4Thetongue172.5Thelips212.6Exercises223TheconsonantsofEnglish243.1Frictionconsonants:/f,v,0,d,s,z,J,3,h/3.2Stopconsonants:/p,b,t,d,k,g,tj,d3/3.3Nasalconsonants:/m,n,q/483.4Lateralconsonant:/I/533.5Glidingconsonants:/j,w,r7573.6Exercises634Consonantsequences644.1Initialsequences644.2Finalsequences67Contents4.3Longerconsonantsequences764.4Exercises785ThevowelsofEnglish795.1Simplevowels/i:,1,e,ae,a,a:,d,d:,u,u:,3:,0/5.2Diphthongs/ou,au,ei,ai,di,ia,ea,ua/845.3Vowelsequences875.4Exercises88

796Wordsincompany906.1Wordgroupsandstress906.2Stressedandunstressedsyllables916.3Weakformsofwords926.4Theuseofstrongforms956.5Rhythmunits956.6Fluency1006.7Changingwordshapes1026.8Exercises1057Intonation1087.1Tuneshapes109

7.2Thefallingtune-theGlide-Downhi7.3Thefirstrisingtune-theGlide-Up1147.4Thesecondrisingtune-theTake-Off1167.5Thefalling-risingtune-theDive1177.6Howtousethetunes1207.7Exercises125Conversationalpassagesforpractice128Answerstoexercises134Appendix 1 The difficulties of English pronunciation for speakers of

Arabic,Cantonese,French,German,HindiandSpanish138Appendix2Usefulmaterialsforfurtherstudy147Glossary149IAcknowledgementsEverywriterofatextbookowesadebttohispredecessors,tohisteachers,to

hiscolleaguesandtohispupils;Igratefullyacknowledgemydeepindebtednesstoallofthese.InadditionIwishtoexpressparticularthankstoMrsM.ChanofHong Kong, Miss Afaf M. E.Elmenoufi of Cairo and Dr R. K. Bansal ofHyderabad for verykindly helping me with regard to the pronunciationdifficulties ofCantonese, Arabic andHindi speakers respectively. Last, but farfromleast,myvery sincere thanks go tomy friendsPaulineSpeller,whotypedthewhole of a by nomeans easymanuscript and did it admirably,andDennisSpeller,whodrewformetheoriginalillustrations.

The responsibility for the book ismine; any credit I happily sharewith allthosementionedabove.

J.D.o’c.

ForewordtothesecondeditionSincethisbookwasfirstpublished,in1967,myattentionhasbeendrawnby

usersofit tovariouserrorsandomissions,andsuggestionshavebeenmadeforimproving itsusefulness. In this secondedition Ihavenowremedied theerrors

andomissions and Ihaveadopted thosesuggestionswhich I think improve thebook.ToallthosereaderswhowerekindenoughtowritetomeonthesemattersIoffermysincerethanks.

Myoldreaderswillnodoubtconsiderthegreatestchangeinthiseditiontobethe use of a different phonetic transcription, and I agree.The reason why Idecided tochange the transcription is this:when thebookwas firstpublished IusedthetranscriptionofDanielJones’sEnglishPronouncingDictionary(Dent),which I considered to be the bestguide to English pronunciation for foreignlearners (as I still do). Thepresent editor of the dictionary, A. C. Gimson,decided,rightlyinmyopinion,tochangehistranscriptionforthe14theditionof1977- Thismeant that my transcription no longer corresponded to any ofthosefoundinthemajordictionariescommonlyusedbyforeignlearners.

IhavenowrectifiedthisquiteunacceptablesituationbyadoptingtheGimsontranscription which is also used in the Longman Dictionary ofContemporaryEnglish(1978)and'theOxfordAdvancedLearnersDictionaryofCurrentEnglish(4thedition1980).

TherehaveoftenbeenunderstandablecomplaintsfromstudentsthatdifferentwritersonEnglishpronunciationuseddifferenttranscriptions.Itseemstomethatthere isat leastamovement towardsusingastandard transcription,namely, theonenowusedinthisbook,andthisisawhollywelcomedevelopment.

ThenewtranscriptiondiffersfromtheoldonlyinthematterofsymbolsfortheEnglishvowels,andfortheconvenienceofoldreadersIlistbotholdandnewformsbelow:

OldformKeywordNewformi:feeli:ifill1efelleIXForewordd: fall d:u full uu: fool u:ei fail eiou foal auai file aiau fowl auDi foil DIae cat aeD cot D

A cut Aa: curt 31a: cart a:ia tier 13ca tear eaua tour uaa banana aVowelswhichwerepreviouslydifferentiatedonlybythelengthmark(:)are

nowdistinguishedbothbythelengthmarkandbyletter-shape,e.g.Thismakesforeasiervisualrecognitionandunderlinesthe

factthatthepairsofvowelsdiffernotonlyinlengthbutalsoinquality.Arecordingofallthepracticematerialisavailableoncassettes.Thesymbol

^Jinthetextindicatesexactlywhatisrecorded.The book has been entirely re-designed and re-set, and the diagramshave

beenre-drawn;forthisandmuchotherhelpmythanksareduetotheCambridgeUniversityPress.

IhopethatmybookwillcontinuetoserveausefulpurposeforbothteachersandlearnersofEnglishinhelpingthemtowardsabetterEnglishpronunciation.

x1Problemsinpronunciationeco«r^O®Of**“OO'•c.oo:.o<*»'•ft2-2'iBPIVor.r1.1IntroductionThepurposeofthisbookisverysimple:tohelpyou,thereader,topronounce

English better than you do now. Millions of foreign studentswant to learnEnglishaswellastheycan;forsomeitisonlyamatterofreadingandwritingit,and they will find no help here. But manystudents want to be able to speakEnglishwell,withapronunciationwhichcanbeeasilyunderstoodbothbytheirfellow-students and byEnglish people, and it is for them that this book isspeciallyintended.

Written English and spoken English are obviously very differentthings.Writingconsistsofmarksonpaperwhichmakenonoiseandaretakeninbytheeye,whilst speaking is organized sound, taken in bythe ear.How can a book,which isnothingbutmarksonpaper,helpanyone tomake theirEnglish sound

better?Theanswertothisisthatitcan’t,notbyitself.Butifyouwillco-operate,and listen toEnglishasmuchasyoucan,along the lines that Ishallsuggest toyou, then youwill find that the instructions given in the following pages willmakeyourearssharperforthesoundofEnglishandwhenyoucanhearEnglishproperlyyoucangoonandimproveyourperformance.

Languagestartswiththeear.Whenababystartstotalkhedoesitbyhearingthesoundshismothermakesandimitatingthem.Ifababyisborndeafhecannothear these sounds and therefore cannot imitatethem and will not speak. Butnormal babies can hear and can imitate;they arewonderful imitators, and thisgiftofimitation,whichgivesusthegiftofspeech,lastsforanumberofyears.Itiswellknownthatachildoftenyearsoldorlesscanlearnanylanguageperfectly,if it isbrought up surroundedby that language, nomatterwhere itwas bornorwho itsparentswere.Butafter thisage theability to imitateperfectlybecomesless,andweallknowonlytoowellthatadultshavegreatdifficultyinmasteringthepronunciation(aswellasotherparts)offoreignlanguages.Somepeoplearemore talented than others; theyfind pronouncing other languages less difficult,buttheyneverfindthemeasy.Whyisthis?Whyshouldthisgiftthatweallhaveas

Ichildren disappear in later life? Why can’t grown-up people pick up

thecharacteristicsoundofaforeignlanguageasachildcan?Theanswertothisisthatournativelanguagewon’tletus.Bythetimeweare

grownupthehabitsofourownlanguagearesostrongthattheyareverydifficultto break. In our own language we have afairly small number of sound-unitswhich we put together in manydifferent combinations to form the words andsentencesweuseeveryday.Andaswegetolderwearedominatedbythissmallnumberofunits.Itisasifwehadinourheadsacertainfixednumberofboxesforsounds;whenwe listen toourownlanguagewehear thesoundsandweputeachintotherightbox,andwhenwespeakwegototheboxesandtakeoutthesoundswewantintheorderwewantthem.Andaswedothisovertheyearstheboxesgetstrongerandstrongeruntilevery-thingwehear,whetheritisourownlanguageoranother,hastobeputintooneoftheseboxes,andeverythingwesaycomesoutofoneofthem.Buteverylanguagehasadifferentnumberofboxes,and theboxes are arranged differently. For example, three of our Englishboxescontainthesoundsatthebeginningofthewordsfin,thinandsin,thatis,/th(thisisonesound,ofcourse)and5.Likethis:

Now,manyotherlanguageshaveboxeswhicharesimilartotheEnglishones

for/ and 5, but they do not have a special box for theth-sound. And we canpicturethisinthefollowingway:

WhentheforeignlistenerhearstheEnglishth-soundhehastoputitinoneofhisownboxes,hishabitsforcehimtodoso,andhehasnospecialthbox,soheputsitintoeitherthe/boxorthesbox:

Inotherwords,he‘hears’theth-soundaseither/or5;afunny/orafunnys,nodoubt,buthehasnowhereelsetoputit.Andinspeakingthesamethinghappens:if he has to say thin, he has no th box to go toso he goes to the nearest boxavailabletohim,eithertheforthe5,and

2Introductionhesayseitherfinorsin(oritmaybetin,ifhehasatboxinhislanguage).Themain problem of English pronunciation is to build a new set ofboxes

correspondingtothesoundsofEnglish,andtobreakdowntherarrangementofboxeswhichthehabitsofournative languagehavesostronglybuiltup.Wedothisbyestablishingnewwaysofhearing,newwaysofusingourspeechorgans,newspeechhabits.

Thismaysoundeasy,butit isn’t.Unfortunately,it isnevereasytoestablishgoodhabits, it isalways thebadoneswhichcomemostnaturally,andyouwillneedtodoagreatdealofhardworkifyouwanttobuildyourselfasetofEnglishboxeswhicharenearlyasfirmasthoseofyourownlanguage.Anyonewhosaysthat you can get a goodEnglish pronunciation without hard work is talkingrubbish,unlessyouhappentobeoneoftheverysmallnumberofluckypeopletowhompronunciationcomesfairlyeasily.Mostofusneedtoworkhardatit,andthis book is for people who are prepared to work hard. If you workhard andregularly along the lines suggested in this book, youwillimprove.One of themostimportantthingstorememberisthatevery-onecanimprove,eveniftheyhavenogreat talent for language.Quiteapart fromanythingelse, there isgreatsatisfaction to be got from thedevelopment ofwhat talent you have.YoumayneversoundlikeanativeEnglishspeaker,butatleastyouwillhavegotasclosetoitasyoucan.

1.2‘Lendmeyourears’If speech depends on hearing, and books don’t talk, what are you to do?

Fortunately there is a lot of English spoken about theworld.On films,on the

radio,ontapes,ongramophonerecords;mostpeoplecangettheopportunityoflistening toEnglish insomeway,and this iswhatyoumustdo.YoumusthearEnglish.But just hearing it is not enough;youmust listen to it, and youmustlistento itnotfor themeaningbutfor thesoundof it.Obviouslywhenyouarelisteningtoaradiopro-grammeyouwillbetryingtounderstandit,tryingtogetthemeaningfrom it; but youmust try also for at least a short part of the timetoforgetaboutwhatthewordsmeanandtolistentothemsimplyassounds.Takeoneof theEnglish sounds at a time, itmight be theEnglish t, and listen for iteachtimeitcomes;concentrateoncatchingit,onpickingitout,onhearingwhatitsoundslike.Don’tjustbesatisfiedtohearitvaguely,asif itwereasoundofyourownlanguage;tryandpickouttheEnglishnessofit,whatmakesitdifferentfromthenearestsoundinyourlanguage.Andwhenyouthinkyouhavegotit,

3

thensayitinsomeofthewordsthatyouhaveheard,andsayitaloud.Itisnousepractisingsilently;allofusaremuchbetteratpronouncingifwe

doitsilently,insideourselves.Butyoucan’ttalkEnglishinsideyourself,ithastocomeout,sopractisealoud,evenifitpuzzlesyourfamilyoryourfriends.Laterin thebookyouwill findpronunciationexercises tobedone; thesetoomustbedonealoud.

Films or radio programmes have the disadvantage that you can’tstop themandaskforsomethingtoberepeated.Gramophonerecordsandtapesdonothavethisdisadvantage.Withthemyoucanrepeatanypartofthetextasoftenasyouneed,andyoumustdothis:itismuchbetterforyourearifyoulistentothesamepassagesixtimesthanifyoulistentosixdifferentpassages;butbecarefullistencloselyeachtime,don’trelaxaftertwoorthreehearings,trytokeepyourearsascloselyconcentratedonthesoundofthepassageatthesixthhearingasatthefirst.In thiswayyouwillbuildupa storeof sound-memorywhichwillforma firmbaseforyourperformance.

Now, performance. When you practise (aloud, of course), you mustlistencarefullyandaccurately.IfyouhavelistenedproperlyinthefirstplaceyouwillknowwhattheEnglishwordsandsentencessoundlike,andyoumustcompareascloselyasyoucanthesoundsthatcomeoutofyourmouthwiththesoundsthatyou are holding in your head, inyour sound-memory. Don’t be satisfied too

easily,trytomatchyoursoundsexactlywiththesoundsthatyouhavelistenedto.Someofyoumaybeabletomakeuseofatape-recorder;ifyoucan,youwill

beable tohearwhatyou sound like tootherpeopleand thisisveryhelpful. Ifyoucan,recordonthetape-recorderasentenceoralongerpassageWLthwhichyouarefamiliarthroughhearingitsaidbyanEnglishspeaker.Thenlistentoit,closely and carefully, and seewhere your performance does not match theoriginal;marktheplaceswhereyouaredissatisfied,andpractisethesebitsuntilyou think youhave them right; then record the passage, listen critically again,andrepeatthesequence.Onewordofwarningatape-recorderwillnotdothejobforyou;itisausefulinstrument,butitisnotamagicwandwhichwillmakeyourEnglishperfectwithoutanyeffortfromyou.Itisusefulonlybecauseitenablesyoutolistentoyourselffromtheoutside,whichmakesiteasierforyoutohearwhatiswrong,butitisyouwhohavetoputitright,andthemachinecannotdothisforyou.

Intheenditisabsolutelyessentialforyoutobeabletomatchwhatyousaywithyoursound-memoryofEnglish.Soalthoughatape-recorderishelpful,thisdoes notmean that if youhaven’t got one yourEnglishwill not improve, and,justasimportant,itdoesnotmeanthat

4V‘Lendmeyourears’if you have a tape-recorder yourEnglishwill necessarily be better.Careful

listeningis themost important thing;andcarefulmatchingofperformancewithlisteningwill bring you nearer to the ideal of aperfect English pronunciation.And make no mistake, your aim mustbe to acquire a perfect Englishpronunciation. You will almost certainlynot succeed in this aim because itrequires,asIhavesaid,averyraregift;butunlessthisisyouraimyouwillnotmakealltheprogressofwhichyouarecapable;keepworkingtowardsperfectionuntil you arequite sure that it is neither necessary nor profitable for you tocontinue.Thenyouwillhavedoneyourselfjustice.

1.3WhichEnglish?WhatdowemeanbyaperfectEnglishpronunciation?Inonesensethereare

as many different kinds of English as there are speakers of it;no two peoplespeak exactly alike we can always hear differencesbetween them and thepronunciationofEnglishvariesagreatdealindifferentgeographicalareas.HowdowedecidewhatsortofEnglishtouseasamodel?ThisisnotaquestionwhichcanbedecidedinthesamewayforallforeignlearnersofEnglish.Ifyonliveinapart of theworld like India or West Africa, where there is a tradition ofspeakingEnglishforgeneralcommunicationpurposes,youshouldaimtoacquire

agoodvarietyofthepronunciationofthisarea;suchvarietiesofIndianEnglishorAfricanEnglish and the like are tobe respected andused as amodel by allthosewhowillneedtheirEnglishmainlyforthepurposeofcommunicationwiththeirfellowsintheseareas.ItwouldbeamistakeinthesecircumstancestouseasamodelB.B.C.Englishoranythingofthesort.

Ontheotherhand,ifyouliveinanareawherethereisnotraditionaluseofEnglish and no body of people who speak it for general com-municationpurposes, then you must take as your model some form ofnative Englishpronunciation,andwhichformyouchoosedoesnotverymuchmatter.Themostsensible thing todo is to takeasyourmodel thesortofEnglishwhichyoucanhearmostoften.IfyouhavegramophonerecordsofEnglishspeechbasedon,letussay,anAmericanpronunciation,makeAmericanyourmodel;ifyoucanlistenregularlyto the B.B.C., use that kind of English. But whatever you choose todo,remember this: all these different accents of English have a great dealincommon, they have far more similarities than differences,^) don’tworry toomuchwhatsortofEnglishyouarelisteningtoprovideditisEnglish.

5InthisbookIcannotdescribeallthepossiblepronunciationsofEnglishthat

mightbeusefultoyousoIshallconcentrateonone,thesortofEnglishusedbyeducated native speakers in south-east England,often referred to as ReceivedPronunciation (R.P. for short), that is‘accepted’ pronunciation.R.P.will be thebasis;butIamlessinterestedinmakingyouspeakwiththisparticularaccentofEnglishthaninhelpingyoutomakethenecessarydifferencesbetweenthebasicsoundswhich are found in all kinds of English: these are found in R.P.andbecauseofthisitisasusefultodescribeR.P.astodescribeanyothernativepronunciation,andifyoureallywanttospeakwithaBritishaccent,thenthisisasgoodasany,inthesensethatitiswidelyaccep-table.

1.4ThebasicsoundsThesoundsatthebeginningofeachofthewordsinthefollowinglistareall

different: the letterswhichstand for these sounds (usuallyoneletterper sound,butsometimestwo)areprintedinitalictype:

pierveernearbeersheerweirtierhearyeardeerleercheergearrearjeer/earmereIt is thesoundat thebeginningof theword, the initial sound,whichmakes

oneworddifferentfromalltheotherwordsinthelist.Sincethisisso,sincethese

soundsaredistinctive, it isobviouslynecessary tobeabletomake themsounddifferent:theyarebasicsoundsofEnglishallkindsofEnglish.Soarethesoundsofthelettersinitalictypeintheselists:

basewrathbaizewrongbathebeigebakeIn these lists the sounds at the end of the word are distinctive, the

finalsounds.Ifyoucountupthesoundswhicharedistinctiveininitial6Thebasicsoundsposition and thosewhich are distinctive in final position youwill findthat

therearetwenty-fouraltogether.Thesetwenty-foursoundswhichoccurinitiallyandfinally,thoughtheyoccurinotherpositionstoo,arecalledconsonants.

Nowlookattheselists:feel cat tierfill cot tearfell cut tourfall curtf«ll cartfoolfoilfoolfilefowlfoilMost of these sounds, represented again by letters in italic type,

occursurrounded by consonants, and this is typical, althoughmost of themcanalsooccurinitiallyandfinallytoo.Thesesoundsarecalledvowels.

NOTICE1Fiveofthesewords,curt,cart,tier,tear,tour,havealetterrinthem.InmanyEnglishaccents,e.g.American,Canadian,Scottish,Irish,thiswould

bepronouncedexactlyliketheconsonantatthebeginningofred,butinR.P.andvarious other accents the letter represents partof a basic vowel unit. There ismoredetailaboutthisonp.6i.

2There isoneothervowel,makingtwentyinall,whichoccurs in thewordbanana. This is a very special and very important vowel inEnglish and it is

discussedinfullonpp.82-4.1.5LettersandsoundsThesemustneverbemixedup.Lettersarewritten,soundsarespoken.Itisveryusefultohavewrittenletterstoremindusofcorrespondingsounds,

but this isall theydo; theycannotmakeuspronouncesoundswhichwedonotalready know; they simply remind us. In ordinaryEnglish spelling it is notalwayseasytoknowwhatsoundsthelettersstandfor;forexample,inthewordscity,busy,women,pretty,village,the letters i, y,u,0, e anda all stand for thesame vowel sound, the onewhich occurs in sit. And in banana, bather, man,manytheletterastands

7for five different vowel sounds. In a book which is dealing with pro-

nunciationthisisinconvenient;itwouldbemuchmoreusefulifthereadercouldalwaysbecertainthatoneletterrepresentedoneandonlyonesound,thatwhenhesawa letterhewouldknowatoncehowtopronounceit (orat leastwhat toaimat!).Thatiswhyitishelpfultouselettersinaconsistentwaywhendealingwith English.We havetwenty-four consonants and twenty vowels to considerandwegivetoeachoftheseforty-fourunitsaletter(orsometimestwoletters,ifthisisconvenient).Inthatwaywecanshowwithoutanydoubtwhatthestudentshouldbetryingtosay.

Hereagainarethewordslistedonpp.6-7andthistimebesideeachwordisthe letter of the International Phonetic Alphabet which willalways be used torepresent the sound towhich thatword is the key,however itmay be spelt inotherwords.Mostoftheletterswillbeperfectlyfamiliartoyou,otherswillseemstrangeforalittlewhile;butnotforlong.

pier/pi /ear/f/ rear/r/ cheer/tj/

beer1b/ t>eer/v/ mere/m/ jeer/d3/

tier/t/ sheer/J/ near/n/

deer/d/ hear/h/ weir/w/

<?ear/g/base/$/baize/z/bathe/S/beige

h/bake/k/

leer/I/wrath/0/wrong

/q/year/j/

feel/i:/ (ail/ei/ cat/ae/ tier/ia/fHIN foal/au/ cot/d/ tear/ea/

fell/e/ file/ai/ cut/a/ towr/ua/

fall/d:/ fowl/au/ curt/3:/

full/u/foal/u:/ foil/a1/ cart/a:/

banana/a/

Theuseofthecolon(:)withthevowels/i:,a:,u:,a:,3:/istoshowthattheyareingenerallongerthan/i,u/etc.Theyarealsodifferentintheiractualsound,asthedifferentlettersindicate.

Here are some examples of words written in this way: city siti, busybizi,womenwimin,bananabana:na,batherbeida,manmaen,manymem,wrongmg,changetjeindj,househaus,thoughtfo:t,couldkud,coughkof,roughrAf,thoughdau.

LettersandsoundsThis way of writing or transcribing makes it possible to show thatsome

wordswhichareordinarily spelt in the samewaysounddifferent;forexample,lead,whichispronouncedli:dinaphraselikeleadtheway,butledinleadpipeTtalsomakesclearthatsomewordswhicharespeltdifferentlysoundthesame,forexample,rain,rein,reign,whichareallpronouncedrein.

1.6Soundsandsound-groupsAsoundismadebydefinitemovementsoftheorgansofspeech,andifthose

movements are exactly repeated the resultwill alwaysbe thesame sound; it iseasy to show that there aremore than forty-foursounds inEnglish even in thepronunciationof a singleperson,with-outworryingaboutdifferencesbetweenpeople.Forinstance,ifyousayteaandtwoti:,tu:youwillnoticethatthelipsareinaratherflatshapeforti:butaremaderounderfortu:,andthisistrueforboththeconsonant/t/andforthetwovowels.Sotheorgansofspeecharenotmakingexactlythesamemovementsforthe/t/ofteaandthe/t/oftwo,andthereforetheresultingsoundsarenotexactlythesame.Youcanprovethistoyourselfbyonlysayingtheconsonantsoundsofthesewords:thinkofthewordteaandpronouncethe beginning of it butnot the vowel. Then do the same for two; think of theword but stopbefore the vowel: you can hear and feel that the two soundsaredifferent. Obviously most of the movements we make when pro-nouncingthesetwosoundsarethesame,andtheythereforesoundalike,butnotidentical.

Takeanotherexample, /h/.Whenwepronounce thewordshe,hat,whohi:,hast,hu:, the/h/-soundsaredifferent:inpronouncing/h/weputourmouthintothe position needed for the followingvowel andthenpush out air through thisposition,butsincethethreedifferentvowelshavethreedifferentmouth-positions

it follows that the three/h/-sounds must also be different. You can prove thisagain,aswiththe/t/-souiids,bysayingthebeginningsofthesewordswhilstonlythink-ingtherest.

Eachofthelettersweusetoshowpronunciationmaystandformorethanonesound; but each of the sounds represented by one letter has agreat deal ofsimilarity to the other sounds represented by the sameletter; they have moresimilaritiesthandifferences:noneofthe/h/-soundscouldbemistakenforan/I/-oran /s/-sound,andnoneof the/t/-soundscanbeconfusedwitha /p/-ora /k/-sound.

Thesegroupsofsounds,eachrepresentedbyoneletterofthe89phoneticalphabet,arecalledphonemes,andthemethodofrepresentingeach

phonemebyonesymboliscalledphonemictranscription.Phonemictranscriptionmaybeenclosedindiagonallines//.Itisneces-

sarytodistinguishcarefullybetweenphonemesandsounds:the44phonemesofEnglisharethebasiccontrastswhichmakeitpossibleforustokeepeachwordor longerutteranceseparate fromeveryother,fill fromfilandpia frombia,etc.But each phoneme may be repre-sented by different sounds in differentpositions, so the different /t/-sounds in tea and two both represent the /t/phoneme, and the three/h/-sounds in he, hat, who all represent the single /h/phoneme.

This suggests two stages in the learning of pronunciation: the first isto heabletoproduce44vowelsandconsonantswhicharedifferent,sothatthewordsand longerutterancesofEnglishdonot at any ratesound the same, so that fillandfilsounddifferent.Atthisstagethelearnerwillnotworryaboutwhichofthepossible /h/-sounds he isusing; any of themwill serve to distinguish heat hi:tfrom eat i:t. If thecommon feature of each phoneme is reproduced, all thenecessarydistinctions of words, etc., can be made. But obviously if thelearneruses a particular sound in a word where an English speaker usesadifferentsoundbelongingtothesamephoneme,theeffectwillbeodd;hewillnotbemisunderstood thatcouldonlyhappen ifheusedasoundbelonging toadifferentphonemebuthewillnotbeperforminginanEnglishway, and if thishappenswithmanyofthephonemesitwillcontributetoaforeignaccent.Sothesecondstageinlearningpronunciationmustbetolearntouseasmanydifferentsounds as isnecessary to represent a particular phoneme. In theory asinglephonemeis representedbyadifferentsound ineverydifferentpositioninwhichitoccurs,butmostofthesedifferenceswillbemadeauto-maticallybythelearnerwithout instruction. It is only in caseswherethis is unlikely to happen

thatitwillbenecessarytoworryaboutparticularsoundswithinaphoneme.There is one other relation between sound and phonemewhich islikely to

givetrouble.Hereisanexample:inEnglish/d/and/6/aredifferentphonemes;inSpanishtherearesoundswhicharesimilartothoseusedinEnglishtorepresentthesephonemes-wecanwritethem/d/and/5/;butinSpanishthesetwosoundsbelong to the samephoneme when the phoneme occurs between vowels it isrepre-sentedby/5/,asinnada‘nothing’,butwhenitoccursininitialpositionitisrepresented by /d/, as in dos ‘two . This will cause difficulty for theSpanishspeakerbecausealthoughhehasmoreorlessthesamesoundsasinEnglishheisnotabletousethemindependently,andwhenever

Soundsandsound-groupsanEnglish/d/occursbetweenvowelshewillbeindangerofusing/9/,and

confusing breeding briidig with breathing bri:3ig, and wheneverEnglish /3/occursininitialpositionhewillbeindangerofusing/d/,confusingtheydeiand

daydeiIngeneral,iftwosoundsbelongtoonephonemeinyourlanguage,buttotwodifferentphonemes inEnglishtherewillbedangerofconfusionsuntilyouhave learnt to forget thehabits of your language and use the soundsindependentlyas inEnglish.Thiscanbedonebycareful listeningandaccurateuseofthespeechorgansandagreatdealofpractice.

1*7WordsandutterancesMost ofwhat I have said so far has been about the pronunciation ofshort

piecesofspeech,soundsorsinglewords;itisnecessaryatfirsttobesurethatthebasicsoundsofthelanguagearebeingproperlypro-nouncedandthebestwayofdoingthatistopractisesinglewordsorveryshortphrases;butwedonottalkinsingle words, and certainlynot in single sounds. The sounds and words areconnected togetherwith others tomake up longer utterances, and these longerutteranceshavespecialdifficultiesoftheirown.

First, they must be pronounced smoothly, without hesitations andwithoutstumbling over the combinations of sounds. Itmay be quiteeasy to pronounceseparatelythewords,library,been,lately,you,to,the,have,butitismuchmoredifficulttopronouncethequestionHaveyoubeentothelibrarylately?withouthesitatingandwithoutmakingmistakes.

Secondly, in a longer English utterance some of the words aretreated asbeingmore important to themeaning than others, and it isnecessary to knowwhichthesewordsareandhowtheyaretreatedinspeech.Andwordswhicharenotregardedasbeingparticularlyimportantoftenhaveadifferentpronunciationbecauseofthis;forexample,thewordcanwhichispronouncedkaenifitissaidbyitself,isoftenpronouncedksninphraseslikeYoucanhaveitju:kanhaevit.

Thirdly,therhythmofEnglishmustbemastered.Thatis,thedifferentlengthswhich the syllables of English are given and thereasons why these differentlengthsoccur.Anexampleofthiswouldbethefoliowmg:

Thechaircollapsed.Thechairmancollapsed.Thewordchairhasthesamelengthasthewordchairman,andthereforeII10Problemsinpronunciationeach of the two syllables in chairman is shorter than the single syllable

ofchair, so that the chairof chairman isonlyhalf as longas theword chairbyitself.

Fourthly,andlast,thetuneofthevoice,themelodyofspeechisdifferentindifferentlanguagesanditisnecessarytolearnsomethingoftheEnglishwayofusingtune.Forexample,whenwesaythankyou,thevoicemaygofromahighernotetoalowerone,oritmaygofromalowernotetoahigheroneandthesetwo

different tunes show twodifferent attitudes: higher to lower means sinceregratitude;lowertohighermeansthatthematterispurelyroutine.ToconfusethetwowouldclearlybedangerousanditisnecessarytolearnwhattunesthereareinEnglishandwhattheymean.

All these matters will be dealt with in the chapters which follow,andexerciseswillbegiven tohelp the reader to improvehisperfor-manceat eachstage.Butthefirstimportantthingistobesurethatthebasicsound-distinctionsarerightandthisrequiresknowledgeoftheworkingofthespeechorgans;thisisthesubjectofthesecondchapter.

1,8Exercises(Answersonp134)1Howmanyphonemesarethereinthefollowingwords(thelistsonp.8will

helpyouhere):write,through,measure,six,half,where,one,first,voice,castle,scissors,should,judge,father,lamb?

2Bearandbarearespeltdifferentlybutpronounced thesame,bea.Makealistofotherwordswhicharespeltdifferentlybutpro-nouncedinthesameway.

3Write thewords inExercise 1 above in phonemic transcription, andthenmemorize the forty-four symbols needed to transcribeEnglishphonemically sothat you can do it without looking at the lists. Nowtranscribe the followingwords phonemically: mat, met, meet, mate,might, cot, cut, caught, lick, look,bird, board, load, loud, boys, bars, bears,sheer, sure, copper,green, charge,song,five,with,truth,yellow,pleasure,hallo.

4Trytomakelists like thoseonp.8foryour language,andseehowmanyphonemesituses.Forsomelanguagesthiswillbequiteeasy,forsomeitwillbedifficult; ifyouhavedifficulty infindingwordswhicharedifferentonlyinonephoneme,findwordswhichareassimilarasyoucan.AnEnglishexampleofthiskindisgetting,cutting(whichshowsthat/g,k/and/e,a/aredifferentphonemes).Whatphonemesdoesthepairmother,fatherseparate?

2HowthespeechorgansworkinEnglishInalllanguageswespeakwithairfromthelungs.Wedrawitintothelungs

quickly andwe release it slowly and then interferewith itspassage in variousways and at various places. Figure 1 is a diagramshowing a side view of theparts of the throat and mouth and nosewhich are important to recognize forEnglish.

2.1ThevocalcordsThe air released by the lungs comes up through the wind-pipe andarrives

first at the larynx.The larynxcontains twosmallbandsofelastictissue,whichcanbethoughtofastwoflatstripsofrubber,lyingoppositeeachotheracrosstheairpassage.Thesearethevocalcords.

Theinneredgesofthevocalcordscanbemovedtowardseachothersothattheymeetandcompletelycover the topof thewind-pipe,ortheycanbedrawnapartsothatthereisagapbetweenthem(knownastheglottis)throughwhichtheaircanpassfreely:thisistheirusualpositionwhenwebreathequietlyinandout.

Whenthevocalcordsarebroughttogethertightlynoaircanpass1213through them and if the lungs are pushing air from below this air

iscompressed. If the vocal cords are then opened suddenly the compressedairburstsoutwitha sortof coughingnoise.Try this:openyourmouthwide,holdyourbreath, imaginethatyouarepickingupaheavyweight,holdingitfor twoseconds,thendroppingitandsuddenlyletyourbreathout.Thisholdingbackofthe compressed air followed by asudden release is called the glottal stop, andwhatyoufedastheairburstsoutisthevocalcordsspringingapart.Dothistentimes,andgetusedtothefeelingofthe‘click’ofthevocalcordsastheyreleasetheair.Thecompressionoftheairmaybeverygreat,aswhenwedoliftaheavyweight,oritmaybequiteslight,whentheresultislikeaverygentlecough.

openclosedFig.2ThevocalcordsIfthevocalcordsarebroughttogetherquitegently,theairfromthelungswill

beabletoforcethemapartforamoment,butthentheywillreturntotheclosedposition;thentheairwillforcethemapartagain,andtheywillcloseagain,andsoon.Thisisaveryrapidprocessandmaytakeplaceasmanyas800timespersecond.Itisobviouslynotpossibletoheareachindividual‘click’oftheopening

vocal cords, andwhat we do hear is a musical note. The height of the notedepends onthe speed of opening and closing of the vocal cords; if they openandclose very quickly the notewill be high, if they open and close slowlythenotewillbelow.Thenote,whetherhighorlow,producedbythisrapidopeningandclosingofthevocalcordsiscalledvoice.

Some of the English sounds have voice and some do not. Say a long/m/-soundandputyourfingersonyourneckbythesideofthelarynx.Youwillfeelthevibrationofthevocalcords.Nowkeepyourlipsclosedstill,butjustbreathehard through your nose: no vibration.Repeat this several times, first /m/ thenbreathethroughthenose,andgetusedtothefeelingofvoiceandnovoiceNowsaythewordmoreitid:,stillwithyourfingersonyourneck.Doesthevowel/d:/havevoice? Can you still feel the same vibration for jo:/ as for /m/?Yes,bothsoundsarevoiced.Sayalong/s/-sound.Isitvoiced?No,ithasnovibrations.TryothersoundsofyourownlanguageandEnglishandseewhichofthemarevoicedandwhichnot.

14

ThevocalcordsThesoundswhicharenotvoicedvoicelesssounds-aremadewiththevocal

cordsdrawnapartsothattheaircanpassoutfreelybetweenthemandthereisnovibration.Thedifferencebetweenvoicedandvoicelessranbeusedtodistinguish

betweenwhatareotherwisesimilarsounds.Sayalong/s/-soundagain,andinthemiddleofitturnthevoiceon:thiswillgiveyoua/z/-sound,buzzingratherthanhissing.

But not all the voiced sounds ofEnglish have similar voiceless sounds,forexample thevoiceless /m /-soundwhichyoumade justnowdoesnotoccur inEnglish, andevenwhen therearepairsof similar soundswhicharevoicedandvoicelessthismaynotbetheonlydifferencebetweenthem,asweshallseelater.

Immediatelyabove the larynx isaspacebehind the tongueandreachinguptowardsthenasalcavity:thisspaceiscalledthepharynx/faerirjks/.

2.2ThepalateThepalate,asFigure1shows,formstheroofofthemouthandseparatesthe

mouthcavityfromthenose(ornasal)cavity.Makethetipofyourtonguetouchasmuchofyourownpalateasyoucan:mostofitishardandfixedinposition,butwhenyourtongue-tipisasfarbackasitwillgo,awayfromyourteeth,youwillnoticethatthepalatebecomessoft.Figure3isamoredetailedviewofthepalate.

Fig.3ThesoftandhardpartsofthepalateYoucaneasily see the softpartof thepalate ifyouuseamirror: turnyour

back to the light, open yourmouthwide and say the vowel /a:/,andmove themirrorso that the lightshines intoyourmouth.Youwillbeable tosee thesoftpalate curving down towards the tongue andbecoming narrower as it does sountilitendsinapointcalledtheuvula/juivjub/.Behindthesoftpalateyouwillbeabletoseepartofthebackwallofthepharynx.Thesoftpalatecanmove:itcanberaisedsothatitmakesafirmcontactwiththebackwallofthepharynx(asin Figure 3),and this stops the breath fromgoing up into the nasal cavity andforces

15ittogointothemouthonly.Youcanseethisraisingofthesoftpalateinyour

mirrorifyoukeepyourmouthwideopeninpositionforthevowel/a:/andpushout your breath very fast, as if youwere trying toblowout amatch, stillwithyourmouthopenwide.Youwillseethesoftpalatemovequicklyupwardssothatthebreathallcomesoutofthemouthandnoneofitgoesupintothenasalcavity.And when yourelax after this the soft palate will come down again into itsloweredposition,showninFigure4.

Fig.4ThesoftpalateloweredInthisloweredposition,thesoftpalateallowsthebreathtopassbehinditself

andupinto thenasalcavityandout throughthenose,asthedottedlineshows.This is the normal position of the soft palatewhen we are not speaking butbreathingquietlythroughthenose,withourmouthclosed.Itisalsothepositionfor the /m/-, /n/- and /q/-sounds; say a long /m/-soundandnipyournose; thiswill stop thebreathmoving, andwhen you release it, the breathwill continueoutinanormal/m/-sound.Keepyourlipsclosedandblowbreath(withoutvoice)hard through your nose, then draw it in again sharply: this willgive you thefeelingofbreathmovinginandoutbehindthesoftpalate.

Nowsaya/p/butdon'topenyourlips,justholdthebreathbehindthelips:thereisnosoundatall;keepyourlipsfirmlyclosedstillandsendallthebreathsharply out of the nose.Do this several timeswithoutopening your lips at all.Whatyoufeelatthebackofyourmouthisthesoftpalategoingupanddown;itisraisedwhilstyouholdthe/p/andloweredsuddenlywhenyoulettheairrushoutthroughyournose.

16

ThepalateFormostofthesoundsofalllanguagesthesoftpalateisraised,sothattheair

isforcedtogooutthroughthemouthonly.Apartfromthisimportantraisingandloweringofthesoftpalate,thewholeof

thepalate,includingthesoftpalate,isusedbythetonguetointerferewiththeairstream.Saythevowel/a:/againandwatchthetongueinyourmirror:itisflatinthemouth.Now add a /k/ after the/a:/ and youwill see the back part of yourtongueriseupandtouchthesoftpalatesothatthebreathiscompletelystopped;thenwhenyouloweryourtonguethebreathrushesoutagain.

aveolar^hardsoftridgepalatepalateFig.3ThepartsofthepalateThe hard, fixed part of the palate is divided into two sections, shownin

Figure 5, the alveolar ridge /aelviaula rid 3/ and the hard palate. Thealveolarridgeis thatpartof thegumsimmediatelybehindtheupperfront teeth,andthehardpalate is thehighestpart of thepalate,between the alveolar ridge and thebeginningof thesoftpalate.Youcan touch thewholeof thealveolar ridgeandthehardpalatewithyourtongue-tip.ThealveolarridgeisespeciallyimportantinEnglishbecausemanyoftheconsonantsoundslike/tdnIrszJ3tjd3/aremadewiththetonguetouchingorclosetothealveolarridge.

Finallythepalatecurvesdownwardstowardstheteethateachside.TheteethThe lower front teeth are not important in speech except that if theyare

missing certain sounds, e.g. /s/ and /z/, will be difficult to make. Butthe twoupperfront teethareused inEnglish tosomeextent.Put thetipofyour tongueveryclosetotheedgeoftheseteethandblow:thiswillproduceasoundliketheEnglish/0/ inthin; ifyouturnonthevoiceduringthis /0/-soundyouwillgetasoundliketheEnglish/8/inthis.

ThetongueThetongueisthemostimportantoftheorgansofspeechbecauseit17has the greatest variety ofmovement.Although the tongue has noobvious

natural divisions like the palate, it is useful to think of it asdivided into fourparts,asshowninFigure6.

bladefrontback

Thebackofthetongueliesunderthesoftpalatewhenthetongueisatrest;thefront lies under the hard palate, the tip and the blade lie underthe alveolarridge,thetipbeingthemostforwardpartofallandthebladebetweenthetipandthefront.Thetipandbladeareparticularlymobileand,aswehaveseen,theycantouchthewholeofthelips,theteeth,thealveolarridgeandthehardpalate.Thefrontcanbeflatonthebottomofthemouthoritcanberaisedtotouchthehardpalate,or it can be raised to any extent between these two extremes. Saythevowel /a:/againand look intoyourmirror: thefront is flaton thebottomofthemouth;nowsay/*/asincat:thefrontrisesalittle;nowsay/e/asinmet(stillkeepyourmouthaswideopenasyoucan):thefrontrisesagain;andifyougoontosay/I:/asinseeyouwillseethatthefrontrisestoaveryhighposition,sohighthatitishiddenbehindtheteeth.ThesepositionsareshowninFigure7.For/i:/thefrontof

Fig.7Tonguepositionsfor/I:,e,ae,a:/the tongue comes very close to the hard palate. Put your mouth in

thisposition, for /i:/,anddrawair inwardsquickly;youwill feelcoldaironthefrontofthetongueandonthehardpalatejustaboveit.

18

ThetongueThe back of the tongue too can be flat in themouth, or it can beraised to

touch the soft palate, or it can be raised to any positionbetween these twoextremes. Say /a:k/ again, as you did earlier, andhold the /k/-soundwith your

mouthwideopen.Youwill see inyourmirror that thebackof the tongue risesfromaveryflatpositionfora:toapositionactuallytouchingthesoftpalateforthe/k/.Figure8showsthesetwoextremepositions.Thebackofthetongueisinvariouspositionsbetweenthesetwoextremesforthevowels/d,d:,u,u:/ inpot,fought, put, boot; say them in that order and feel the back of thetongue risegraduallytowardsthesoftpalate:youwillnotbeableto

•OOfOOfo®o®osoOOOI''o•€»fc_>*ooc•,000.*''')BRITISHCCH'NCft,MOSCOWFig.8Tonguepositionsfor/a:,k/

Fig.pTonguepositionsfor/u:,U,DI,D/see themovement in themirrorbecause the lipswillbe in theway,butthe

positionofthebarkofthetongueforearhofthesevowelsisshowninFigure9.In/u:/ thebackofthetongueisveryclosetothesoftpalate;putyourmouthinpositionfor/u:/anddrawairinwardsquickly:youwillfeelcoldaironthebackof the tongue and the soft palate. Now dothe same for /i:/ again and feel thedifferencewhenthefrontofthetongueisraised.Gofromthe/I:/positiontothe/u:/positionseveral

19

Thespeechorganstimeswhilstdrawingbreathinwards,andgetusedtothisdifferencebetween

ahighfrontandahighbackposition.Thetonguecanalsochangeitsshapeinanotherway.Saythesound/s/,keep

yourmouth in the /s/ position and draw breath inwards; youwill feel cold airpassing through a narrow passage between the bladeof the tongue and thealveolar ridge,butnocold air at the sidesof thetongue.Nowsayan /l/-soundanddrawairinwards.Thistimeyouwillfeelcoldairpassingbetweenthesidesofthetongueandthesidesofthepalate,butnotdownthecentreofthetongue.Thisisbecausefor/s/thesidesofthetonguearepressedfirmlyagainstthesidesof the palate,so that the breath is forced to pass down the narrow centralpassagebetweenthebladeofthetongueandthealveolarridgeIn/I/thecentreofthemouthisblockedbythetipandbladeofthetonguepressedfirmlyagainstthealveolarridgeandtheairpassesinsteadbetweenthesidesofthetongueandthesidesof thepalate.So thesidesof the tonguemaybeeithercurvedupwards tomeetthesidesofthepalateorleftflatsothattheydonottouchthesidesofthepalate.Openyourmouthwide,useyourmirrorandtrytomakeyourtonguetakeup a flatshape, as inFigure io, and then a curved shape,with the sides raisedbutthecentrelinelower,asinFigure11.Thislastpositionisveryimportant

forEnglishbecausemanyof theconsonantsoundsarepronouncedwith thesidesofthetonguecurvedupinthiswaytomeetthesidesofthepalate.

20

ThelipsItisobviousthatthelipscantakeupvariousdifferentpositions.Theycanbe

broughtfirmlytogetherasin/p/orjbjor/m/sothattheycom-pletelyblockthe

mouth; the lower lip can be drawn inward andslightly upwards to touch theupper front teethas in thesounds /f/and/v/.And theycanbekeptaparteitherflatorwithdifferentamountsofrounding,andtheycanbepushedforwardtoagreaterorlesserextent.

Of course, the closedposition for /p, b,m/ and the lip-teethpositionfor /f/and/v/areusedinEnglish,butapartfromthistheEnglishdonotmovetheirlipswithverymuchenergy: their lips areneververyfar apart, theydonot takeupveryroundedshapes,theyarerarelyspreadverymuchandalmostneverpushedforwardorprotruded.WatchEnglishpeopletalkeitherinreallifeoronfilmsandnoticehowlittle the lipsand the lower jawmove;somepeoplemakemore lip-movementthanothers,butitisnevernecessarytoexaggeratethesemovements.Watch people talking your language too, and seewhethertheymove their lipsmore than the English. If so, youmust rememberwhen talking English to useyourlipslessthanyoudoinyourownlanguage.Thesameistrueformovementsof the jaw: innormalspeechthere is rarelymore thanhalfan inchbetween thelipsoraquarterofaninchbetweentheteethevenwhenthemouthisatitswidestopen.No wonder English can be spoken quite easily whilst holding apipebetweentheteeth!

InthechapterswhichfollowweshallseehowthemovementsoftheorgansofspeechcombinetogetherinformingthesoundsofEnglish.Youshouldstudythe descriptions of the movements very carefully,because what seems a quitesmalldifferencemayinfactbeveryim-portantinproducingandrecognizinganEnglishsoundcorrectly,andthedifferencebetweenanEnglishsoundandoneinyour language mayseem quite small when it is described, but the smalldifference in themovement of the speech organs maymake all the differencebetweenaresultwhichsoundsEnglishandonewhichdoesnot.

Suppose, for example, that in your language you have a /t/-soundwhich ismadebytouchingtheupperfrontteethwiththetipofyourtongue:thisisquiteoftenthecase.Thedifferencebetweenthis/t/andthe/t/-soundofEnglishisthattheEnglish/t/isgenerallymadewiththetipofthetonguetouchmgthealveolarridgejustbehindtheteeth.Thismaynotseemmuchofadifferencetoyou,buta/t/which ismadeonthe teethsoundsforeign toanEnglishear,andalthoughitwillberecognizedas/t/,itwillnotsoundcorrectinEnglish.

21ExercisesThespeechorgansWhenyoustudythemovementsof thespeechorgansforacertainsoundof

English, try to compare themwith themovements for asimilar sound in yourlanguage.Try tobecomeconsciousofwhatyourspeechorgansaredoing.The

exerciseswhichfollowwillhelpyoutodothis.2.6Exercises(Answers,whereappropriate,onp.134)1CopyFigures1,3and6.Labelallthedifferentpartsofthespeechorgans.

Dothisseveraltimes,untilyoucandoitwithoutlookingatthebook.2Threedifferentactionstakeplaceinthelarynx.Whatarethey?3 Which sounds in your language are voiced, and which are voice-less?

Whichofthesesoundsaresimilarexceptforadifferenceofvoicing,like/$/and/z/inEnglish?

4Canyousingavoicelesssound?Andifnot,whynot?5Howdoesthesoftpalateaffectthedirectionoftheairstream?6Whatsoundsinyourlanguagearemadewiththesoftpalatelowered?7Makea/p/-scundandholditwiththelipsclosed;then,stillkeepingthelips

closed,lettheairburstoutthroughthenose.Dothesamewithjt/and/k/.Dothesamewith/b,d/,and/g/andletvoicedairburstoutthroughthenose.

8Sayseveral/k/-soundsquicklyoneaftertheother,/k-k-k-k-k/,andfeelthebackofthetonguetouchingandleavingthesoftpalate.

Dothesamewith/t/—firstwiththetonguetouchingthealveolarridge;thenwiththetongue-tiptouchingtheupperfrontteeth.

Canyoudothesamethingwiththetongue-tiptouchingthecentreofthehardpalate?

9 Make the vowels / i:, 1, e, ae/ and feel how the front of the tongueisloweredeachtimeandthejawopensgradually.Dothesamewith/u:,u,d,a:/andfeelhowthebackofthetongueislowered.

10Whatdoesthetonguedoinmakingthesounds/ai,di,au/?11MaketheflatandcurvedshapesofthetongueshowninFigures10andn.

Useyourmirror.12 Make a /t/-sound and hold it with the tongue-tip in contact withthe

alveolarridge.Nowgentlybringtheteethtogether.Whathappenstothesidesofthetongueandwhy?

13Putyourmouthinan/!/positionanddrawbreathinandout.Feel22

itonthesidesofthetongue.Dothesamewith/s/andfeelitonthecentreofthetongue.Alternatethe/s/and/I/positionsandfeelthesidesofthetongueriseandlowerasyougofromonetotheother.

23

Frictionconsonants3TheconsonantsoffEnglishThere are two good reasons for beginning with consonants rather

thanvowels. First, consonants contribute more to making English under-stoodthanvowelsdo.Second,consonantsaregenerallymadebyadefiniteinterferenceof the vocal organs with the air stream, and so areeasier to describe andunderstand.

The sentence ‘C—Id y— p-ss m- - p—c- -f str ng, pi—s-’ is easy foranEnglishreadertounderstandeventhoughallofthevowellettershavebeenleftout.Similarly,ifinactuallyspeakingwecouldleaveoutallthevowelsoundsandpronounce only the consonants most Englishwould still be fairly easy tounderstand.Butlookatthesamesentence

withalltheconsonantlettersleftout:-ou—ou-a—eaie-eoi—,—ea-e.’Itisimpossibletomakeanysenseoutofit,andthesamewouldbe

trueinspeaking,becausetheconsonantsformthebones,theskeletonofEnglishwordsandgivethemtheirbasicshape.

Native speakers of English from different parts of theworld havedifferentaccents,but thedifferencesofaccentaremainly the resultofdifferences in thesoundofthevowels;theconsonantsarepronouncedinverymuchthesamewaywhereverEnglish is spoken. So if thevowels you use are imperfect itwill notprevent you frombeing under-stood, but if the consonants are imperfect therewillbeagreatriskofmisunderstanding.

Indealingwith theconsonantsyoumust first learnhoweachone ismainlydistinguishedfromtheothers,thefeatureswhichitmusthavesothatitwillnotbemistakenforanyotherconsonant.Thenlateryouwilllearnaboutanyspecialsoundsofthatphonemewhichneedsmallchangesintheirformationindifferentcircumstances, changes whichare not essential if you simply want to beunderstood,butwhichwillmakeyourEnglishsoundbetter.

3.1FrictionconsonantsTherearenineconsonantphonemeswhosemainsoundsallhavefrictionas

theirmostimportantfeature.Theyare/f,v,0,3,s,z,J,3,h/.24Forallofthemthelungspushairthroughanarrowopeningwhereitcauses

frictionofvariouskinds./f/and/v/Forboth/f/and/v/thespeechorgansareinthepositionshowninFigure12.

NOTICt.1Thesoftpalateisraisedsothatnoairgoesthroughthenoseanditisallforcedthroughthemouth.2 The bottom lip is very close to the upper front teeth: this forms

thenarrowingandwhenairispushedthroughthisnarrowingitcausesslightfriction..3Thetongueisnotdirectlyconcernedinmakingthesesounds,butitdoesnot

lieidle;ittakesupthepositionnecessaryforthefollowingsound,soinfi:itwillbeinthe/i'/positionwhilst/f/isbeingpro-nounced,andinfri:itwillbeinthe/r/position,andsoon.

The difference between /f/ and /v/ ismainly one of strength: /f/ is astrongconsonant,/v/isaweakone.Also/f/isnevervoiced,but/v/may

be.And/f/isratherlongerthan/v/.So/f/isastrong,voiceless,longconsonant,/v/isaweak,perhapsvoiced,shortconsonant.Put your lower lip and upper teeth close together and blowbreathbetween

themquite strongly: continue the sound and listen to thefriction it is not verynoisybutcanbeheardquiteeasily.Nowblowthebreaththroughverygently;thefrictionismuchlessandmustalwaysbemuchlessfor/v/thanfor/f/.Alternatethisstrongandweak

25

%n*Nowsaythewordfastfaistwithstrongfrictionforthe/f/.Nowsayvastvaist

withveryshortweakfrictionforthe/v/.Alternatethese:faist,vaist,andbesurethatthereisverylittle,veryweakfrictionforthe/v/,butalsobesurethatitisthelipandtheteethwhicharecausingthefriction,notthetwolips.Keeptheupperlipoutofthewayalto-gether.

Ifyourlanguagehasboth/f/and/v/,thesoundsthatyouusewillprobablydoquitewellinEnglish,providedthatyouarequitesurethatbothofthemhavethislip-teeth action, especially the /v/. Althoughthere is very little friction for /v/theremustalwaysbesome;itmustnotbecompletelyfrictionless.Nowpractisethe following lists ofwords, with long, strong friction for /f/ and short, weakfrictionfor

/v/.

faist fast vaist vast fju: few vju: viewf:l feel viil veal fia fear Via veerfoul foal vaul vole fail file vail vile

feri ferry veri very faet fat vaet vatfasn fan vaen van fell fail veil veilNowtrythesesoundsbetweenvowels.Inthispositionthe/v/willbevoiced

inEnglish,buttheimportantthingforyouistomakeitshortandweak:ifyoudothisthevoicingcantakecareofitself.(Ifyourlanguagehasvoiced/v/anyway,this is fine.) Take special care inthis position that the /v/ has some friction,thoughnottoomuch,andthatthefrictioniscausedbylip-teethactionandnotbythe two lips.Use your mirror to make sure that the upper lip is well clear ofthelowerone.

SAfa suffer kAva coverdefa deafer neva neversnifii] sniffing gwig givingpruifiQproofing pruivirjprovingrAfo rougher Uva loversaufa sofa auva overseifa safer seiva savourDfa offer hDva hoverdifaid defied divaid dividerifjuiz refuse rivjuiz reviewsInphraseswedoexactlythesame,longstrongfrictionfor/f/andshortweak

frictionfor/v/.Trythese:26FrictionconsonantsverifaistveryfastverivaistveryvastaifillfainIfeelfineaifi:IvaiIIfeelvilefainf3:zfinefursfainV3isfineversefaifaenzfourfansfaivaenzfourvansagudfju:agoodfewagudvju:agoodviewWhen/f/and/v/occurattheendofwords,afteravowel,theyhaveaneffect

onthelengthofthevowel.Thestrongconsonant/f/makesthevowelshorter,theweak consonant /v/makes the vowel longer. This isan important general rulewhichapplies tomanyotherpairsofcon-sonantsaswell:strongconsonantsatthe endofwords shorten theprecedingvowel,weak consonants lengthen it. Inthewords safe seif and save seiv,the /f/ and the /v/ have the same features asbefore:/f/ isstrongerandlonger,/v/isweakerandshorter,veryshortindeedinthisposition,butthevowelsareofverydifferentlengths;inseifthe/ei/isquiteshortandinseivitisreallylong.

Saythesewords,seifandseiv,andbeparticularlycarefultolengthenoutthevowelinseiv,drawlit,dragitout,andthenaddaveryshortweak/v/frictionattheveryend.Don’tshortenthe/ei/inseiftoomuch,butdobesurethatthe/ei/inseivisverymuchlonger.Nowdothesamewiththefollowingwords:

liifleafliivleavelaiflifelaivlivehalfhalfhaivhalvestraifstrifestrawstrivekaifcalfkaivcarvereifRalphreivravepruifproofpruivproveweifwaifweivwaveS3ifsurfS3:vserveseifsafesewsave

Thesewordsallcontainvowelphonemeswhicharenaturallylong,thatistosay longer than thevowels /i eaedua/ in similarpositions.Theshortvowelsbehave like the longoneswhen followedby /f/or /v/,that is, theyare shortestwhen followed by strong /f/ and rather longerwhen followed by weak /v/,althoughtheyareneverso longas the longvowelswhenthesearefollowedbytheweakconsonant.

Try this with the words below: before /f/ make the vowel quiteshort, andbefore/v/makeitalittlelonger,aboutaslongasthelongvowelsbefore/f/.Andstillmake/f/longerandstronger,and/v/veryshortandweakinfriction.

stifstiffsivsieveDfoffdvofklifclifflivliverAfroughdAVdovesmfsniffgivgivebUfbluffIavlovegaefgaffehaevhavefUffluffgUvglove27Now lookat thephrasesbelow,anddecidewhichof thevowelshave tobe

longerandwhichshorter.Rememberthattherearethreelengths:(i)shortvowels(/1eaedua/)beforethestrongconsonant,e.g.stif,(2)shortvowelsbeforetheweakconsonant,andlongvowelsbeforethestrongconsonant,e.g.gUvandweif,(3) longvowelsbeforetheweakconsonant,e.g.seiv.Nowsay themwithgoodvowellengthandgooddifferencebetween/f/and/v/.

L^J9halfsmfahalfsniffabreivbUfabravebluffastifgUvastiffglovealaivdAValivedove0briifIavabriefloveaseifmuivasafemove0rAfgreivaroughgraveagreivgriifagravegrief0dwDifst0uvadwarfstoveaklifdraivacliffdriveSomeof themostcommonEnglishwordswhichcontain /f/are:family, far,

fat, father, feel, few, fried, first, for, four. Jive, from, friend, front,before,after,afraid, different, difficult, left, office, perfect, prefer, suffer,awful, often, half,off,knife,life,laugh,self,wife,safe,cough,rough,stiff.

SomeofthemostcommonEnglishwordswhichcontain/v/are:very,valve,visit,voice,value,violent,vast,van,view,ever,never,over,river,seven,several,travel,even,every,heavy,live,ofgive,love,move,prove,receive,believe,save,serve,twelve,wave,five,have.

Sometimes when you are listening to English, listen especially forthesewords(andotherscontaining/f/and/v/)andtrytofixthesoundsinyourmind.

/0/and/d//0/and/d/arealsofrictionsounds,/0/isstrongand/d/isweak.Bothhavethe

positionofthespeechorgansshowninFigure13.

Fig.13/0/andj&j28FrictionconsonantsNOTICE1The soft palate is raised so that all thebreath is forced togo throughthe

mouth.2Thetipofthetongueisclosetotheupperfrontteeth:thisisthenarrowing

wherethefrictionismade.3Thenoisemadebythefrictionfor /0/and/d/ isnotverygreat,muchless

thanfor/s/and/z/.Putthetipofyourtongueclosetothecutting-edgeofyourupperfrontteeth.

Inamirroryouwillbeabletoseethetip.Blowairthroughthispositionsothatyou get some friction, but not toomuch, not somuch as for /$/. Continue thesoundandlistentoit./0/shouldmakethesameamountofnoiseas/f/,notmore.Try/f/and/©/alternatelyuntilyougetthefrictionrightfor/0/.Nowmakelessfriction for /8/ bypushing the air more gently. The friction for /d/ when it isproperlymade can only just be heard Now alternate the stronger /8/ andtheweaker/3/nottoomuchfrictionin/0/andevenlessin/d/.

AllthatIsaidaboutstrongandweakconsonantsonp.25istruefor/0/and/d/./0/isstrongerandlongerandalwaysvoiceless,/d/isweakerandshorterandmaybevoiced.Confusing/0/and/d/willscarcelyeverleadtomisunderstandingbecausetheyiaiclyoccurinwordswhichareotherwisesimilar,butifyoudonotmakethedifferenceproperlyitwillbenoticeable.

Try thewords given below, and be sure (1) that the air passesbetween thetonguetipandtheteeth,and(2)thatthefrictionisnevertoostrong.

0inthindenthen0aerjkthankdaetthat0i13kthinkdisthis0a:tthoughtd0uzthose0i:fthiefdiiztheseSome people may confuse /0/ with /f/ and /d/ with /v/; this is not

veryimportant forunderstanding, since someEnglish speakersdo the same,butyoushouldtrynottomaketheseconfusionsbecausetheywillbe

noticeable.Saythesewords,andbe surethatfor/f/; and/v/

youare

usingalip-teeth action,andfor/0/and/d/atongue-

-teethaction.

finfin 0inthin faitfought

0ditthought

fri:free 0ri:three frilfrill 0rilthrill

histfirst 03:stthirst faitiforty

03itithirty

daetthat vastvat denthen ventvent

deithey veinvain de0there viaveer

diizthese vi:lveal dauthough

vautvote

29

Betweenvowels /d/ isvoiced,but the important thing foryou is tomake itvery short and weak, and let the voicing take care of itself. /©/is alwaysvoiceless.Saythesewords:

D:0aauthoradaotherma:0aMartharriAdamothera:0aArthurra:darathernA0ignothingbrAdabrother3i0iearthyW3idiworthyb3:0aBerthaf3idafurtherNowtrytokeep/f,v,0,d/separateinthisposition.L«JD:0aauthorDfaoffera:0aArthurtAfatoughernA0iQnothingpAfigpuffingtu:0itoothyru:figroofingbrAdabrotherlAvaluvcrledaleathernevaneverfaidafatherkaivacarverhiidanheatheni:vanevenAttheendofwords/©/and/d/affectaprecedingvowelinthesamewayas

/f/and/v/.Trywithsomelongvowels,andmakethevowelspeciallylongbefore/d/.

LzJgrao0growthlaudloathetu:0toothsmu:dsmoothbau0bothklaudclotheri:0wreathbri:dbreathe

fei0faithbeidbathemau0mouth(n.)maudmouth(vb.)Theonlyword inwhich /d/occurs finallyaftera shortvowel is /wid/with,

buttrykeepingthevowelatitsshortestinthefollowing:L^Jmo0mothmi0mythbre0breathde0deathrD0wrathSomeofthemostcommonEnglishwordswhichcontain/0/are:thank,thick,

thin, thing, thirsty, thousand, f/iree, through, throw, Thursday,thought, thirty,healthy,wealthy,something,anything,bath,breath,

cloth,earth,fourth,etc.,faith,health,month,north,south,path,worth,death.Some of the most common Fnglish words which contain /d/ (andsome of

these are amongst the commonest in the language) are: t/ie,this, that, these,those, there, their, then, they, them, though, than, other,mother, father, brother,either,neither,further,clothes,leather,together,weather,whether,breathe,with,smooth.

SometimeswhenyoulistentoEnglishlistenspeciallyforthese30Frictionconsonantswords (andothers containing /©/ and /d/) and try to fix the sounds inyour

mind.Onp.33youwillfindmoreabout/0/and/d/whentheyarecloseto/s/and/z

/./$/and/z//s/isastrongfrictionsoundand/z/isaweakone.Thepositionofthespeech

organsforthesesoundsisshowninFigure14.NOTICE1The soft palate is raised so that all thebreath is forced togo throughthe

mouth.2Thetipandbladeofthetongueareveryclosetothealveolarridge.Thereis

avery considerablenarrowingat thispoint, notnear theteeth andnotnear thehardpalate.

3Theteethareveryclosetogether.4Thefrictionforthesesounds,especiallyfor/s/,ismuchgreaterthanfor/f,

v,0/and/d/.Therewillbeasoundsimilarto/s/ inyourlanguage:makethissound,then

keepyourmouth in that position anddrawair inwards;makesmall changes inthepositionofthetipandbladeofthetongueuntilyoucanfeelthatthecoldairishittingthetongueattheverycentreofthealveolarridge,notfurtherforwardandnot furtherback, /z/ is theweak sound, sowhenyouare satisfiedwith the

strongfrictionfoi/s/,pushairthroughmoreslowlysothatthefrictionisweaker.Alternatestrongandweakfriction.

Once again, as for the other consonants, the strong one, /s/, is longerandalwaysvoiceless, theweakone, /z/, isquiteshortandmaybevoiced,butagainthcgentlenessof/z/isthethingtoconcentrateon.

Fig.14jsiand/z/31

Iz/isnotacommonsoundatthebeginningofwords,soconfusing/s/and/z/in initial position will not generally lead to misunderstanding;but Englishspeakersdodistinguish them,soyoushould try todosotoo.Try thefollowingwords:

siQksinkziqkzincsu:Suezu:zoosedsaidzedZedsillsealzi:lzealSDinsawnzaunzonesistcystzestzest

Between vowels /z/ is voiced, and if you voice this sound naturally inthatpositionthatisgood;ifnot,thesoundshouldbemadeverygentlyandveryshort,/s/isalwaysvoiceless.Trythesewords:

luisslooserlu:zaloserksisscoarserkDizacauserleisilacyleizilazyfAsifussyfAzifuzzybASizbusesbAZizbuzzesreisigracingreizii]raisifig

Attheendofwords,afteravowel,/s/makesthevowelrathershorterand/z/makesitlonger,aswith/f,v,0,d/,andinthisposition/z/isparticularlyshortandgentlejustthefaintesttouchofa/z/issufficient,butthevowelmustbegoodandlong.Trythewordsbelowandmakeboththedifferenceofvowellengthandofconsonantstrength:

pleisplacepleizplaysni:snieceni:zknees

kDiscoarsekDizcausepraispricepraizprize1u:slooseu:zloseh3ishearseh3izhersAndnowsomemorewithshortvowels:bASbusbAZbuzzhishisshizhisaesassaezasFor the speakersofmany languages (e.g.French,German, Italian,Chinese,

Japanese,Russian,etc.)therearenotseparatephonemes/0/and/s/butonlyonewhich is usuallymore like theEnglish /s/. So thereis a danger that /s/will beusedinsteadof /0/.Thedifferencebetweenthemis that /s/ ismadewiththetipand blade of the tongue close tothe centre of the alveolar ridge andmakes astrongfriction,whereas/0/ismadewiththetonguetipneartheupperteethandmakesmuchlessfriction.

Distinguishcarefullybetweenallthesepairs:sinsin0inthinSDitsort0o:tthoughtsir)sing0njthingSAmsum0aitjthumbsirjksink0ir)kthinksaisigh0aithigh32FrictionconsonantsNowdothemagain,andbeabsolutelycertainthatyoudonotreplace/s/by

/0/:thereisalwaysadangerofreplacingthemorefamiliarwiththelessfamiliarsound,aswellasthereverse.,1Nowtrythemattheendofwords(thevowellengthisthesameallthe timebecausebothare strongconsonantsandshorten thevowe ),but /s/

muststillmakemuchmorenoisethan/0/.mausmousemosmossfo:sforcemau0mouthmo0mothfo:0fourthfeisfacepa:spassW3isworsefei0faithpa:0pathW3I0worthRepeatthisexerciseandbesureagainthatyouarenotreplacing/s/by^The same difficulty applies to /z/ and /3/. Both are weak sounds buth/

makesmorenoisethan/3/.Trythesewords.zu:zoothoufhbri:zbreezebri:8brea|heraizriserai3writheti:ziQteasingti:3ii]teethingzoobreezetiiziQteasingriizanreasonzedZedklauzcloseleizlays

klauziQclosingmaizamiserhiidanheathendenthenklaudclotheleidlatheklsudigclothingnaidaneitherGothroughthesewordsagainandbesurethatyouarenotreplacing/a/bv/z/

or/z/by/fl/.Those people who speak languages where /©/ and /s/ are not

separatephonemes usually have a special difficulty when /s/ and /A/ occurclosetogetherinwordslike0iQksthinks.Because/$/and/9/arebothmadewiththe tongue-tip and because the teeth and the alveolar ridge arerather closetogetherthereisadangerofusing/s/ inbothplacesoreven/©/inbothplaces,givingsirjksor0iQk0Thismustbeavoidedifpossible,/z/and/»/giveexactlythe same difficultyTry the followingwords and be careful tomake /s/ and /z/noisyand/©/and/3/lessnoisy:sau0south.Sisthis,5i:zthese,Sauzthose,0aizthighs, smu:Ssmooth, 0iqz things, Sevan© seventh, 03:sti thirsty, itiaSszmothers,

SASansouthern,3eaztheirs,0isjthistle.MakingIs,z/and/0,3/sufficientlydifferentfromeachotherisevenmoredifficultwhentheyarenexttoeachothermawordorphraselikeba:3z

bathsorbau0saidzbothsides.ThishappensveryofteninEnghsh33

because/$/and/z/areverycommonattheendofwordsand/0/beginssomeverycommonwordssuchasthe,this,f/iaf,/tam,etc.

Start with a long /©/-sound, not too much noise, then slide the tip ofthetongue gently backwards to the alveolar ridge, which will give thenoisy /s/-sound. Do this several times, and be sure that you start with agood /0/; thengraduallymake the /0/ shorter before you slide the tipback to the /s/ position.Nowpractisethesewordsandbecarefultomakeadistinctdifferenceeachtime:

mD0mothmDSmossmD0smothsmi0mythmismissmi0smythsfo:0fourthfoisforcefoi0sfourths

Nowdothesamewith/0/and/z/;startwithalongquiet/0/andgentlyslidethe tongue back to give the noisier /z/. Gradually shortenthe sounds (but becarefultomakeboth,not/0/or/z/alone)andthenpractisemakingadifferencebetweenthesewords:

bri:0breathebriizbreezebriidzbreathesraiQwritheraizriseraidzwrithesklau0clotheklauzcloseklaudzclothes

Now try going from /s/ to /0/; this time gently slide the tongueforwardtowards the teethuntil thenoisy /s/ is replacedby thequiet/0/.Do thisseveraltimesandbesurethatbothsoundsareheard.Thenpractisethesephrases:

anais0ir)anicethingits0ikit’sthickdjasksOinJack’sthinlets0ir]klet’sthinkjes0aeQksyes,thankspars0ru:passthrough

Dothesamewithjzjand/0/andthenpractisethesephrases:huiz0iswho’sthis?juizdaetusethataz0auasthoughdjDnzdeaJohn’sthereIuiz0amlosethemweaz0atiiwhere’sthetea?

Andfinallysomemorephrasesinwhich/s,z,0,5/cometogetherinvariousorders.Alwaysbecarefultomakeonenoisysound(/$,z/)andonequietone(/0,6/):

WDts0aetwhat’sthat?itsdeazit’stheirs34bauOsaidzbothsideswaiz0aitswisethoughtsFrictionconsonantshi:z03itihe’sthirtywidseiftiwithsafetybri:0sDft1ibreathesoftlySi:z0ri:thesethreeTherearevarioustongue-twisterssentenceswhicharedifficulttosay-based

onthemixingofthesefoursounds;forexamplesiks0in0islstikssixthinthistlesticksand09Iii0paIiisdismisaOastheLeithpolicedismissethus,butnativeEnglish speakers find thesedifficult to say, sothere isnoneed to try tomasterthem. It is much better to concentrateon words and phrases like those abovewhichoccurveryofteninnormalconversation.

Some of the very many common words containing /s/ are: same,sing, sit,Saturday,Sunday,save,see,say,second,seem,self,send,six,seven,side,since,sleep, slow, small, so, some, son, sister, soon, start, stay, stop, still,against,almost, beside(s), least, lost, last, listen, message, mister, Mrs, use (n.),face,miss, across, advice, case, cats (etc.), takes (etc.), pass, less, -ness, nice,piece,perhaps,yes.

Some of the very many common words containing /z / are: noisy,busy,reason,easy, lazy, losing,as,his,hers,cause,use(vb.),has, is, lose,was,days,dogs(etc.),does,moves(etc.),noise,please.

Illand/3//J/isastrongfrictionsoundand/3/isaweakone.Thepositionofthespeech

organsforthesesoundsisshowninFigure15.

notice1The soft palate is raised so that all thebreath is forced togo throughthe

mouth.2 There is a narrowing between the tip of the tongue and the back ofthe

alveolarridge.3Thefrontofthetongueishigherthanfor/s/and/z/.4Thelipsareveryslightlyrounded.Start from /s/: pull the tip of the tongue backwards a little so that

thenarrowing is at the back of the alveolar ridge (draw the breath inwardstocheckthatyouhavethetongueintherightplace).Keepthispositionandputtherest of the tongue in position to say the vowel /1/, slightlyround the lips, andpushthebreaththroughstrongly./J/isamuchnoisiersoundthan/f/and/G/andonlyalittlelessnoisythan/s/.For/3/thefrictionisweaker,andshorter.

Illdoesnotoccurat thebeginningofEnglishwordsbut/{/quitefrequentlydoes.Trythese:Ji1she,Jaushow,{Dpshop,{ipship,Jedshed,

35

%*5HIhi

J3:t shirt, Ja:p sharp, Jb:t short9 Jea share, Jain shine, Jua rare, jAt shut,Ju:shoe,Judshould.

Between vowels fa/ is voiced and if you voice this sound naturallyin thatposition so much the better; if not, make it very gentle and veryshort, m isalwaysvoiceless.Therearealmostnocasesinwhich/J/andIlfdistinguishwordswhich are otherwise the same, but practise thesemixedwords: prejasprecious,trejatreasure,aujanocean,iksplaujanexplosion7neijannation,inveijaninvasion,kandijan condition, dis^andecision, preja pressure, me3a measure, rileijanrelation,ake^anoccasion.

Attheendofwords/J/isquitecommonbutfa/isveryrareandonlyoccursinafewwordsborrowedfromFrench:liketheothergentlesoundsitmakesthevowelbeforeitlonger,whereas/J/makesitshorter,Trythese/J/words:

finijfinishrAbiJrubbishkraejcrashkrAjcrushwdJwashpujpushli:Jleashha:Jharsh

Andnowthese/3/words,makingthevowelsfullylong:gaera:3garagebei3beigeru:3rouge

Asyoucansee,ifyouconfuse/J/andfa/,notmuchdamageisdone,thoughsincenativeEnglishspeakersdistinguishthemyoushouldtrytotoo.However,itis much more dangerous to confuse /s/ and /J/because many words are keptseparateonlybythisdifference.Insomelanguages(e.g.Spanish,Greek)thereisonlyonephonemewhereEnglishhasboth /s/and/J/andif this issoyoumusttake special carewith these phonemes. (The replacement of /$/ by /J/ gives aratherdrunkeneffect toone’s speech!) Inparticular the frictionof /$/ issharperandhigherthanthatof/J/becausethetongue-tipisnearerto

36Frictionconsonants

theteeth,sopractisethepairsofwordsbelowandbesurethatyoumoveyourtonguetotherightpositionsforthetwoconsonants:

sau so Jau show sai sigh Jai shySDk sock Jok shock si: see shesalt sort Jait short seim same Jeim shameP3:$an

person p3:Jan Persian beisan basin neijan nation

lisan listen mijan mission misiQ missing wijiq wishingli:s lease U:J leashv ass ass aej ashmes mess mej meshThe danger of confusingwordswith /z/ and / j/ is very small becausefew

pairsofwordshaveonlythisdifference,buttouseoneofthesewheretheotherisusual will make your English soundwrong, so keepthe two separate. Try thefollowing:

rizanrisenvi3anvisionreizarazorirei3aerasurereizanraisininve^aninvasionrauzaRosaklau3aclosureru:zruse01:3rougebeizbaysbei3beigeSome of the commonest words containing /J/ ar e: shape, she, ship,

sharp,shop, shall, should, short, shut, shout, show, shoulder, shoe, shoot,shine,shore, sure, anxious, ashamed, machine, patient, position, station,motion,nation, ocean, mention, pressure, precious, bush, crash, crush,fish,flesh,foolish,fresh,greenish(etc.),punish,push,rush,selfish,wash,wish,dish.

Someofthecommonestwordscontaining/3/are:measure,pleasure,usual,division, revision, collision, invasion, vision, inclusion, illusion,provision,explosion,leisure,garage,barrage,rouge,beige.

NThere are as many /h/-sounds in English as there are vowels, because/h /

always occurs before a vowel and consists of the sound of breathpassingbetweentheopenvocalcordsandoutofthemouthwhichisalreadypreparedforthefollowingvowel.Before/i:/ themouthis inpositionfor /!:/,before/a:/ it isreadyfor/a:/,andsoon;soinordertomake/h/-sounds,themouthisheldreadyforthevowelandashortgaspofbreathispushedupbythelungs,/h/doesnotmakeverymucnoise,butitmustnotbeleftoutwhenitshouldbesounded,fortworeasons:(1)manywordsaredistinguishedby thepresenceorabsenceof/h/,likehiahereandiaear,(2)Englishspeakersconsiderthattheleavingoutof/h/is

themarkofanuncultivatedspeaker.37

Leavingout/h/isthebiggestdanger,butalessererroristomake/h/-soundstoonoisy.Somespeakers(forinstance,Spaniards,Greeks,Poles)pushthebreathbetweenthebackofthetongueandthesoftpalateandmakeasrrapingnoiseatthatpoint.ThissoundsratherunpleasanttoEnglishpeopleandyoushouldavoiditifpossible.Forthewordsbelow,getyourmouthreadyforthevowelandpushalittlegaspofbreaththroughyourmouthjustbeforethevowelstarts:

harthearth3:herhaethatHd:Ihallhu:whohi:heSayallthosewordsseveraltimesandbesurethatthe/h/-soundisthere,but

nottoonoisyjustthesoundofbreathstreamingfromthemouth.Nowcomparethefollowingpairs,onewordwith/h/andonewithout:ha:mharmhedjhedgeheahairaimarmec^3edgeeaairhi:theathailhallhilhilli:teatd:Iallilill

/h/alsooccursinthemiddleofwords(althoughneverattheendofwords)and should be made in the same way as before. If the vocalcords happen tovibrate and give voice during /h/ this is normal, butthere is no need to tryespecially to voice the sound. Try these words,with a definite /h/, but noscraping:

bihaindbehindrih3isrehearseriihauzre-houseenihauanyhowki:haulkey-holeAnhauliunholyaelkaholalcoholbifbihaendbeforehand

/h/ is especially difficult for those who have no such sound in theirownlanguage(forexampleFrench,Italian) inphraseswherewordswith/h/andwordswithout it are close together. If you have this trouble youmust practiseexampleslikethosebelowquiteslowlyatfirst,andbesurethatthewordswhichought tohave /h/doactuallyhave it,and,equally important, that thosewithout/h/donothaveit.Trythemnow,slowly:

hauza:0ahow’sArthur?autavhaendoutofhanditsDifliheviit’sawfullyheavyhizhaumzinaialandhishome’sinIrelandhelanwentautHelenwentout38Frictionconsonantswi:a:lwenthaumweallwenthomeaihithenriinSi:aiIhitHenryintheeyeaiaisktaenhauJi:h3:dabautitIaskedAnnhowsheheardaboutitSay each of those examples several times slowly with the /h / in theright

placesbeforeyouspeeduptoanormalpace.A few common words sometimes have /h/ and sometimes do not,

forexample,he,him,her,have.Thisisexplainedonp.92.Someofthecommonestwordswhichalwayscontain/h/are:half,hand,hat,

head, health, hear, here, heart, heavy, hide, high, history, hit, hold,hole, home,hope,horse,hat,house,how,hundred,husband,behind,before-hand,household,anyhow,greenhouse,manhole,inhale,rehearse,coherent.

3.2StopconsonantsIn stop consonants the breath is completely stopped at some point inthe

mouth,by the lipsor tongue-tipor tongue-back,andthenreleasedwithaslightexplosion.Therearefourpairsofphonemescontainingstopsfp,b/,/t,d/,/k,g/and /tj, d3/, and like the friction consonantsone of each pair is strong and theotherweak.

/p/and/b/Ip/ is a strong stop consonant and /b / is a weak one. The position of

theorgansofspeechforthesestopsisshowninFigure16.NOTICE1The lips are closed firmly and the soft palate is raised so that thebreath

cannotgetoutofeitherthenoseorthemouthbutistrappedforashorttime.2 When the lips are opened suddenly the breath rushes out with aslight

explosionorpoppingnoise.3Before the lipsareopened, therestof themouthtakesupthepositionfor

the following sound, a vowel position if a vowel follows, as inpool, or aconsonantpositionifaconsonantfollows,asinplay.

jplisastrongsound,like/f/and/0/and/s/and/J/,butithasaspecialfeaturewhich these do not have: it causes the following sound to losesome of thevoicingwhichitwouldotherwisehave.Forexample,inpu:lpoolthefirstpartofthevowel/u:/hasnovoiceitconsistsofbreathflowingthroughthemouthwhichisinpositionfor/u:/.Infactthisiswhathappensfor/h/,aswesawonp.37,sothatwemaywrite

39

thisvoicelessperiodlikethis:phu:l,wherethehrepresentsavoicelesskindof/u:/.Trymakingthisvoiceless/u:/byitself;itisratherlikewhatyoudowhenyoublowoutalight.Nowputthe/p/infrontofit,stillwithnovoice,onlystrongbreath.Nowputthevowel/u:/itselfafterthebreath,phu:.Dothisseveraltimesandbesure that theperiodofbreath is therebefore the /u:/starts.Dothesamethingwithothervowelsinthewordspb:t,pha:t,phaet,phet,phit,phi:t.Itisvery

Fig.16/p/and/b/importantthattheperiodofbreath(whichiscalledaspiration)shouldbethere

eachtime.Itisthisaspirationwhichmainlyseparates/p/from/b/.Nowtry/p/withafollowingconsonant,asin/plei/Keepthelipsclosedfor

/p/,andbehindthemputyourtongueinpositionfor/!/;thenopenthelipsandletthebreathflowthroughthe/ /position,withnovoicebutconsiderablefriction.Thisgivesavoiceless/l/-sound,whichiswritten/I/Dothisseveraltimespi,pi,pistillwithnovoice.Nowputtheordinaryvoiced/!/afterpipiIandthengoontothe vowel, pjlei.Do the same thingwith thewords prei and pjua,and see thatbreath flows through the jrj and /j/ position, giving /r/ and/J/, with friction,beforethevoiced/r/and/j/areheard.

/b/ isaweakstop,and itneverhasaspiration.Thevocalcordsmayormaynotvibratewhilstthelipsarestillclosed,buttheymustvibrateforthefollowingsound, whether vowel or consonant. Try the wordbuk, andmake the /b/ verygentleandwithoutanyaspiration.DothesamewithbDit,ba:,baek,bel,bit,bi:n.Afollowingconsonantispreparedforwhilstthelipsareclosedandisvoicedassoonastheyopen.Trybrait,bu:,bjuitiwithagentle/b/.

Nowtrythefollowingpairsofwords,andmakethe/p/strongandaspiratedandthejbjweakandunaspirated:

40StopconsonantsS3piikpeakbilkbeakpitpitbitbipackpackbaekbackpa:kparkba:kbarkpitportbaitboughtpulpullbulbullpraidpridebraidbridepleizplaysbleizblaze

When /p/ occurs between vowels the aspiration may be less noticeableorevenabsent,butitwillneverdoanyharmtokeeptheaspirationinthispositiontoo./b/isofcourseneveraspirated,butinthispositionitisusuallyvoiced.Themostimportantthing,aswiththeotherweakconsonants,istomakeitverygentleandshort.Trythesewords:

haepihappyJuebishabbysaP3supperrAbarubberpeipapaperleibalabournpelrepelnbelrebdsimp)simplesimblsymbolaplaiapplyabiald3oblige

Somelearners(e.g.Spaniards)havegreatdifficultyinhearingandmakingadifference between /b/ and /v/ in this position, so that thewords marble andmarvelsoundthesame.Theymusttakegreatcaretoclosethelipsveryfirmlyfor/b/,sothatthesoundmakesanexplosionandnotafriction.Trythesewords:

maiblmarblemaivl,marvelnbanribbonnvariverhaebithabithaevithaveitrAbarubberlAvaloverleibalabourfeivafavourbeibibabyneivinavy

In final position (before a pause) /p/ is aspirated and shortens thevowelbeforeit,whilst/b/isparticularlyweakandmakesonlyverylittle

noise,butlengthensthevowelbeforeit.Insomelanguages(e.g.Cantonese,Vietnamese)afinalstopisnotexploded

orisreplacedbyaglottalstop(astopconsonantinwhichthebreathisblockedbythevocalcords,seep.14)-Speakersoftheselanguagesmustbeverycarefulto form /p/ and /b/ with the bps,;and oopen the lips and allow the breath toexplodeoutofthemouthbeforeapause.Trythesewords:

ripripribribkaepcapkaebcabrauproperaubrobetraiptripetraibtribetxptaptaebtabnepwrapgrabgrabThosewhohavedifficultywith/b/and/v/mustagainbesuretoclosethelips

firmlyforthe/b/andmakeaverylightexplosionbutnofriction.Try:4i

EEribribgivgivekaebcabhaevhavetraibtribedraivdrivekkbclubgUvgloveWhen / p/ or /b/ are followed immediately by one of the other

stopconsonants/t,d,k,g/orby/m/or/n/ thesoundismadealittledifferently;thisisdealtwithonp.67.

Someofthecommonestwordscontaining/p/are:page,pair,paper,pardon,part, pass, pdy, people, perhaps, piece, place, p/dte, p/ay, please,plenty, poor,possible, post, pound, pretty, price, pull, push, put, appear,April, company,compare, complain, complete, copy, expect, happen, happy,important, open,sleep, cheap, cup, drop,group, heap, help, hope, keep,map,rope, shape, sharp,shop,stop,step,top,up,wrap.

Someof the commonestwords containing /b/ are: back, bad, bag,bath, be,beautiful, because, become, bed, before, begin, behind, believe, belong,below,besides, best, between, big, black, blue, both, boy, bread, break, break-fast,bring,but,busy,buy,by,brown,able,about,above,September(etc.),February,habit, harbour, husband, neighbour, number, obey, possible,probable, public,remember,table,job,rub,rob,club,slab,grab.

/t/and/d/

/t/ is a strong stop consonant and /d / is a weak one. The position oftheorgansofspeechforthesestopsisshowninFigure17.

NOTICE1 The tip of the tongue (not the blade) is firmly against themiddle ofthe

alveolarridge,nottooneartheteethandnotnearthehardpalate.2Thesoftpalateisraised,sothebreathcannotescapethrougheitherthenose

orthemouth,butistrappedforashorttime.3Thesidesofthetonguearefirmlyagainstthesidesofthepalate,sothatthe

breathcannotpassoverthesidesofthetongue.4When the tongue-tip is lowered suddenly from the teeth ridge thebreath

rushesoutwithaslightexplosionorpoppingnoise.Thestrongstop/t/isaspiratedinthesamewayas/p/andthismaybewritten

inasimilarway,e.g.thu:too.Putthetonguetipontheverycentreofthealveolarridge;besurethatonlytheverypointofthetongueisincontact,nottheblade;thenallowtheair toburstoutwithavoicelessvowel /u:/;do thisseveral timesbeforeaddingthenormalvoicedvowelandbesurethatwhenyoudoaddthe/u:/thevoicelessperiodisstill there.Dothisseveraltimesandeachtimechecktheexact

42Stopconsonantsr

Fig.17/t/and/d/

position of the tongue-tip and the aspiration. Then do the same thingwithothervowels:tbit,fop.t-m,fi:,fain.t-An.Thentrythewordtwin,wherethefirstpartof/w/comesoutvoicelessandtjuin

where/j/isalsopartlyvoiceless./d/isshortandweakandneveraspirated;comparethefollowingwords:tu: two du: doten ten den dentAn ton dAn done

tjuin tune djuin dunetaintomdarndawntaitiedaidietauntowndaundowntwintwindwindIdwindleAswith/p/,when/t/occursbetweenvowels,theaspirationmaybeweakeror

evenabsent,butitwillneverdoanyharmtokeeptheaspirationinthispositiontoo. /d / in thisposition isusuallyvoiced,butconcentratemainlyonmaking itvery gentle and short, and it it isvoiced aswell somuch the better. Try thesewords:

Qraltawriterraidariderwetii)wettingwedigwedding1*10latterlaed3ladderwDitawaterwo:d0warderwaitijwhitishwaidijwidishputtrjputtingpudigpuddingSpeakerswhofind/b/and/v/difficultinthispositionwillalsofind/d/and/a/

hard todistinguish.Concentrateonmaking/d/with the tipotthe tonguefirmlyagainst the alveolar ridge, andmake sure it is a firmstop rather thana frictionsound.Compare.

LEDraidigridingraidigwrithingbriidiQbreedingbriidigbreathinglaudiQloadingl3udl0loathinglaedaladderI*9*lather43

Infinalposition/t/isaspiratedandshortensthevowelbeforeit,whilst/d/isparticularly weak and makes only very little noise, but lengthensthe vowelbeforeit.However,speakerswhotendnottoallow/t/and/d/toexplodeinthispositionshouldbesurenotonlytomakethedifferenceofvowellengthbutalsotoallowthebreathtoexplodeoutofthemouth.Trythesewords:

betbetbedbedha:theartha:dhardleitlateleidlaidsaitsightsaidsidesetsetsedsaidbn:tbroughtbre:dbroad/d/and/8/mayagainbedifficulttodistinguishinthisposition.Besurethat

/d/ismadewiththetongue-tipfirmlyonthealveolarridge,andthatthebreathisreleasedwithatinyexplosion.Trythewords:

bri:dbreedbri:5breatheraidrideraidwrithelaudloadIau3loathesaidsidesaidscytheWhen/t/and/d/arefollowedbyanyoftheotherstopconsonants,/p,b,k,g/orby/m/or/n/or/I/,thesoundsaremadealittledifferently.This

isdealtwithonpp.6773.Some of the many common words containing /t/ are: table, take, tell,ten,

time, to, today, together, too, top, towards, town, Tuesday, turn, twelve,fuw,

fa/fe, d/ier, tatter, between, city, dirty, hotel, into, matter, notice,particular,protect,quarter,Saturday,water,writer,about,at,beat,bite,boat,but,coat,eat,eight, fat, flat, gate, get, great, hot, it, let, lot, not, ought,might, put, what.(Noticealsothepasttenseofverbsendingwithastrongconsonant,e.g.missedmist,laughedlaift.)

Some of the many common words containing /d / are: day, dead,dear,December,decide,depend,different,difficult,do(etc.),dinner,dog,door,down,during,already,Monday(etc.),holiday,idea,lady,ladder,medicine,body,ready,shoulder, study, today, under, add, afraid, bad, bed,bird, could, would, end,friend,good,had,head,old,read,road,side.(Noticealsothepasttenseofverbsending with a vowel, a weak consonant, and/t/, e.g. owed zud, failed fei\d,startedstaitid.)

/k/and/g//k / is a strong stop consonant and /g/ is a weak one. The position of

theorgansofspeechforthesesoundsisshowninFigure18.NOTICE1Thebackofthetongueisinfirmcontactwiththesoftpalate,and44Stopconsonantsthetoftpalateisraised,so**Thn;;igstoPmaybeshownmasmnkr££-8^voicelessDothispositionfor/k/andletthebrevoicelessone,severaltimesbeforeaddinganormalvowelW

Fig.lS/k/aw//g/

and be sure that the voicel^^ftod^dw Mpt^fton^comesbeftnetlw^ _normalvoweleachtnne.*same,hingwiththefollow-

LT^nts^tn,krlrm,kwi:n,k,m,wheretheftr,partofthe/I,r,w/and/)/comesoutvoiceless^mayformthe

The speakersof:5°meS, wfthdie front of the tongue againststop too farforwardin’,,,notavery

thehardpalate,beforethevowes//^soUndsUke/kje/and/dangerousmistake,buttongiseavoidedifpossible.If!ss^<■«■*-*-kept^k*mm^hs^ranT“neveraspira.^mparetheMowingwords(anddonotforgettheaspirationof/k/)-,geivgaveka:dcardkervcave§kudcouldgudgoodkCUrl«pgapkaulcoalg^lgoalkaEPC»Pglasskraucrowg™growklaisclassg,a‘sSiass45

AswithIp/and/1/,when/k/occursbetweenvowels theaspirationmay-beweakerorevenabsent,butitmaybekeptinthispositiontoo.Ontheotherhand/g/ is normally voiced in this position (and of coursenever aspiiated), butconcentratemainlyonmakingitgentleandshort.Speakerswhoconfuse/b/and/d/with /v/ and /©/ in this positionwillalso tend tomake /g/ a friction soundinsteadofthecorrectstopsound.Theymustbesuretoputthetongueintofirmcontact with the palateand let the breath out with a definite, though slight,

explosion.Trythesewords:likirjwiikalickingweakermaikitmarketdlgiQdiggingi:gaeagertaigittargetlaekiglacking0ikathickeraegklanklelaegiqlaggingbigabiggeraeggjangle

In final position /k/ is aspirated and shortens the vowel before it, but/g/ isvery, very gentle and lengthens the vowel before it. For bothconsonants theremustbeadefiniteexplosion,astrongonefor/k/andaweakonefor/g/;aclosurewithoutexplosionorasimplefrictionisnotcorrect.Trythesewords:

pikpickpigpigdokdockdDgdogbaekbackbaegbagbklockbglogleiklakepleigplaguebraukbrokeraugrogueWhen/k/and/g/arefollowedbyanyoftheotherstopconsonants,/p,b,t,d/,

orby/m/or/n/,thesoundsaremadealittledifferently.Thisisdealtwithonpp.6773.

Someof thecommonestwordscontaining /k/are:call,can,car,care,carry,case,catch,cause,kind,kitchen,kill,coal,coat,cold,come,cook,corner,count,country, cwp, cwf, because, become, box, breakfast, excuse,pocket, second,secret, walking (etc.), weaker (etc.), local, ask, back, black,book, break, dark,drink,take,like,lock,make,mistake,music,neck,o'clock,quick,take.

Someof the commonestwords containing /g/ 2ire: game,garden,gate,get,girl, glass, go, good, grass, great, green, grey, ground, grow, guess, gun,again,against,ago,agree,angry,exact,forget,language,regular,

together, longer, bigger (etc.), tiger, begin, bag, beg, big, dog, fog, leg,rug,plug,flag,drug.

/tj/and/d3/Asthephoneticsymbolssuggest,/tj/and/d3/arestopconsonantsofa46Stopconsonants

Fig.19/tj/^/d3/soecialkindTheairistrappedasforallthestopconsonants,butitisreleased

withdefinitefrictionof the/J,3/kmd.Thepositionof theorgansofspeechfor/tj/and/d3/isshowninFigure19.

i* <Thetongue-tip touches the back part of the alveolar ridge and thesoftpalateisraisedsothatthebreathistrappedforashorttime.

2Therestofthetongueisinthe/J,3/position(seeFigure5).*Solue-cpmovesawa,Uthealveolarridgeatalewaysee’redo..edtaesmHg»re.9),and.hewhole,o„g«e.sth»mfc/f3/position,sothatashortperiodofthisfrictionisheard.Thefrictionof/tj/

and/d3/isnotsolongasfor/J/and/3/alone.Startwith/J/:sayalong/J/andthenraisethetipofthetonguetothenearest

partofthealveolarridgeandcutoffthefriction;Aensay/againbyloweringthetongue-tip.DothisseveraltmiaNownafromtheclosedposition,thenreleasethetongueand“WI/-/tf/(Englishchildrenimitateasteamengmebyasenesof/J/

Nownytfewordtfiipck*.anddon’tmakethe/J/frictiontoolong,itisTathershorterthaninJi:psheep.Like/J/,/tj/isastrongsound,Xtweako»l.?ryWbymakmgthefrictionveryrv.,k

andshorterthanfor/tj/.Thentrythesewords:[sltjinchintjiacheertjDischoicedxingintjbukchokedjaukjoked3iaieertjeinchaind3einJaned3DisJoycetjestchestdjestjestBetweenvowels,d3/isnormallyvoiced,butthe“keepitweakandtokeepthefrictionshort: ifyoualsovoiceitsomuchthe

better,/tj/isstillstrongandvoiceless.Trytheseword.47

ritjiz richeskaetjig catchingfetjig fetchingbaetjiz batchesWDtJigwatchingkitjankitchen

ridjizkaedjiged3igbaed3izlDd3IQpid3anridgescadgingedgingbadgeslodgingpigecnIn final position /tj/ is still strong and voiceless, and it shortens thevowel

before it; /d3/ isveryweakandshort, and it lengthens thevowelbefore it.Trythesewords:

ritjrichrid3ridgekaetjcatchkaed3cadge

S3:tJ*searchS3:d3surgeeitjHeid3agefetjfetched3edgewotjwatchlod3lodgeThere may be a danger for some speakers (e.g. Spaniards) of

notdistinguishingbetween /tj/and /J/,andbetween /d3/and /3/.Thesespeakersmustbecarefultomakeadefinitestopbeforethefrictionfor/tj/and/d3/,andnostopatallfor/J/and/3/.Practisewiththesewords:

Ju:shoewdJiqwashingwijwishIe38leisureJdpshopkaejigcashingkaejcashme30measuretju:chewWDtJig watchingwitj witchled 30 ledgertjbp chopkaetjig catchingkaetj

catchmeid30majorSome of the commonest words containing /tj/ are: chair, chance,change,

cheap, chief \ child, choice, choose, church, fortune, future, kitchen,nature,picture, question, catch, each,March, much, reach, rich, speech,stretch, such,teach,touch,watch,which.

Some of the commonest words containing /d^/ are: general, gentle-man,January, join, joke, journey, joy, judge, July, jump, June, just,danger,imagine, soldier, subject, age, arrange, bridge, edge, language, large,manage,message,page,strange,village.

3.3NasalconsonantsThere are three phonemes in English which are represented by

nasalconsonants,/m,n,g/.Inallnasalconsonantsthesoftpalateislowered48Nasalconsonantsandatthesametimethemouthpassageisblockedatsomepoint,sothatall

theairispushedoutofthenose./m/and/n/All languageshaveconsonantswhicharesimilar to /m /and /n/ inEnglish.

ThepositionofthespeechorgansforthesesoundsisshowninFigures20and21.1Thesoftpalateisloweredforboth/m/and/n/.,2ForHthemouthisblockedbyclosingthetwolips,for/n/bypressingthe

tipofthetongueagainstthealveolarridge,andthesides3Bodfsourfds6arevoicedinEnglish,asAeyareinotherlanguages,andthe

voicedairpassesoutthroughthenose.Neitherofthesesoundswillcausemuchdifficultymanylanguages/n/ismadewiththetongue-tipontheteeththemselves

Fig.20/m/

Fig.21In/49

rather thanonthealveolarridge,andthisshouldbeavoidedifpossible,but

the use of a dental /n/ in English is hardly noticeable. Speakers ofsomelanguages(e.g.Portuguese,Yoruba)mayhavedifficultywiththeseconsonantsinfinalpositionorbeforeotherconsonants,forexampleinthewordscankaenandcampkaemp.Insteadofmakingafirmclosurewiththelipsortongue-tipsothatallthebreathgoesthroughthenose,theymayonlylowerthesoftpalateandnotmake aclosure, so that some of the breath goes through the nose buttheremainder goes through themouth.When this happenswe have anasalizedvowel. The word can would then be pronounced kae, where aerepresents aepronounced with the soft palate lowered, and camp wouldbe kaep. Thesespeakersmust be careful to close the lips firmly for /m/andput the tongue-tipfirmly in contactwith the alveolar ridge for /n/and be sure that the closure iscompletedevery timeoneof theseconsonantsoccurs.Practise thesewordsandmake/m/and/n/ratherlongifyouhavethisdifficulty:

himhimlaemlambru:mroomgeimgamelimplimplaemplampUmplumpgeimzgameswAnonetintinsu:nsoonmainminesendsendsentsentfondfondSAnzsonsWhen /m/ or /n/ is found before another consonant, as in some of

theexamplesabove, thevoicedorvoicelessnatureof thefinalconsonanthasaneffectonthelengthofboththevowelandthenasalconsonant:thisisverysimilarto the lengtheningorshorteningof thevowel inexamples likeseed/seat. In thepairsofwordsbelowmakethe/m/or/n/quitelonginthefirstword,beforethegentlevoicedconsonant,andmakeitshortinthesecondword,beforethestrong,voicelesscon-

sonant:laemz lambs laemp lampsend send sent sentdjDind joined d3Dint jointhAmz hums hAmp humpsinz sins sins sincekampleind complained kampleint complaint

/n/isoftensyllabic:thatis,itoccupiestheplaceatthecentreofthesyllablewhichusuallyisoccupiedbyavowel.Boththewordslesserandlessonhavetwosyllables:inlesserthesecondsyllableis/-sa/,andinlessonthesecondsyllableisoften/-sn/(/n/meansthat/n/issyllabic)

50Nasalconsonants££££outthevowelthe/n/willhavethesamelengthasthefinalvowelleso.Try

these:11-i'znreasoni:vneven°^tCnSP3:sI?Personr‘■Lri-dTnregionkitjnkitchenfaejnfashion3kei3noccasionri.d3nregionI„word*suchas«*».*•*'»Teqoimlimmediatelyafterthe«or/d/,that,sr.tngotd,Thtsrequiresspecialpronunciationof/./and/d/andtsdeaItv.tbtonpJOEneltshpeoplesometimespronounceasyllabicM■»wordsUReJZS&Vm*.

r**.b«moreoftentheyarepronouncedremember,simple,summer,Some,rose,,woman,cm,form,from,him,home,room,some,seem,some,sunns,them“"someofthecommonestwordscontainingMare:name,nearnearly,jrxir-^,h"’,htn■wlThisisthethirdEnglishnasalconsonantandtheonlyonelikelytoS. trouble, because many languages do no, b«: —formed like /„/. The

positionofthespeechorgansfor/„/shownFigure22.rTheCsEoft palam is lowered and all the air passes on, through the nose,a

Themouthisblockedfcythebackofthetonguepressedagainstdiesoftpalate.3Thesoundisvoiced.Rememberfirs,ofallthatthelettersnginwordslikesi,grepresentonly51

Fig.22/rj/onesoundformostEnglishspeakers:afewusetwosoundsandpro-nounce

thewordsigg, so ifyoudo this itwillbeperfectlywellunder-stoodand it isbettertopronouncesiQgthantoconfusethiswordwithsin.ButitisbetterstilltopronouncesiqasmostEnglishspeakersdo.Yourmirrorwillbeuseful:/q/hasthesametonguepositionas /g/,sostartwith /g/andholdthispositionwith themouthwideopen.Noticethatthetipofthetongueislowinthemouthandthatthebackofthetongueishigh.Holdthismouthpositionandatthesametimestartthehummingnotethatyougetwith/m/and/n/.Besurethatthemouthpositiondoesnotchange,andthatthetipofthetonguedoesnotriseatall.Continuethesoundfor threeseconds,watchingclosely, thenstopandstartagain.Keepyourmouthwide open each time so that you cansee that the tongue is in the right

position. At the end cf the sound justlet it die away into silence with nosuggestionof/g/.Whenyoucandothiseasily,dothesamethingwiththeteethcloser together inamorenormalposition,butbesure that the tipof the tonguestays in its lowposition.Now try the followingwords:make the final /q/ longandletitdieawayintosilence:

LssJsiqsingsaegsangsdqsongsagsungrigringraegrangmgwrongrAgrung/g / does not occur at the beginning ofwords inEnglish, but it doesoccur

betweenvowels,whereitismoredifficultthaninfinalposition.Thedifficultyisto avoidputting in a /g/ after the /g/, andpronouncingsigga insteadof siga. Ifyou do pronounce sigga it does not matter verymuch because some Englishspeakersalsodoit;butmostdonot,sothe/g/shouldbeavoidedifpossible.Gofrom the /g/ to the followingvowel very smoothly, with no jerk or bang. Trytheseexamples,slowlyatfirst,thenmorequickly:

52Nasalconsonants

sigasingerhxgAphangupsigigsingingbrigitbringitbgiglonginglogagaulongagomgagenwrongagainhaegighangingamAgAdazamongothersbaegigbanging

Themost important thing is tokeep /n/ and /g/ separate andnot toconfusethem.Trythefollowingpairsandbecarefultokeepthetongue-tipdownfor/n/:

sinsinsigsingSAnsonSAgsungraenranraegrangsinasinnersigasingertAnztonstAgztonguesInsomewords/g/isnormallypronouncedafter/g/beforeafollowingvowel,

forexampleinaeggaanger,fiQg*finger.Ausefulgeneralruleisthatifthewordisformedfromaverb,no/g/ispronounced,aswithsiga,haegig,butifnot,/g/ispronounced, as in strogga, formed fromthe adjective stmg strong, and aeggaanger,whichisnotformedoutotashorterword.Noticethedifferencebetweenloggalongerformedfromtheadjectivelong,andtogiglongingformedfromtheverb long. /g/ isnever pronounced before a following consonant, for example:sigzsings,baegdbanged.

Ifyouhavethetendencytonasalizethevowelinstead01pronounc-ing/□/,mentioned on p. 50, youmust be very careful tomake a firmcontactwith thebackofthetongueandforcealltheairtogothrough

thenose..

Someofthecommonestwordscontaining/q/are:anger,anxious,drink, finger, hungry, language, sink, thank, think, among(st), bring,

during,evening, hang, -ing, long, morning, ring, sing, song, spring, string,strong,thing,wrong,young.

3.4LateralconsonantOneEnglishconsonant /I/ - is formedlaterally, that is,msteadof thebreath

passingdownthecentreofthemouth,itpassesroundthesidesofanobstructionsetupinthecentre.Thepositionoftheorgansofspeechfor/!/asinlivliveisshowninFigure23.

NOTICE1Thesoftpalateisraised.,2Thetongue-tip(andthesidesofthetongue-bladewhichcannotbe53

seen in thediagram)are in firmcontactwith thealveolar ridge,obstructingthecentreofthemouth.

3Thesidesoftheremainderofthetonguearenotincontactwiththesidesofthepalate,soaircanpassbetweenthesidesofthetongueandthepalate,roundthecentralobstructionformedbythetipandbladeofthetongueandsooutofthe

mouth.

Fig.23/I/asinliv4Thesoundisvoicedandthereisnofriction(exceptwhenitisimmediately

after/p/or/k/seepp.40and45).MostlanguageshaveasoundlikeEnglish/I/,atleastbeforevowels,andthis

canbeusedinsuchwordsasIi :vleave,la:stlast, luklook,fblsufollow.Somelanguages, however (Japanese, for instance), do not have asatisfactory /I/ andsuchstudentsmustbeverycarefultomakeafirmcontactofthetongue-tipandthesidesofthebladewiththealveolarridge.Ifthisisdifficultforyoutrybitingthe tongue-tip firmlybetween top and bottom teeth; this will make a centralobstruction andthe air will be forced to pass over the sides of the tongue. Inpassing tothe vowel the tongue-tip is removed from the alveolar ridgequitesuddenlyandthesoundendssharply;itmayhelptoputinaveryquick/d/-soundbetweenthe/I/andthefollowingvowel:Idi:vleave,etc.

Practisethefollowingwords,makingthe/!/longandthecentralobstructionveryfirmtobeginwith:

li:fleafletDletterlostlostlu:sloosel3:nlearnleitlatelaiklikelaudloudWhenyouaresatisfiedwith /!/ in thisposition try thesewords,andbesure

thatthecontactofthetongue-tipwiththealveolarridgeiscom-plete:54Lateralconsonantts]fullQfeelingfelaufellowfu:lijfoolishholadiholidaybiliivbelievealauallowOnceyouhaveasatisfactory/I/beforevowelsyoucanuseitin.allpositions

withoutfearofbeingmisunderstood;butmanyEnglishpeopleusedifferent /[/-soundsbeforevowelsandinotherpositions.

Forany/I/thetongue-tipmakestheusualfirmcontact,butbeforeconsonantsand in final position the remainder of the tongue takes up ashape like thatrequired for the vowel /u/ orM; before vowe s theremainder of the tongue isplacedasforthevowel/1/.Sothe/!/hasa

different‘colouring’inthetwocases.Makethetongue-tipcontactfirmly,andholditwhilstyousay/i/asinsitthe

two thingsmust go on at the same time, not one after theother; this is the /I/beforevowelsand it isknownas theclear /!/Nowhold thecontact firmlystillandatthesametimesaythevowel/u/,asinput;thisisthe/I/beforeconsonantsand in final positions, e.g. in 1fill and fild filled, and it is called the darkHI.ManyEnglishspeakersuseonlyaclear/I/inallpositions,andmanyothersuseonly a dark /!/which iswhy it is not very important for you to learn both butmostspeakersofthekindofEnglishdescribedheredousebothkindsof//.Thewords given for practice above would all contain clear /I/, becausea vowelimmediatelyfollows(and this is truewhether thevowel is inthesamewordornot,sobothfull!)andfillithaveclear/I/)

Whether or not you decide to use the English dark /I/ m thepositionsmentioned, some of you (e.g. Japanese, Cantonese) will need to beverycarefulwith/I/beforeconsonantsandinfinalposition.Thedanger,anditisgreaterherethanelsewhere,isthatyoudonotmakeafirmcontactofthetongue-tipwiththealveolarridge,theresultbeingeithersomesortofvowelsoundfiu,and fiud for fill and filled, or some sort of/r/-sound fir and fird.The sound inEnglish,whetheritisdarkorclear,mustbealateral,itmusthavethefirmcentralobstruction and airescaping over the sides of the tongue. In thewords belowmakethe//verycarefullyandbesurethatthetonguetipmakesfullandfirm

contact.Qa:lall ful fullbilbill fill feelaulowl Dll oilfuilzfools beltbeltmailzmilestuiltoolselsellteiltailmailmileloildcalledpulzpullsfi:ldfieldkauldcold55

HIisveryoftensyllabic,like/n/(p.50),thatis,itoccursinapositionmoreusuallyoccupiedbyavowel;inwordssuchasparcel,level,puzzle,lethal,rufflemostEnglishpeoplewouldpronouncepa:sj,levj,pAz],li:0j,rAfj/withsyllabic/(/,butitisalsopossibletopronounceparssl,etc.,sodowhicheveriseasiest.

Afterthestopconsonants,however,asintrouble,apple,bottle,middle,eagle,itislessdesirabletohaveavowelbetweenthestopandthe/j/.

Start with apple /aepl/: as soon as the lips are opened the /)/ issoundedimmediately.DothesamewithtrAbj.Fortaekj,holdthe/k/untilthetipofthetongueisfirmlyinpositionfor/j/,thenrelease/k/.Dothesamewithi:gj.When/I/follows/t/and/d/,thestopsoundshaveaspecialrelease,whichisdealtwithonp.72. Ifavowelcreeps inbetweenanyof thestopconsonantsand /j/,youwillnotbemisunderstood,butthisisnottheusualEnglishhabit.Syllabic/I/isusuallydark/!/,butagainthemostimportantthingistomakean/I/-soundofsomesort.Otherexamplesofwordscontainingsyllabic/!/are:

biuitaflbeautiful kaemjcamelDlf[ awful kApjcouple

traevj travel baiblBible1

wisl whistle tjAkjchuckledaezl dazzle g!g!giggletjaenj channelSomestudents(e.g.Cantonese)mayhavedifficultyindistinguishingbetween

/I/and/n/ininitialposition;thisleadstopronouncinglaiflifeasnaifknifeornDtnotastatlot,andmustbeavoided.Rememberthat/n/isentirelynasal,alltheairgoesoutofthenose;but/!/isentirelyoral,alltheairgoesoutofthemouth.Trythis:sayalong/n/,and,whilstyouaresayingit,nipyournostrilssothattheaircannot escapefrom the nose; thiswill interrupt the sound.Now say /I/ and dothesame thing: if youaremaking /I/ correctly therewill benochangeatall; ifthereisachangeitmeansthatsomeair,orperhapsalltheair,ispassingthroughthenose,whichiswrongfor/!/.Dothesamethingwithalong/s/,andnoticethatnipping thenosemakesnodifference tothesound; then try /!/ again,untilyouaresure thatyoucanalwaysmakeitwithoutanyairgoing throughthenose. Itwillbehelpfultothinkofaslight/d/-soundingoingfromthe/I/tothefollowingvowel,as mentioned above I daif, I tat, etc.When you are sure that your /n/isentirelynasalandyour/I/entirelyoral,practisedistinguishingthesepairs:

56■Lateralconsonantlaulownaunoli’dleadni.dneed|IaitlightnaitnightleibolabourneiboneighbourletletnetnethplipniPmPSome of the commonest words containing /I/ are: lady land language,last,

late,laugh,lead,learn,leave,left,less,let,like,listen,little,hue,long,lot,lack,lose,love,low,allow,along,almost,alreadyalways,cold,colourdifficult,early,eleven, else, fault -ly, help, o’clock, old, self, yellow, able all,beautiful,,fall,feel,fill, full,girl, meal, mile, parcel, people, possible, real,school, shall, still,table,tell,until,well.

3.5GlidingconsonantsThere are three consonantswhich consist of a quick, smooth, non-friction

glidetowardsafollowingvowelsound,theconsonants/),w,r/.1)1

Thisconsonantisaquickglidefromthepositionofthevowel/i:/or/i/toanyother vowel. We usually transcribe the word yes a, jes, but wemight easilytranscribeiti:esories,ontheunderstandingthatthe/./or111isveryshortandthatwemovesmoothlyandquicklytothefollowing/e/.Trythefollowingwords

inthatway,andbesurethatthereisnofrictioninthe/j/-glide:ja:dyardjetYetjDtyachtju:youp:your

Thesameistrueinthefollowingwordswhere/j/isnotinitial;makeaquick,weak/i:/-soundbeforethefollowingvowel:

bju:tibeautydju:duefju:fewvju:viewvadju:valuenju:newmjuizikmusicWhen1)1follows/p,t,k/itlosesthevoicewhichitusuallyhas,andismade

voiceless; this causes some friction to be heard, an u ,s'mPto do this becauseotherwise the stop consonants may be he^das/bdg/, and the word tune tju:nconfusedwithdunedju:n.Trythefollowmgwords,making/j/inthesamewayasbeforeexceptthatyouletbreath

taketheplaceofvoice:57

GlidingconsonantstjuizdiTuesdaytjuintunepjuapure

kampjuitacomputerkju:queueakjuizaccuseSome English people use /tj/ instead of /tj/ and /d 3/ instead

of/dj/,pronouncingtjuizdimsteadoftjuizdiTuesday,andd3u:insteadofdju:due,butthisisnotgenerallyacceptedandshouldbeavoided.

MostAmericanspeakersdonotuse/j/inwordswhereitwouldfollow/t,d,n,I,s,0/,pronouncingturntune,du:due,nu:new,aebsaluitabsolute,suitsuit,andinGuiziaezam enthusiasm. R.P. speakersalways use /j/ after /t, d, n/ in suchwords, but somedo not use it after/I, s, 0/. If yourmodel isAmerican, donorpronounce/j/aftertheseconsonants;ifnot,itisprobablybettertouse/j/afterallofthem,/j/doesnotoccurinfinalposition.

Some of the commonest words containing /j/ are: yard, year, yellow,yes,yesterday, yet, you, young, your, use, usual, useful, Europe, amuse,beautiful,cure,during,duty,educate,excuse,failure,few,huge,January,knew,music,new,suit,Tuesday,value.

MThis consonant consists of a quick glide from the vowel /u:/ or /u/

towhatever vowel follows. It is much more difficult than /j/ becausemanylanguagesdonothaveanindependent /w/.Butit isnotdifficulttolearntosay.Startwith/u:/or/u/andfollowthisimmediatelybythevowel/a:/thisisthewordwa:war.The /w/partmustbe shortandweak,aswith /j/,but the lipsmustberoundedquitefirmlyevenEnglishpeoplemovetheirlipsnoticeablyfor/w/!

Trythesewordsinthesameway,beginningeachwithaveryshortweak/u:/or/u/withthelipswellrounded:

wotjwatchwinwinweawherewetwetwi:wewudwoodwaitwhiteweitwaitwulwoolWhen /w/ follows a consonant it ismade in the sameway; but the lipsare

roundedreadyfor/w/beforethepreviousconsonantisfinished.Soinswi:tsweetthelipsgraduallybecomeroundedduringthe/s/,andwhen

it ends they are firmly rounded ready for /w/.This is true for allthe followingwords;trythem:

swiitsweetswimswimswetsweatsweasweardweligdwellingYoumustremembertoothatwhen/w/immediatelyfollows/t/or/k/theglide

isnotvoiced, though thehpsareagain roundedduring thestopconsonant.Trythefollowingwords,roundthehpsearly,andblowoutbreaththroughthem:

[sDtwaistwicetwentitwentytwelvtwelvetwintwmkwaitquitekwikquickkwaiatquietkwimqueen

/w/ is particularly difficult for those (like Germans, Dutch, manyIndians)who have a sound like English /v/ but none like/w/. Thesespeakers tend toreplace/w/by/v/andsayvelinsteadofwelwellThismustbeavoidedandyoucandothisbyconcentratingonpairslikethosebelow.Fortbe/v/words,keepthehpsflatandusetheupperteethtomakesomefriction;forthe/w/wordsthereisnofrictionandthehps

arewellrounded.V3isversevi:lvealvearivaryW3:sworsevainvinewillwheelvailvileweariwaryveilveilwainwinewailwhilewellwail

Whenyouareabletomake/w/easily,becarefulnottouseitinsteadof/v/.Itisjustasbadtosaywenforveryastosayvelforwell.

Nowtrythefollowingsimilarpairswiththe/w/andthe/v/betweenvowels,takingcaretomakeagooddifference:

riwDidrewardfbiwadforwardaweiawayhaiweihighwayriviilrevealhDvadhoveredaveilavaildaivadiverWordssuchaswhich,when,where,why(butnotwho)arepronouncedwith

simple/w/inR.P.:witj,wen,wea,wai,etc.InsomeotherkindsofEnglish(e.g.American, Scottish, Irish) they beginwith /hw/. If yourmodel is one of these,youcanbeginthesewordswithacompletelyvoiceless/w/insteadofthevoicedone.

/w/doesnotoccurinfinalposition.Some of the commonest words containing /w/ are: one, wait, walk,want,

warm, wash, watch, water, way, we, week, well, wet, what, when,why, will,wish,with,woman,word,work,always,away,between,quarter,question,quick,quite,sweet,swim,twelve,twenty,twice.

/«*/Thisisthethirdoftheglidingconsonants,butitdoesnotresembleone5859

oftheEnglishvowelsas/j/and/w/do.Thepositionofthespeechorgansfor/r/isshowninFigure24.

NOTICE1Thetonguehasacurvedshapewiththetippointingtowardsthehardpalate

atthebackofthealveolarridge,thefrontlowandthebackratherhigh.2Thetongue-tipisnotcloseenoughtothepalatetocausefriction.3 The lips are rather rounded, especially when /r/ is at the beginningof

words.4Thesoftpalateisraised;andvoicedairflowsquietlybetweenthetongue-

tipandpalatewithnofriction.Foreignlearnersoftenreplacethissoundbythesoundwhichisrepre-sented

bytheletterrintheirownlanguage.Sometimestheyusearolledsoundinwhichthe tip of the tongue taps very quickly severaltimes against the alveolar ridge(Italian,Arabic,Russian) or the uvulataps against the back of the tongue in asimilarway(Dutch,French,German).Sometimestheyuseafrictionsoundwiththe back of thetongue close to the soft palate and uvula (Danish, French,German).Such sounds are perfectly well understood by Enghsh people, butofcoursetheysoundforeign.

Fig.24/r/TryapproachingtheEnglishsoundfroma /w/.Get thespeechorgansready

for /w/ (remember that this isashort /u/-or /u:/-sound),and thencurl the tipofthetonguebackuntilitispointingatthehardpalate,quitealongwaybehindthealveolar ridge. Now changesmoothly and without friction to the followingvowel,asinredred.

Becareful, ifyouhavean /r/-sound inyour language,not tomake it atthesametimeastheEnglishsound:trytothinkofEnglish/r/asanew

60Glidingconsonants

soundaltogether.Trythesewordsandbesurethatthetongue-tipiswellbackinthemouthatthebeginningoftheglide:

ri:dreadredredrAnrunro:rawru:drudereisraceraundroundre*rare

Betweenvowels thesound is the sameexcept that the lipsarenotrounded.Try the following, and concentrate on getting the tongue-tipup and back, thensmoothlydownandforwardagain:

veriverymaerimarryborauborrowhArihurryaraivarrivekarektcorrectaraundaroundarestarrest

InR.P./r/onlyoccursbeforevowels,neverbeforeconsonants,sowordslikelearn, sort,farm do not contain /r/ (l3in, salt, fazm). Othervarieties of Enghshpronounce/r/inthesewords(e.g.American,Irish,Scottish),soifyourmodelisoneofthese,youwillpronounce/r/beforeconsonants;ifitisR.P.youwillnot.At theendofwordsR.P.has /r/only if the immediatelyfollowingwordbeginswith a vowel; so theword never, if it occurs before a pause or before awordbeginningwithaconsonant(asinneverbetter),ispronouncednevawithno/r/inR.P.But in never again where it is immediately followed by a vowel /r/ispronounced,nevaragen.Thisiscalledthelinking/r/;someR.P.speakersdonotuse it (and say neva agen), so youmay do this if youfind it easier, butmostpeopledouseit.

Trythesephrases,eitherwithorwithoutthe/r/:betarDfbetteroffbisritizhereitisfo:rd:faivfourorfivepu*rauldtompooroldTomIt is quite usual to hear this linking /r/ following the vowel /a/ evenwhen

thereisnoletterrinthespelling,asinAfricaandAsiaaefrikaraneija,LindaandAnnlindaranaen.SomeEnglishspeakersdislikethisso-called‘intrusive/r/\soitisperhapsbestforyounottouseit.Youmayalsohearitafterthevowel/a:/asinIsawamanaisa:ramaen,buthereverymanyEnglishspeakersdisapproveofit,andyoushouldnotuseit.

There is danger of confusing /r/ with /I / (e.g. for Cantonese andJapanesespeakers)andalsowith/n/(Cantonese).Rememberthatfor/n/and/I/thereisaveryfirmcontactofthetongue-tipwiththealveolarridge(/n/beingnasal,and/I/oral, see p. 56), but for /r/ thetongue-tip does not touch the palate at all it ispurely a gliding sound,with no sudden change. Try the following, andconcentrateontheveryfirmcontactfor/I/and/n/,andasmoothglide(like/w/)for/r/:

61

ConsonantsIaitlightnaitnightraitrightlaulownaunoraurowli:dleadni:dneedri:dreadInklocknDkknockrokrockThe difficulty is greatest between vowels, so be most careful with

thefollowing:QbellbellybeniBennieberiberrykailascalluskainazcomerskairaschorusspilitspillitspinitspinitspiritspirittelatellertenatenorteraterror

After/p,t,k/thereisnovoicein/r/.Thetonguepositionisthesame,butpurebreath is pushed through the space between the tongue-tipand the hard palate,causing friction.Trywith /p/ first; close the lipsfor /p/, thenput the tongue inpositionfor/r/,and,asthelipsopenfor/p/,pushbreathstronglyoverthetongue-tipsothatyoucanhearfrictionbeforethefollowingvowel:

preipraypraempramapruivapprovepraudproudkamprescompressdipraivdeprive

Nowtry/kr/: takeupthepositionfor/k/; thenputthetongue-tipinpositionfor/r/and,whenthe/k/isreleased,pushbreaththroughtocausefriction:

kriimcreamkrualcruelkraekcrackigkriisincreaserikruitrecruitdikriisdecreaseWhen/t/occursbefore/r/,thetongue-tipfor/t/isplacedbehindthealveolar

ridge, on the front of the hardpalate, so thatwhen it isremoved the tongue isimmediatelyinpositionforthefrictionof/r/.Besurethatinthefollowingwordsthetongue-tipisagooddealfurtherbackthanusualfor/t/:

LiJtri:treetraitrytru:truetrASttrustatraektattractritriitretreatintruidintrudeThis/tr/combinationmaybeconfusedwith/tj/;noticethatthefrictionofthe

voiceless/r/islowerinpitchthanthatof/J/.Trythe62Glidingconsonants

followingpairsandbecarefultoputthetongue-tipinthecorrect/r/positionfor/tr/:

tru:truetju:chewtriptriptjipchiptremtraintfeinchaintraeptraptjaepchap

Inthecombination/dr/toothetipofthetongueisfurtherbackthanusualfor/d/andthereisfrictionasthevoicedairpassesoverthetongue-tipforthe/r/.Trythesewords.

dri'.mdreamdraidrydresdressdropdropdn:drawdru:pdroopadresaddress

Andthefollowingpairsmustbedistinguishedinthesamewayas/tr/and/tj/:dreindraind3einJanedn:drawdp:jawdru:drewd3u:JewdrAQkdrunkd3Ai]kjunkSome of the commonest words containing /r/ are: rain, rather, reach,read,

ready, real, red, remember, rest, right, road, roof, room, round, rule, run,write,wrong, agree, already, arrange, borrow, bread, bring, cross, direct, dress,drink,every, foreign,from,great, interest, marry, pretty, price, serious, sorry,story,terrible,true,try,very,worry.

3.6Exercises1StudyeachsectioncarefullyanddecidewhatyourdifficultiesareWhichofthesedifficultiesarephonemedifficulties(e.g.confusing/s/and/9/

or/t/and/d/),andwhicharepurelysounddifficulties(e.g.pronouncing/t/withthetongue-tipontheteethinsteadofonthealveolarridge)?Whichdifficultieswillyouconcentrateon:

2During the timewhichyougive to listening toEnglish, concentratefor ashorttimeonlisteningtooneofyourdifficulties(perhapsthedifferencebetween/s/and/0/torthesoundof/h/).Whenyouhavereallyheardthesound(s),gobacktothelistsofwordsmthedifferentsectionsandtrytomakethesoundexactlythesameasyouheard.

Useatape-recordertohelpyou,ifyoucan...„3Take any passage of English andmark any one of your difficulties athe

way through (e.g.underlineevery /or rorboth).Then read thepassagealoud,and try to say particular sounds perfectlyDon tworry about the others at thatmoment.Graduallydothisforallyourdifficulties.

4Doalittlepracticeeachdayifyoupossiblycan.63

Inchapter3wesawhowsingleconsonantsaremade,andsometimeshowasequenceoftwoconsonantsshouldbesaid(e.g./pr,kr,tr/p.62),buttherearemanyothercaseswheretwoorthreeorfourorevenmoreconsonantsfellowone

after theother.Someexamplesare:ski:mscheme,kri:mcream, skriimscream,neksnecks,nekstnext,tekststexts.

Somelanguages(e.g.Russian,German)havemanyconsonantsequences,andspeakersoftheselanguageswillnothaveanydifficultyinpronouncingmostoftheEnglishones.Butotherlanguagesdonothavesequencesofconsonantsatall,or only very few and very shortones (e.g. Mandarin, Cantonese, Vietnamese,Swahili, Yoruba, Tamil),and speakers of these languages (in which twoconsonants are usuallyseparated by a vowel) may have difficulty in stringingtogethertwo,threeorfourconsonantswithnovowelbetweenthem.Thischapteristohelpyou,ifyouhavethiskindofdifficulty.

4.1InitialsequencesAt the beginning of English words there may be either two or

threeconsonantsinsequence.SequencesoftwoconsonantsinitiallyTheseareoftwomainkinds:1/$/followedbyoneof/p,t,k,f,m,n,I,w,j/,e.g.inspy,stay,sky,sphere,

small,snow,sleep,swear,suit.2OneofIp,t,k,b,d,g,f,0,J,v,m,n,h/followedbyoneof/I,r,w,j/.Not

allofthesesequencesarefound(e.g./pw,dl/donotoccur).Thefulllistis:Ip/followedby/,r,j/play,pray,pure/t//r,w,j/try,twice,tune/k//,r,w,j/climb,cry,quite,cure64Initialsequences/I,r,j/blow,bread,beauty/r,w,j/dress,dwell(rare),duty/I,r/glass,green/I,r,j/fly,from,few/r,w/throw,thwart(rare)/r/shriekj\lview/j/music/h//!/huSeStartwith/sp/:sayalong/s/,thengraduallyclosethelipsfor/p/untilthey

stop the /s-/sound.Keep the /s/ going rightup to themoment fl/terthe lips areclosed,andyouwillnotputavowelbetweenthetwoconsonants.Becarefultostartwitha long /s/anddonotputavowelbefore it.Do thismany timesuntilyouaresurethatthereisnovowelsoundeitherbeforethe/s/orafterit.Nowaddthevowelinwords

suchas:3spatspyspa:spurspiaspearspeaspareDonotsayaspaiorsapai.Startwith/s/andhaltitbyclosingthelips.

/st/ and /sk/ are begun by making a long /s/ and halting it by raismgthetongue-tip(for/st/)ortongue-back(for/sk/)tocutoffthefriction.

Try:[■“]steistavsta:starsta:storestiasteerskaiskyska:scarska:scoreskeascareDonotsayasteiorsatei,etc.In/sf/(whichisrare)thelong/s/isendedbythelowerlipmovinguptotheupperteethfor/f/:sfiaspheresferikalsphericalIn/sm/,the/s/iscontinueduntilthelipsmeetfor/m/,andin/snsi/,untilthe

tongue-tip touches the alveolar ridge. (Those of youwho havetroublewith /I/and/r/mustbecarefulnottopronouncesrr.ptor

sliip5/eep(seep.61).)Ssmallsmilesmauksmokesmelsmellsmiasmearsnausnowsna:snoresneiksnakesn*ksnackslauslowslatslyslipslipslaekslackstD:storeskDiscorestiasteerskeascare65

In /sw/ the lipsbecome roundedduring the jsj (becarefulnot topronounce/sv/)andin/sj/the/i:/,whichisthebeginningofthe/j/-glide,isreachedduringthe/s/,sothatinbothcasestheglidestartsassoonas/s/ends.Try.

LiJswiitsweetsweiswayswDnswanswu:pswoopsjuitsuitsju:sueasjuimassumepasju:pursueInthesecondgroupofsequences,thesecondconsonantismostoftenformed

whilstthefirstoneisbeingpronounced.Forexample,in/pr/or/pi/thetongueisplacedintheexactpositionfor/r/or/I/whilstthelipsarestillclosedforthe/p/,sothatassoonastheyareopenthe/r/or/I/isheard.Inthefollowingexamplesstartwithalongfirstconsonant,andduringitplacethetongue(andfor /w/thelips) inposition for thesecondconsonant; then, andonly then, release the firstconsonant:

plei play prei pray pjua pure trai trytwais twice tjuin tune klaim climb krai crykwait quite kjua cure btau blow bred breadbjuiti

beauty dres dress dwel dwell dju:tiduty

gla:s glass grim green flai fly from fromfju: few vju: view mjuizik music nju: newIn/0r/and/Jr/ thesecondconsonantcannotbepreparedduringthefirst.Be

sure first of all that you can pronounce each one separately;say one, then theother,severaltimes.Thensmoothlyandcontinuouslymakethetongueglidefromone to the other so that there is no suddenchange between them; try thefollowing,veryslowlyatfirst,thengraduallyquicker:

S0rauthrow0ri:three0redthread0ru:threwJri:kshriekJredshredJrilshrillJruidshrewdSequencesofthreeconsonantsinitiallyTheseare/spr,str,skr,spj,stj,skj,spl,skw/andareacombinationofthe/sp/

type of sequenre and the /pr/ type. The /$/ at the beginning iscut off by thefollowingstop,andduringthestopthefollowingconsonantisfullyprepared.Trythefollowingexamplesveryslowlyatfirst;cutoff the /s/bythe tongueor lipsand,whilstholdingthisstop,getthethirdconsonantready,thenreleasethestopstraightintothethirdconsonant:

66Initialsequencesspredspreadstjuipidstupidstreitstraightskjuaskewerskru:screwsplendidsplendidspjuariasspuriousskweasquareThesequence/spj/israre.4.2FinalsequencesSequences of consonants at the ends of words are more varied than atthe

beginningmainlybecause/s/or/z/havetobeaddedtomostnounstogivetheirpluralforms,asinkaetscats,dDgzdogs,faektsJacts,fhldzfields,etc.,and/t/or/d/ have to be added tomost verbs to formtheir past tense, as inwijtwished,reizdraised,risktrisked,pUr^dplunged,etc.Also/9/isusedtoformnounslikestrei]0 strengthandbred0breadthandnumerals like fif0fifth (andall thesecanhaveplurals-streQ0s,bred9s,fif0s!).

Stop+stopWhenonestopconsonantisimmediatelyfollowedbyanother,asinkeptkept

andaektact, theclosureofthespeechorgansforthesecondconsonantismadewhilsttheclosureforthefirstconsonantisstillinposition.Inthesequence/pt/thisiswhathappens:thelipsareclosed

Fig.25Doubleclosurein/pt/for/p/andairiscompressedasusualbypressurefromthelungs;then,with

thelipsstillclosed,thetongue-tipisplacedonthealveolarridgereadyfor/t/,sothat there are two closures, see Figure 25. Then, andonly then, the lips areopened,butthereisnoexplosionofairbecausethetongueclosurepreventsthecompressedairfromburstingoutof

67

Finalsequencesthemouth; finally, the tongue-tip leaves the alveolar ridge and airexplodes

outofthemouth.Sothereisonlyoneexplosionforthetwostops;thefirststopisincomplete.

Figure26showsasimilarpositionforthesequence/kt/.Firstthebackofthe

tonguemakestheclosurefor/k/5thenthetipofthetonguemakestheclosurefor/t/, then the back of the tongue is loweredwith-out causing an explosion, andfinallythetongue-tipisloweredandairexplodesout.

Startwithkept.Firstsaykepandholdtheairbackwiththelips,don’topenthem.Nowputthetongue-tipinpositionfor/t/(lipsstillclosed).Nowopenthelipsandbesure thatnoaircomesout,and thenlower the tongue-tipandallowtheairout.Dothisseveraltimesandbesurethatthelipsarefirmlyclosed(wedonotsayket)and that thetongue-tip is ready toholdback thebreathbeforeyouopen the lips.Then do the same with aekt, and be sure that although /k/ isproperlyformed, its ending is, as it were swallowed, so that there is noexplosionuntilthe/t/isreleased.

Nowdo exactly the same for /bd/ as in robd robbed and /gd/ as ind rasgddragged.Againthereisonlyoneexplosion,thistimeagentleoneforthe/d/.Ifyoudomaketwoexplosionsitwillnotcauseanymis-understanding,butitwillsound un English. What is important is tobe sure that the first consonant isproperly formedbeforeyou takeuptheposition for the second. If you say rodinsteadofrobdordraedinsteadofdraegd,youwillbemisunderstood.

This ‘missing explosion’ happenswhenever one stop consonant(except /tj/and/d3/)isfollowedimmediatelybyanother(including/tj/and/d3/),notonlyattheendofwordsbutalsointhemiddleofwords,asinaektaactor,orbetweenwords,asinredkautredcoat.Herearesomeexamplesforpractice:

slept sleptrAbd rubbedtDpdDg topdograiptamaitauripetomatogreitkea greatcarekwaitgud quitegoodblaekb3:d blackbirdkkbtai clubtiebobgudwin BobGoodwin

baedkauld badcoldaidgau rdgopigteil pigtaillektja lecturebigd3auk bigjokefaektdrAgdJopg3:leitpanshotba:00ikpi:sblaekdDgsAbkonJasredp3:sgudbaibaegpaipsbigbaiobdjikttjiiptjiizfactdruggedshop girleightpencehot baththick pieceblack dogsubconsciousred

pursegoodbyebagpipesbigboyobject(n.)cheapcheeseWhen /pi is followedby /p/,or /t/by /t/,andsoon, there isagainonlyone

explosion,buttheclosureisheldfordoubletheusualtime.Examples:SslippaistslippastlukkeafalilookcarefullymaeddDgmaddogWDttaimwhattime?bobbeltsBobBatesbigg3:lbiggirlFor/tf/and/d3/thefrictionpartofthesoundisnevermissing,somwitjtjea

whichchair?andIa:d3largejugthe/tj/and^3/arecom-pleteinbothplaces.,.rnj

Whenoneofthestrong/weakpair/p,b/or/1,d/or/k,g/isfollowedbytheother,forexampleinWDtdexwhatdayorbigkeikbigcakethereh

only one explosion, but the closure is held for double the usual timeand thestrengthchangesduringthistime.Otherexamplesare:

hipbaunhipbonebedtaimbed-timeblaekgautblackgoatIfthreestopconsonantscometogether,asinstriktpearantstrictparent,there

is still onlyone explosion, that of the third consonantWhatusuallyhappens isthat the first consonant is formed and held torlonger than usual, the second

consonantdisappearsaltogether,andthethirdisformedandexplodednormally.Wemightwritestrictparentasstrik:pearant,where/k:/representsanunexploded/k/heldtorlongerthanusual.Otherexamplesare:

6869

aisleptbaedliIsleptbadlyhi:laegdbihaindhelaggedbehindkalaktpenizcollectpenniesdeirobdka:ztheyrobbedcars/pt/and/kt/canbefollowedimmediatelyby/s/inwordslikeakseptsaccepts

and faekts facts. In these sequences /p/ and /k/ are not explodedbut the /t/explodes straight into the /$/. Be sure to form the first stopfirmly. Otherexamplesare:

intarAptsinterruptsadoptsadoptskontasktscontactspratektsprotectsriaektsreactsStop+nasalWhen /t/ or /d/ are followed by a syllabic /n/, as in bAtn button andgaidn

garden, the explosion of the stop takes place through the nose.This nasalexplosionhappensinthisway:thevocalorgansform/t/or/d/intheusualway,with thesoftpalate raised toshutoff thenasalcavityand the tongue-tipon thealveolarridge,butinsteadoftakmgthetongue-tipawayfromthealveolarridgetogivetheexplosionweleaveitinthesamepositionandlowerthesoftpalate,sothat thebreathexplodesoutof thenoseratherthanoutof themouth.Figure27shows

Fig.27Nasalexplosionin/tn/thatthisisthesimplestwayofpassingfrom/t/or/d/to/n/,sincethetongue

position is the same for all three consonants and the onlydifference is in theraisedorloweredpositionofthesoftpalate.

Makea/t/-soundandholdthebreathinthemouth,don’tletitout;thensendallthebreathoutsharplythroughthenose(justasinthe

70Finalsequencesexercisedescribedonp.16)whilststillholdingthetongue-tipfirmlyagainst

thealveolarridge.Dothisseveraltimeswithoutallowingthetongue-tiptomoveat all and feel the air bursting out behind the softpalate. Now start the voicevibratingfor/n/asthesoftpalatelowersandagaindothisseveraltimeswithoutmovingthetongue-tip.Nowdothesamethingfor/dn/,withthevoicevibratingthrough both /d/and /n/ but the tongue-tip firmly on the alveolar ridge all thetime.

Theeffectinboth/tn/and/dn/istomaketheexplosionofthestopmuchlessclear than when it bursts out of the mouth; if you do makethe explosion bytaking the tongue-tip away from the alveolar ridgeor if you put the vowel /o/betweenthe/t /or/d/andthe/n/itwsoundratherstrangetoEnglishears,butyouwillnotbemisunderstood.Trytheseothersimilarwords:

ritnwrittenbritnBritainhidnhiddenbsidnburdenssitncertainfraitnfrightenpa:dnpardonwudnwooden

Both /tn/ and /dn/may be followed by /s/ or /z/ or /t/ or /d/, inwordslikexmpoitns importance, k3:tnz curtains, impjitnt important andfraitndfrightened.Whenthethirdconsonantis/1/or/d/thetonguedoesnot

moveatallthesoftpalateissimplyraisedagaintomakethestopcomplete. For /s/ or /z/ the tongue-tip is lowered very slightly from

thealveolarridgetomakethenecessaryfriction.Trythefoliowmg:pitnspittancea:tntoughtntpaidndpardonedridnsriddancewudntwouldn’tbAtnzbuttonsga:dnzgardensJbitndshortened

In words where the /n/ is not syllabic, such as braitms brightnessandgudmsgoodness, the explosion is also nasal, and this is also true whenthestopisfoundattheendofonewordandthe/n/atthebeginningothenext,asinleitnaitlatenightandbaednju:zbadnews.Trythefollow-ingexamples,andbesure that the tongue-tip stays firmlyon thealveolar ridge throughboth It I and/n/:

waitniswhitenesssasdnissadnessatnaitatnightgudnaitgoodnightwitniskidmwitnesskidneywDtnekstwhatnext?rednauzrednose71

paitnspartnerlaudmsloudnessstartnaustartnowbrednaifbreadknife

Nasal explosion also happenswhen /m/ follows /t/ or /d/: the softpalate isloweredwhilstthetongue-tipisfirmlyonthealveolarridgeandthelipsarethenquicklyclosedfor/m/.Itisusuallymoredifficultinthiscasetokeepthetongue-tippositionuntilafterthebreathhasexplodedthroughthenose,soyoumusttakecaretoholditthere.Trythefollowing:

AtmaustutmostastmasfiaatmosphereiksaitmantexcitementadmaiaadmireadmitadmitDdmantoddmentabitma:abitmorewaitmaiswhitemiceeitmeneightmensasdmjuiziksadmusicagudmeniagoodmanybraidmaindidbroad-mindedWhenyoucandothiswell,youwillnotfindmuchdifficultywith/p,b,k,g/

followedby /m/ or /n/, inwords like heipni halfpennyorsiknis sickness, or inphrasesliketeikmaintakemineorbigmasnbigman,wheretheexplosionisalsonasal. The secret is to hold the stopuntil the breath has exploded through thenose and only then tochange the tongue or lip position for the nasal (if any

changeisneeded).Trythefollowing:raipnisripenesstDpmausttopmostakno!id3acknowledgefraegmantfragmentstDpnaustopnowhelpmi:helpmedaiknaitdarknightteikmaintakeminekUbnautisclubnoticebignauzbignosebigmau0bigmouth/t/or/d/+/l//t/and/d/aremadewiththetongue-tiponthealveolarridgeandthesidesof

thetonguefirmlytouchingthesidesofthepalate;/I/ismadewiththetongue-tiptouchingthealveolarridge,butthesidesofthetongueawayfromthesidesofthepalatesothat thebreathpassesoutlaterally.Thesimplestwaytogofrom/t/or/d/to/I/istoleavethetongue-tiponthealveolarridgeandonlylowerthesides,andthatiswhatwedo.Itiscalledlateralexplosion.

Maketheclosurefor/d/andholdit;thenimmediatelychangeto/I/72Finalsequences

but be sure that the tongue-tip does not leave the alveolar ridge evenfor amoment.Ifyoufindthisdifficulttrybitingthetipofyourtonguesothatitcannotmove and then changing to /I/, until you have got thefeeling of the breathexplodingovertheloweredsidesofthetongue;thentryitwiththetongue-tipinitsnormalposition.Do this severaltimes, and then try the sameaction for /tl/.Whenyouaresatisfiedthatthetongue-tipdoesnotmove,trythefollowing:

midjmiddlemAdjmuddle^baetjbattlelit|littleTheplural ending /z/ and the past tense ending /d/ can be added to/t|/ and

/dl/. For /tld/ and /d|d/, as in bDtjdbottled andmAdldmuddled,the tongue-tipdoesnotmoveatall;thesidesareloweredfor/j/andraisedagainfor/d/.For/t|z/and/djz/,asinbDtlzbottlesandn:djzneedles,thetongue-tipisloweredslightlyfromthealveolarridgetogivethenecessaryfrictionatthesametimeasthesidesare raised to touch thesides of the palate,which theymust do for /z/. Try thefollowing:

QhAdjdhuddledk3idjdcurdledmDdlzmodelspedjzpedalstaitjdtitledmntldmottledtaitjztitlesbaetjzbattles

In all the examples above /[/ is syllabic (see p. 56), but in words such

assaedlisadlyand0Ditlisthoughtlessandinphraseslikebaedlaitbadlightandstreit lainstraightline,wherethe/!/ isnotsyllabic, theexplosiontakesplaceinthe same way, with the tongue-tip kept firmly on thealveolar ridge. Try thefollowing:

baedlibadlyniidlisneedlesshaitlisheartlessleitlilately9tlaistatlastlaifshortliferedlaitredlightgudUkgoodluckNotice, by the way, that in changing from /n/ to /I/ in words liketjaenj

channel andmaenlimanly and inphrases likegrim liif^rm* leafthe tongue-tipalsostaysonthealveolarridgewhilstthesidesofthetonguearelowered.Trythefollowing:

L™1paenjpanelfinlandFinlandtAnj'tunnelt3inleftturnleftAnlesunlessWAnlesoneless73

Tryalsothefollowing:paenlzpanelstAnlztunnels

tjaenjdchanneledtAnjdtunneledConsonant+/s,z,t,d/BecauseofthewayinwhichregularpluralsareformedinEnglishthereare

verymanysequencesofaconsonantfollowedby/s/or/z/,forexamplelipslips,b3:dzbirds,sneikssnakes,henzhens.Andbecauseofthewayinwhichregularpast tenses are formed there are also verymany sequences of a consonantfollowed by /1/ or /d/, for example,kist kissed, Uvd lnvpd7 la:ft laughed,jurzdWhenyoumakethesesequences,besurealwaystoformthefirstconsonantfirmlyand then toput the tongue intoposition for the /s/or/z/or the jtjor /d/whilstyouarestillcontinuingthefirstconsonant.Forexample,inkApscupsthelips are closed firmly for /p/ and thenbehind them the tongue-tip is placed inposition for /s/, so thatwhenthe lipsareopened for the releaseof /p/ the /s/ isheard immediately.The sounds flow into each other; there must never be anintervalorhesitationorvowelbetweenthem.Trythefollowing:

kAps cups kaets catswi:ks weeks la:fs laughsdjDbz jobs gudz goodsdaemz dams t3inz turnsegz eggs draivz drivesSDQZ songs welz wellslaift laughed mist missedWDjt washed WDtJt watchedpru:vdproved bri:3d breathedsi:md seemed aund ownedgeizd gazed d3Ad3djudgedbaerjd banged fild filledSevenofthesesequences/ps,ks,nz,ft,st,nd,Id/occurinwordswhichare

notpluralsorpastforms;thesesequencesmaythenhaveyetanotherconsonantadded to them to form plurals and past forms, forexample fikst fixed orgestsguests.For these the tongue-tipmustbeeitherraised tomakecontactwiththe alveolar ridge to make /t/ or /d/,or it must be lowered slightly from thealveolar ridge to make thefriction of /s/ or /z/. Be sure that the first twoconsonants are firmly butsmoothly formed before adding the third. Try thefollowing:

74FinalsequenceslaepstlapsedbrDnzdbronzed

taeksttaxedliftsliftsrestsrestsfhldzfieldsbendzbendsThesequence/ksts/occursinthewordtekststexts;thelast/s/isagainadded

byloweringthetongueslightlyfromthe/t/positiontogivethe/s/friction.Also,themorecommonwordsiks0sixthhas/9/addedto/ks/.Thisneedsa

smooth but definite movement of the tongue-tip from itsposition close to thealveolar ridge to aposition close to theupper teeth;thiswill not bedifficult ifyouhavemasteredtheexercisesonpp.33-4-

Consonant+/0/

Theconsonants/t,d,n,1/arefollowedby/9/inthewordseit0eighth,bred0breadth, ten0tenthandhel0health.Normally/t,d,n/and/I/aremadewiththetongue-tiponthealveolarridge,butwhenfollowedby/0/theyaremadewiththetongue-tiptouchingthebackoftheupperteeth.Itisthenpulledawayslightlytogivethedentalfrictionof/9/.

InthewordsfifQfifthandleQ0lengththetongue-tipisplacedinpositionfor/0/ during the previous consonant, so that again there is nogap between them.There are only a few otherwords like thesewid0width, hAndrad0 hundredth,nain©ninth,03:ti:n0thirteenth,etc.,wel0wealth,strei]0strength.Practisetheseandthosegivenaboveuntilyoucangosmoothlyfromthefirstconsonanttothe/©/•

All of these words may then have a plural /s/ added, giving eit0seighths,

bred0sbreadths,etc.Theadded /s/shouldnotbedifficult ifyouhavemasteredthe exercises on p. 34. The secret is a smooth but definitemovement of thetongue-tip from thedentalpositionof/0/ to thealveolarpositionof /s/.Practisethepluralsofallthewordsgivenabove.

Noticealsothewordtwelf©twelfth,where/f0/has/I/beforeit.Make sure that the /I/ is properly formed, and then during the /I/ raisethe

lowerlipuptotheupperteethfor/f/andthengoonto/0/.Thiswordalsohastheplural formtwelfOs.Onceagainmove the tongue-tipsmoothlybut firmlyfromthe/0/tothe/s/position.

/!/4-consonantVariousconsonantsmayfollow/I/;wehavealreadydealtwith/lz//|0/and/Id/onp.74andtheremainderarenotverydifficultifyouhave75mastered /I/ by itself.Before any consonant the /I/will be dark (seep. 55)

andthefollowingconsonantisformedwhilstthe/I/isbeingpronounced.Trythefollowing:

LdhelphelpfoltfaultmilkmilkJelfshelfelselseweljWelshJelvshelvebAld3bulgefilmfilmPluralandpastformslengthensomeofthesesequencesasbefore.Try:L^JhelpshelpshelpthelpedbeltsbeltsmilksmilksmilktmilkedJelvzshelvesbAldjdbulgedfilmzfilmsfilmdfilmedNasal-fconsonant

Onearlierpageswehavedealtwithnasalconsonantsfollowedby/z/,/d/and/0/.Othersequencesinwhichanasalconsonantisfollowedbyanotherconsonantare found inwords like sens sense, pAntf punchyrivendj revenge,wontwant,djAmpjumpy0aegk thank. Inall thesecasesthevocalorgansare inexactlyoralmost exactly the same position forthe nasal as for the second consonant; in

sensthetongue-tipisloweredslightlyatthesametimeasthesoftpalateisraisedto give the /s/friction; in all the other cases the tongue and lips remain in thesamepositioninpassingfromthenasal to thefollowingconsonant.Besurethatthenasalconsonantisfirmlyformedandnotreplacedbynasalizingthepreviousvowel(seep.50).

Inthewordtraiamftriumphthe/m/-soundmaybeformedwiththelowerlipagainsttheupperteeth,ratherthanwiththetwolips,butitisnotnecessarytodothisunlessyoufindithelpful.

There are plural or past forms of all the examples given above, e.g.senstsensed, pAntJtpunched, rivendjd revenged, wonts wants, djAmptjumped,d^Amps jumps, 0aegkt thanked, 0aegks thanks, traiamfs triumphs.Rememberthatwith/pt/and/kt/ thefirststopisnotexploded(seep.67).Practiseat theseexamplesuntilyougetasmoothchangebetweentheconsonants.

4.3LongerconsonantsequencesInphrasesonewordmayendwithaconsonantsequenceandthenextword

may beginwith one, so that longer sequences such as /gkskl/quite commonlyoccur, forexample in6abaegksklauzd thebank’sclosed.Asalways there is asmoothpassagefromeachconsonanttothe

76Longerconsonantsequencesnext,withnogap. If youhavemastered the initial and final sequences,the

only difficulty will be to pass smoothly from the last consonant otthe finalsequence to thefirstof the initialsequence,withnovowelorintervalbetween.Thisisdone,asbefore,byputtmgthevocalorgansinpositionforthefollowingconsonantduringthepreviousone.Theexamplesbelowwillgiveyoupracticeinsequencesofincreasinglength

Threeconsonantsbestmaenbestmanfiks61sfixthis0aegkju:thankyouWDtJkrikitwatchcricketnaistju:nnicetunelogsk3:tlongskirtFourconsonantsnekstSAndinextSundaybDtjdwainbottledwineva:stskeilvastscalestreindjdri:mstrangedreamsmo:lskweasmallsquarebigspl?ejbigsplashFiveconsonants

LsJmilksfri:milk’sfreemikstswi:tsmixedsweetsbentspriqbentspringbentskru:bentscrewSixconsonantspahaepsnDtperhapsnothelpmi:helpmetJein3wanchangeonetadtri:talltreelaudkrailoudcrypeid3twentipagetwentytwelf0naittwelfthnighthi:Gaegkt5amhethankedthem3xtstru:that’struefif0fb:fifthfloortagstri:tlongstreetgudstju:dntgoodstudentprompt stait prompt startplaintsjrivj plants shrivelaekt stjurpidli act

stupidly6aetssplendidthat’ssplendidSnekstsprit]nextSpringhind3dskriinhingedscreenhi:SinksstreithethinksstraightaihelptstjuatIhelpedStuartafenstskweaafencedsquaretwelfGstrktTwelfthStreetSevenconsonants1^16atekstsstjuipidthetext’sstupidJi:temptsstreindjazshetemptsstrangers77

Consonantsequences4.4Exercises1Doesyourlanguagehavesequencesoftwo,three,fourormoreconsonants?

Ifso,listtheoneswhicharesimilartoEnglishsequences.2Doesyourlanguagehavestop+stopsequences?Practiseagaintheexamples

onp.69.3 Be sure that you can distinguish the following: spy, espy; state,estate;

scape,escape;support,sport;succumb,scum;polite,plight;terrain,train;below,blow; strange, estrange; ascribe, scribe;esquire, squire; astute, stewed; ticket,ticked;wrapped,rapid,wrapit.

4Does your language have nasal explosion (p. 70) or lateral explosion(p.72)?Practisethoseexamplesagain.

5Practiseagainall theotherexamples in thischapter,beingverycareful tofollowtheinstructionsgiven.Finishwiththelongersequencesonp.77.

78SThevowelsofEnglishVowelsaremadebyvoicedairpassingthroughdifferentmouth-shapes;the

differences in the shape of the mouth are caused by differentpositions of the

tongueandof the lips. It iseasy toseeand to feel thelipdiffeiences,but it isverydifficult toseeor tofeel the tonguedifferences,andthat iswhyadetaileddescriptionof the tonguepositionforacertainvoweldoesnotreallyhelpus topronounceitwell.

Vowelsmustbe learnedby listeningand imitating: I could tellyouthat theEnglishvowel/d:/asinsawismadebyroundingthelipsandbyplacingthebackofthetongueinapositionmid-waybetweenthehighestpossibleandthelowestpossible position, but itwould bemuchmore helpful if I could simply say thesoundforyouandgetyoutoimitateme.SinceIcannotdothisImustleavethelistening andimitating to you. So spend some of your listening time on thevowels.

As I said at thebeginningof chapter3English speakersvaryquite alot intheir vowel sounds; the vowels used by an Australian, an American and aScotsmaninthewordseearealldifferent,buttheyareallrecognizedquiteeasilyas /i:/. So the actual sounds that you use for theEnglish vowels are not soimportant as the differences that you makebetween them. There must bedifferencesbetweenthevowels,andthatiswhatwewillconcentrateon

5.1Simplevowelse/InyourlanguageyouwillhaveavowelwhichisliketheEnglish/i:/insee,

andonewhich is like theEnglish /a/ in sun, andalmost certainlyonewhich islike the English /e/ in get. They may not be exactly thesame as the EnglishvowelsyouhearinlisteningtoEnglish,buttheywilldoforastarting-point.Saythewordsbi:dbeadandbedbedseveraltimesandlistencarefullytothesoundof the vowels; then try to saya vowel which is between the other two, anddifferentfromboth,notbirdandnotbed,but...bid-thatwillbethevowelinbid.Youneed

79

threedifferentvowelsforthethreewordsbead,bidandbed.Besurethatthemiddlevowel isdifferentandbetweentheother two:one thingwhichwillhelpyoutodistinguish/i:/from/1/isthat/i:/islongerthan/i/aswellasdifferentinthe quality of the sound. Practise thosethree words (and listen for them inEnglish) until you are sure that youcan keep them separate. The most likelydifficulty is that you willconfuse /i:/ with /i/, so be sure that /1/ is nearer inqualityto/e/andthatitisalwaysshorterthan/i:/.

Rememberthatwhenthevowelsarefollowedbyastrongconsonanttheyareshorter thanwhen theyare followedbyaweakconsonant, sothatbeat,bitandbetallhaveshortervowelsthanbead,bidandbed,butevensothevowel/i:/ isalways longer than the vowels /i/ and /e/ inany one set. Now practise thefollowing sets and pay attention to boththe length of the vowels and theirquality:

LsJIiidleadlidlidledledwi:twheatwitwitwetwetbi:nbeenbinbinbenBentjirkcheektjikchicktjekcheckfillfeelfilfillfelfell

ri:tjreachritjrichretjwretch/e,ae,a/Nowyouneedanothervowelbetweenjejand/a/,thatisthevowel/ae/.Say

thewords bed bed and bAd bud several times and be sure thatyourmouth isquitewideopenforthevowelofbAd.Listentothevowelscarefullyandthentrytosayavowelwhichisbetweenthosetwo,avowelwhichsoundsabit like/e/andabitlike/a/butwhichisdifferentfromboth.Youmusthavedifferentvowelsin bed, bad and bud.Practise those three words until you can always make adifferencebetween them; they all have comparatively short vowels so thatlengthdifferenceswillnothelpyouhere.

Practisethefollowingsetsandbesurethateachwordreallysoundsdifferent:tenten taentan tAntonbetbet bastbat bAtbutpenpen paenpan pAnpunsekssex saekssacks SAkssucksdeddead daedDad dAddudmejmesh maejmash mAjmush

80Simplevowels

Ii:,i,e.ae,a/Now try all five of these vowels in the sets given below: youwill seethat

therearegapsinsomeofthesets,wherenowordexists,forinstancethereisnoword lek; but for practice you can fill in the gapstoo. Some of thewords areratheruncommon,butdontworryaboutthemeaningsjustbesurethatthevowelsoundsaredifferent:

biidbeadbidbidbedbedliikleakliklickhi:lheelhilhillhelhelltiinteentintintentenniitneatnitknitretnetliistleastlistlistlestlestrirmreamrimrim•.1Ia.1-1i-k.of-KtbaedbadlaeklackhaelHalbAdbudUkluckhAlhulltententaentantAntonnaetgnatraemram

nAtnutIastlustrAmrum/a.cu.d/InEnglandwhenthedoctorwantstolookintoyourmouthandexamineyour

throat he asksyou to sayAh, that is thevowel /a:/,because for this vowel thetongue is very low and he can see over it tothe back of the palate and thepharynx.Soifyouhavenovowelexactlylike/a:/inyourlanguageyoumayfindamirrorusefulkeepyourmouthwideopenandplaywithvariousvowelsoundsuntil youfind one which allows you to see the very back of the soft palatequiteclearly;thiswillbesimilartoanEnglish/a:/,butyoumustcompareitwiththe/a:/vowelsthatyouhearwhenyouhstentoEnghshandadjustyoursoundifnecessary.Remember that /a:/ isa longvowel.Theshortvowel /d/ isabit like/a:/inqualitythoughofcourseteymustbekeptseparate.For/n/thelipsmaybeslightlyrounded,for/a:/theyarenot.Trythefollowingsets:

GsDUkluckkAdcuddAkduckIAStlustbAksbuckskApcuplarklarkloklockkardcardkDdcoddaikdarkdokdocklarstlastlostlostbarksbarksboksboxkarpcarpkopcop/d.d:,u,u:/InyourlanguagetherewillbeavowelwhichissimilartotheEnghsh8i

/u:/ in two. The /u:/ in English, like /i:/ and /a:/, is always longer thantheother vowels.Between /d/ and /u:/ you need tomake two othervowels, /a:/, alongone,asin/Id://aw,and/u/,ashortone,asinputpttf.For/d:/themouthislessopenthanfor/d/andthelipsaremorerounded,but/a:/isnearerinqualityto/d/thanto/u:/.For/u/thelipsarealsorounded,butthesoundisnearerinqualityto/u:/.Allfourvowels,/o,a:,u,u:/,mustbekeptseparate,andthedifferencesoflengthwillhelpinthis.Trythefollowingsets:

L£jJodshodjDidshoredJudshouldJu:dshoedkodcodka:dcordkudcouldku:dcooedWDdwadwa:dwardwudwouldwu:dwooedInklockluklookIu:kLukepDlPollpollPaulpulpullpu:lpool/3i,a:/The vowel /3:/ as in / h3:/ her is a long vowel which is not very close

inquality to any of the other vowels and usually sounds rather vagueandindistinct to the foreign learner. You must listen to the vowelespeciallycarefullyandtrytoimitatetheindistinctnessofit(thoughtoanEnglishlistener it sounds quite distinct!). Two things will help: keepyour teeth quite

closetogetheranddonotroundyourlipsatall-smilewhenyousayit!Thetwocommonestmistakeswith/3i/are,first,toreplaceitby/er/orbysomevowelinyourownlanguagewhichhaslip-roundingbutwhichisnotlikelytobeconfusedwith anyother English vowel, and second, and more important, it is replacedby/a:/byJapanesespeakersandspeakersofmanyAfricanlanguagesandothersInthefirstcasethereisnodangerofmisunderstandingalthoughthevowelwillsound strange; in the second case there is danger ofmis-understanding, sincewordslikeh3ithurtandha:theartwillbeconfused.

In your listening-time pay special attention to /3i/ and experiment(alwayswithteethclosetogetherandasmileonyourface)untilyouapproachtherightquality; thenmakesurethatyoucandistinguishitfrom/a:/whichhastheteethfurtherapartinthefollowingpairs:

p3:spurseh3:dheardp3:tjtperchedparspassb3:nburnhardhardf3:mfirmpa:tjtparchedtalkslurksba:nbamfarmfarmla:kslarksMThevowel/a/inbanainabananaisthecommonestoftheEnglish82Simplevowelsvowelsandisashortversionof/a:/.Itisparticularlyshortandindistinctwhenitisnotfinal,e.g.inagenagain,icantem«pman.Infinalposition,thatisbeforeapause,asinbetabetterel^sla’kolacollar,thevowelsoundsmorelike/a/,thoughitisnotusuallysoClTherearetwomaindifficultieswiththisvowel:first,toidentifyit,thatis

to knowwhen it is this vowel you shouldbe aiming at, andsecond, to get therightquality.Inthefirstcase,donotbedeceivedbyEnglishspelling:thereisnosingle letterwhichalwaysstands for thtsvowel, so relyonyourear listenverycarefullyandyouwillheardozensofexamplesof/a/ineverybitofEnglishyoulisten to. In thesecondcase, it isoftenuseful to thinkof leavingout thevowelalto-gether in words such as kandem condemn, saetadr Saturday,d3ent!manLtleman, where /a/ comes between consonants. Of course, youwiUnotreallyleaveoutthevowel,butyouwillhaveaminimumvowelandthatiswhat/a/is.Thenininitialposition,asinatemptattejf,skauntaccount,abzawobserve,youmustagainkeepitveryshortandveryobscure.Butinfinalpositionitneednotbesoshortanditmaybemorelike/a/,withthemouthalittlemoreopenthaninotherpositions.

Trythefollowingexamples:Inmedialpositionpahsepsperhaps

entateinentertaindinazdinners32mat3:amateurkamfatabjcomfortableignarantignorantAndastaendunderstandpailatpilotp3imanantpermanentkanteinimbaerashindadglaemaraskampaunantkaeraktazmenasterabjkareid3ascontainembarrasshinderedglamorouscomponentcharactersmenaceterriblecourageousIninitialpositionL^labeiobeyalauallowamauntamountada:adoreanaiannoyapruivapproveatendattendabstrAktobstructatjiivachieveakauntaccountasaidasideagri:agree83

apiaappearad33madjournafensoffenceInfinalpositionsums sooner sella sailorme38 measure kola collarsAlfa sulphur Jaufa chauffeuraefrika Africa amerika Americapaija Persia kaenada Canadaflaetara flatterer admaiara admirerkAla colour zefa zephyrpiktja picture tjaina Chinarmidaramurderer kampauza composerMoreexamplesof /a/willbe found in thenextchapterwhenwecon-sider

theweakformsofcertainwords,suchasatandforinattaimzattimesandfaju:foryou.

5.2DiphthongsAdiphthong isaglide fromonevowel toanother,and thewholeglideacts

likeoneofthelong,simplevowels;sowehavebi:,ba:,bo:andalsobei,bau,bai,

bau, boi, bia, bea, bua. The diphthongs of Englishare in three groups: thosewhichendin/u/,/au,au/,thosewhichendin/i,/ei,ai,01/,andthosewhichendin/a/,/ia,ea,ua/.

/au,au/

Boththesediphthongsendwith/u/rather than/u:/althoughyouwillnotbemisunderstoodifyoudouse/u:/.Toget/au/asinsauso,startwith/s3:/andthenglideawayto/u/withthelipsgettingslightlyroundedandthesoundbecominglessloudastheglideprogresses.Besurethatthefirstpartofthediphthongis/3:/(arealEnglishjo:/!)andnot/a:/oranythinglikeit,andbesurethatthesoundi$a diphthong,not a simple vowel of the /a:/ type, /au/ and /a:/ must be keptquiteseparate.Trythefollowing:

laulowla:lawsausoso:sawsnausnowsna:snorebautboatbaitboughtklauzclosekla:zclawskaukcokeka:kcorkkaulcoalkailcall84Diphthongs

For/au/startwith/a/.Sayunton,andthenafterthe/a/-soundaddan/„/;thisshouldgivetauntown,/au/isnotdifficultformostpeople.Besurethat/au/and/au/aredifferent.Trythefollowing:

naunown3Ub«wlaudloudl3udlcfd,faundfoundfsundPhonf.raurow(quarrel)raurow(line)dautdoubtdautdotetaunztownst3unztonesRemember when you practise these examples that diphthongs areshorter

beforestrongconsonantsandlongerbeforeweakones,justetheothervowels,sobautboathasashorterdiphthong thanklauzdoseanddautdoubtashorteronethanlaudloud.Gobackoverallthoseexamplesandgetthelengthsright.Whennoconsonantfollows,asinlaulow,thediphthongisatitslongest.

/e1,ai,ai/Thesediphthongsallendin/i/,not/Is/(thoughitisnotseriousifyoudouse

/i:/ finally). /«/ begins with /e/ as in men Say men and then addIII after /e/,gliding smoothly from /e/ to /i/ and making the sound lessloud as the glideprogressesthiswillgivememmain.Themostcommonmistakeistousealong,simplevowelsotrytobesurethathereisaglidefrom/e/to/i/;however,ifyou

do use a simple vowelfor /ei/ it will not be misunderstood some accents ofEnglish(e.g.Scottish)dothesame.But/«/and/e/mustbequiteseparate.Trythe

following-SleitlateletletsellsailselseUpeipapaperpeP3peppertreidtradetredtreadreikrakerekwreckfellfailfe'

/ai/ elides from /a/ to /i/, and the loudness becomes less as theglideprogresses.SayfAnfun,andthenadd/i/afterthe/a/,withasmoothglide;thiswillgiveyoufainfine.Besurethat/ai/isseparatefrom/e/.

waitwhiteweitwaitlaidliedleidlaidraisricereisraceraizrisereizraiselarklikel«klakefailfilefellfad/M/glidesfrom/d:/to/i/,andasusualtheloudnessbecomeslessduring85

theglide.Saydp:jawandthenadd/i/,asbefore.Thiswillgiveyou/dpi/joy.The/d:/soundisnotaslongin/di/asitiswhenitisalone,asin/dp:/./di/isnotaverycommondiphthonganditisnotlikelytobeconfusedwithanyothervowel

ordiphthong.Trythesewords:bDiboytDitoyanDiannoynDiznoiseoiloildjDinjoinavDidavoidbDilzboilsvdisvoicehDisthoistd3Dintjointbitaloiter/ia,ea,ua/These are all glides to the sort of /a/-sound found in final position,

asdescribedonp.83./ia/glidesfrom/1/(not/i:/)tothis/a/inwordslikehiahear,nianear, etc. If youdouse /i:/ at thebeginningof theglide itwill soundabitstrangebutyouwillnotbemisunderstood.Trythefollowing:

fiafearkarianKoreanrialireallyjiayearrialrealfiasfiercebiabeerkliaclearbiadbeardaidiazideaspiaspierceniaranearer

Wordssuchas fAniafunnierandgbiriasglorious,where /ia/ is theresultofaddinganending/a/or/as/toawordwhichendswith/1/,shouldbepronouncedinthesamewayasthe/ia/inhear,near,etc.ThesameistrueforwordssuchasIndia'India,eariaarea,juinianunion,etc.

To make /ea/, start with the word haez has (with the proper English/ae/,between/e/and/a/)andthenadd/a/afterthe/ae/,glidingsmoothlyfrom/ap/to/a/; this will give you the word heaz hairs.Notice that the beginning of thediphthongis/ae/ratherthan/e/.Youmustkeep/ia/and/ea/quiteseparate;trythefollowing:

hiahereheahairbiabeerbeabarestiadsteeredsteadstarediazearseazairsrial1reallyrealirarelywianwearyweariwary

/ua/startsfrom/u/(not/u:/)andglidesto/a/;ifyouuse/u:/atthebeginningoftheglideitwillsoundabitstrangebutyouwillnotbemisunderstood.Trythefollowing:

puapoorJualisurelyfjuariasfurious86injuaransinsurancekjuariDsaticuriositykjuacureDiphthongspjuapureJuasure

pjualipurelyAllthesewordsmayalsobepronouncedwith/d:/insteadof/ua/inR.P.,/pDi,

Jbi,kja:/,etc.Otherwords,likefewer,bluer,continuous,arealsousuallypronouncedwith/ua/fjua,blua,kantinjuasthoughthey can always be pronouncedwith /u:a/ fjuia, bluia, kantinj u:as -and in

anycase theymustnotbepronouncedwith /di/.This is also truefor cruel andjewetwhichmusthaveeither/ua/or/u:a/.

5.3VowelsequencesTherearevowelsequencesaswellasconsonantsequencesbuttheyarenotso

difficult.Ingeneral,whenonevowel(ordiphthong)followsanotheryoushouldpronounceeachonequitenormallybutwithasmoothglidebetweenthem.Themostcommonsequencesare formedbyadding /a/ toadiphthong,especially to/ai/ and /au/ inwords likefold fire and aua our.When you listen to these twosequences/aia,aua/youwillnoticethatthe/i/infireandthe/u/inourareratherweak;infactbothsequencesmaysoundratherlike/a:/.Itisprobablybestforyounottoimitatethisbuttopronouncethesequencesas/ai-f-a/andjav+dj, thoughthe/i/andthe/u/shouldnotbemadetoostrong.Try

thefollowing:traialtrialkwaiatquietkauadcowardbaiabuyerflaiaflyeraianironauazourstaua towertraual troweltaiad tiredpauaful powerfulbaua bowerflaua

flowerraiatriotJauarishoweryThe less common sequences /eia, aua, aia/ should be pronounced withthe

normaldiphthongsmoothlyfollowedby/a/.The/i/and/u/neednotbeweakenedatall.Try:

greiagreyergrauagrowerpleiaplayermalroyalfolauazfollowersimpbiaemployer0rauathrowerbitreialbetrayallaiazlawyers87

Vowels/i:/and/u:/arealsofollowedby/a/inwordslikefreerandbluerwhichmay

bepronouncedfri:aorfria,andblu:^orblua,aswehaveseen.Theverbending-ing/ig/givesvarioussequencesinwordslikethefollowing:bi:igbeingdungdoingalauigallowingdrangdrawinggauiggoingsingseeingstjungstewingbauigbowingsangsawingnauigknowingInwordslikesaying,enjoying,flying,where-ingfollowsawordendingwith

/ei/, /ai/ or /ai/, it is common to pronounce seig, indjaig, flaig,if you find thiseasier.

Inwordslikecarrying,pitying,etc.,whereawordwhichendswith/i/has/ig/added to it, it is usual (and best for you) to pronouncekasring, piting, etc.,althoughkaeriandpitiarethenormalforms.

Other vowel sequences are found both within words and betweenwords.These also should be performedwith a smoothglide betweenthe vowels. (Seealsop.ioi.)Herearesomeexamples:

kernschaosbmndbeyondblunjbluish5i:endtheendriaektreactgreiaidgrey-eyedmaiaunmyownbaiografibiography

kauDpareitco-operatejuiaintyouaren’tgauautgoouttuiauaztwohoursmeiaiauittu:ju:mayIoweittoyou?5.4Exercises(Answers,whereappropriate,onp.135)1Whatvowelsanddiphthongsdoyouhaveinyourlanguage?Whichofthe

Englishonescauseyoudifficulty?2Duringyourlistening-timelistencarefullytooneofthedifficultvowelsata

timeand try toget thesoundof it intoyourhead.Makea listof twentywordscontainingeachdifficultvowelandpractisethem.

88Exercises3Gobackandpractisealltheexamplesgiveninthischapter,andconcentrate

onmakingdifferencesbetweenthedifferentvowels.4 Is the length of vowels important in your language? Practisemakingthe

difference between the long vowels (including the diphthongs)and the shortvowelsofEnglish.Don’tforgetthatvowellengthisaffectedbyfollowingstrongandweakconsonants;completethefollowinglistforallthevowelsandpractiseit,thinkingaboutvowel

length:bi:d bi:thiz hissed set5Makealistofphrasesliketheonesonp.88,whereavowelordiphthongat

theendofonewordisimmediatelyfollowedbyanotheratthebeginningofthenext.Practisesayingthemsmoothly,withnobreakbetweenthevowels.

89

16Wordsincompany6.1WordgroupsandstressWhenwetalkwedonottalkinsinglewordsbutingroupsofwordsspoken

continuously,withnobreakorpause;wemaypauseafteragroup,butnotduringit.Thesegroupsmaybelong,forexample,Howeverdidyoumanagetodoitsoneatlyand tidily?,or theymaybeshort,aswhenwesaysimplyYesorMo,ortheymaybeofintermediatelength,likeHowdidyoudoit?orComeoverhereaminute.Whenwehave longer things tosaywebreak themup intomanageablegroupslikethis:LastWednesdayIwantedtogetuptoLondonearlysoIcaughtatrainabouthalf anhourbeforemyusualoneand Igot toworkabouthalfpasteight.

Whenonegroupisverycloselyconnectedgrammaticallytothenext,thereisa very slight pause, marked by ( ). When two groups arenot so closelyconnected,thereisalongerpause,markedby(),andthisdoublebarisalsousedtomark theendofacompleteutterance. It isnotusuallydifficult toseehowalong utterance can be broken up intoshorter groups, but when you listen toEnglishnoticehowthespeakersdoitbothinreadingandinconversation.

In the group T could hardly believe my eyes the words hardly, believeandeyesare stressed: thismeans thatoneof thesyllablesof theword (theonlysyllableineyes!)issaidwithgreaterforce,withgreatereffort,thantheothers;inhardlyitisthefirstsyllable/hard-/,andinbelieveitisthesecondsyllable/li:v/.All the remaining syllables in the group aresaid more weakly, they areunstressed',only/hard-/,/—li:v/and/aiz/havetheextraeffortorstress.Wecanshow this by placing the markimmediately before the syllables which havestress,forexample:

L^Jaikud*ha:dlibi*li:vmai*aizHardly always has stress on the first syllable, never on the second,

andbelieve always has stress on the second syllable, never on the first;everyEnglishwordhasadefiniteplaceforthestressandwearenotallowed

90Wordgroupsandstress

mchangeitThefirstsyllableisthemostcommonplaceforthestress,steed,*kwDlifi*keij3n,examinationigzaemineijan,ernfiindicate*indi*keit.6.2StressedandunstressedsyllablesTherei,nosimplewaywordEnglishwordmustbestressed,JY^dictionaryofyoumustbesuretolearnhowit•Y,syllablePrudishwillgiveyouthisinformation.Ityoustresstne8J■1*£Sapeofrhe

wordforanEnglishhearerandhemayhavedir>urdsarcarmsedaidrenl/andlyarennsrressed.Whatsortofwordsarereedhenand

what sort are unstressed? First, all words ofmore, ’ I.’, | re stressed In somecircumstancesEnglishspeakers

wordswhicharestressed,specialpurposes"TyihbfaS ntn stressedlften contain the vowel /»/ insteadof any clearer

vowel,andthisvowel/»/only"“'Ison5*secondsyllableisstressedandthefirsthasa/butinthe:nocontentsthefirs,syllabletstheeffo„/d/.Herearesomeexamplesofthesamek,yonthecorrectsyllableandwiththerightvowels:Sab*t«inobtainob)'Ct'n')9i

pa*mit permit(v.) *p3:fikt perfect(adj.)pra*vaid provide *praugre$ progress(n.)*faut3*gra :fphotograph f3*tDgrafi photographypri*pea prepare *prep3*reijan preparationkam*bain combine(v.) *kDmbi*neiJan combination*kDnv3nt convent in*vent inventBut it isnot true,asyoucansec, that /a/ is theonlyvowelwhichoccursin

unstressedsyllables;alltheothervowelscanoccurtheretooand/i/iscommonlyfoundthere,theremainingvowelslesscommonlyso.

Here are examples of other vowels in unstressed syllables; say themasbefore:

LsJ*plentiplenty*eni6ii]anything*hikAphiccoughju:*tilitiutility*0aei]kjuthankyou*windauwindowtraenz*leittranslatemein*teinmaintaindi*saiddecidevai*breitvibrateD:*spija$auspicious*gaera:3garage6.3Weakformsofwords

InItwastooexpensiveforthemtobuythewordstoo,expensiveandbuyarestressed,givingitwsz*tuiik*spensivfa63mt3*bai.Noticethepronunciationofthewordswas,for,themandto;allofthemhavethevowel/a/.Ifthosewordsarepronounced alone, they have the pro-nunciations wdz, fo:, dem and tu:, butusuallytheyarenotpronouncedaloneandusuallytheyarcnotstressed,andthentheformswith/a/areused;wecallthesetheweakformsofthosewords.

English people often think that when they use these weak forms theyarebeing rather careless in their speech and believe that it would bemore correctalways touse the strong forms, likewdz, tu:, etc.This isnot true, andEnglishspokenwithonlystrongformssoundswrong.

Theuseofweak forms isanessentialpartofEnglish speechandyoumustlearn to use theweak formsof 3 5Englishwords if youwant yourEnglish tosoundEnglish.Somewordshavemorethanoneweakformandthefollowinglisttellsyouwhentouseoneandwhentheother:

WeakformExamplesan*blaek3n*waitez3z*gudaz*gauldbatb3t*wai*nDt?WordC^landasbut92Weakformsofwordsthan6snthat6at(Thewordthatinphraseslikethatman,that'sgoodisalwayspronounced6aet

andneverweakened.)hei:himimhisizher3:(Atthebeginningofwordgroupstheformshi:,him,hiz,h3:shouldbeused:

h:*laiksit,h3:*feisiz*red)them63muss(onlyinlet's)3Sdod3(da is only used beforeconsonants. Before vowels,use the strong form d

u::*haudu:*ai*n3U?)doesdazamm(afterI)sm(elsewhere)area(beforeconsonants)sr(beforevowels)bebiiss(after/p,t,k,f,0/)z(aftervowelsandvoicedconsonantsexcept/z,3,d3/)(After /s, z, J, 3,tJ,d3/ thestrong form iz is alwaysused: *witj iz*rait?)was

wazhasaz(after/$,z,J,3,tj,d3/)s(after/p,t,k,f,0/)z(elsewhere)havev(afterI,we,you,they)3V(elsewhere)

*betadan*evsaiad*mit6atai*didit*didi:*win?*givim*tu:ai*laikiz*tai*teik3:*haum*send63mbai*paust*lets*du:it*nauhi:*waunt*letas*du:it*haudadei*nau?*wendaz6a*trein*li:v?aim*taiad.*wen am ai ta *bi: *6ea?da *g3:lza*bju:tafjda *men ar *Agli*daunt bi

*ru:d*daets*fain*weaz*d3Dn?*d3Dnz*hiada *weda waz *terab|!da *plei$ az *tjeind3d*d3aeks*gDn*d3on z bi:n

*sikju:v*braukanitdaymenav*gDn93

Wordsincompanyhadd(after7,he,she,we,you,they)ad(elsewhere)(Atthebeginningofwordgroupstheformshaez,haev,haedshouldbeused:

haez*eniwAn*faund?Whenhas,have,hadarefullverbstheyshouldalwaysbepronouncedhaez,haev,haed:aihaev*tu:*brA3az)cankanshallJ|

willI(afterI,he,she,we,you,they)j(afterconsonants,except/I/)aI(aftervowelsand/I/)wouldd(afterI,he,she,we,you,they)ad(elsewhere)mustmast

a a (before consonants)an an (before vowels)the 5a (before consonants)(Beforevowelsthestrongform5i:shouldbeused:

6i:*a:ntsan5i:*Agkjz)somesam(When somemeans ‘acertain quantity* it isalways stressed and there-fore

pronouncedSAm:*SAmavmax*frendz)atatforfa(beforeconsonants)far(beforevowels)fromframofavtota(beforeconsonants)(Beforevowelsthestrongformtu:shouldbeused:ai

*wDntidtu:*a:skju:)5eid*left*haum5a*deiadbi:n*fain*haukanai*help?aiJlbi*krDs5eiI*givita*wei*5isj*du:5a*b:>ial*lu:zan5a*g3:lal*win*aid*du:it*d3Dnad*du:itaimast*telima*paunda*dei*haevan*aepj5a*ma:5a*meriaai*ni:dsam*peipa*kAmat*wAns*kAmfa*ti:*kAmfara*mi:lai*sentitfram*Undan5a*kwi:nav^igglandta*steia:ta

*gau94Weakformsofwords

The word not has the weak forms /nt/ (after vowels) and /nt/(afterconsonants) when it follows .re, is, should, would, has, have could,dare,might. Examples: 3ei *a:nt *kAmiQ; hi: *h*znt: a raivd.especially theformscantka:nt,shan’t^,dontdaunt,wontwaunmustn’tmAsnt,inwhichcan,shall, do, will,must are changedwhen theycombinewhh not. Practise all theexamplesgivenhereandbesurehattheweakformsarereallyweak,thenmakeupsimilarexamplesoyourselfandpractisethosetoo.

6.4TheuseofstrongformsAs I have said, the 3 5 commonwords which have weak forms alsohave

strongforms,whichmustbeusedinthefollowingcases.,Whenever theword is stressed, as itmay be: katnai du .5e'-’*h*v iu: ju:

mast*tju:2♦„a:*3em,*h,:*la.ks*ha.batdaz*fi:*laik*him?,

2Whenever theword is final in thegroup: *d3onh<ez,meanwi,*iu:a: ai*daunt*WDnttu:,*WDts*3aetfa:?

Exceptions: he, km, fas. her, them. »shave their ,e,AhelmtinCnaposition(unlesstheyarestressedofeonrse):a.*t»Wwi:*ka:ldfarim,Qei*la:ftatas..

not has its weak form finally when attached to can, have, is, etc .*d3nn*ka:nt,*mean*iznt;butneverotherwise:athaupnotSomeofthe35wordsarevery rarely either stressed or final in thegroup and so very rarely have theirstrong form, for example, than athe. But occasionally they are stressed forreasonsof.meaning^^ndthetheynaturallyhavetheirstrongform:aised*eisau,notS..

(I Practise all these examples and then make up others for yourselfandpractisethosetoo.

6.5Rhythmunits

Withinthewordgroupthereisatleastonestressedsyllable(II*wen?|||l*su'n*nau?*jes).Thelengthofthesyllableinaveryshort‘group’ofthiskinddependsonthenaturallengthofthevowelandthe^/nau’/ifavery’long’syliableibecauseithasadiphthongandnofollow-Tu“””>”otnghbi°nUs=ithasalongvowelfollowedbyaweakconsonant.95

FWordsincompanyI wen/ is a little shorter because it has a short vowel, but not veryshort

becauseoftheslightlengtheningeffectofthefollowingweakconsonant./jes/istheshortestofthesesyllablesbecauseithasashortvowelfollowedby

astrongconsonant,butnoticethateventhiskindofsyllableisnotveryshortinEnglish.

Thestressedsyllablemayhaveoneormoreunstressedsyllablesbeforeit:Li]its*kauldaia*gri:aiJ!kam*pleinTheseunstressedsyllablesbeforethestressaresaidveryquickly,sotheyare

allveryshort,asshortasyoucanmakethem;butthestressedsyllableisaslongasbefore,sothereisagreatdifferenceoflengthbetweentheunstressedsyllablesandthestressedone.Saythoseexampleswithveryquick,veryshortunstressedsyllables,andthenstretchoutthestressedone.Dothesamewiththese:

LfJaim*hiaaiwaz*hiaaiwazin*hiaJi:z*haumJi:zat*haumb9tJiiz9t*haumdei*W3ikdeikan*w3:kdeiW9r9t*w3:kwi:l*si:wi:JI*$i:anwi:Jj*si:

The stressed syllable may also be followed by one or moreunstressedsyllables:

Ld*teikit*a:lavit?*n3etjaraliButtheseunstressedsyllablesarenotsaidspeciallyquickly;whathappensis

that the stressed syllable and the following unstressedsyllable(s) share theamountoftimewhichasinglestressedsyllablewouldhave;so

*nain*nainti*naintia0alltakeaboutthesametimetosay;nainisstretchedout,butthenaininnainti

is only half as long and the nain in naintiaB is shorter still, andthe unstressedsyllables areof the same length as the stressedones; theseunstressed syllablesafterthestressmustnotberushed,astheonesbeforethestressare,butmustbegiventhesameamountoftimeasthestressedsyllabic.Saythoseexamples,andbesurethatthethreewordsalltakeaboutthesametimetosay.Thentrythese:

L±sJ*gud*bet9*eksalant*fain*fainj*fainali96Rhythmunits*drii3k*wilir)*witnis*driQkig*wilii]nis*witnisiz*driQkiQit*mi:tii]6amInthegroupitwaz*betatherearetwounstressedsyllablesbeforethestressandoneafter it.Thefirst twoaresaidquickly, thelastonenotso

quickly, taking the same amount of time as /be-/. Practise thatgroup,with thefirst two syllables very short and the next two longer.Do the same with thefollowing:

ju:kan*si:69mdeiin^djaidithi:kudava*vaididititwazan*aeksidantbatdeawa*plentiavdamaiwazin*UndanJi:ik*sp^ktidititwaza*miraklmaia*pDlad3izp:rim*pDsab|The group *wai*not? has two stresses and the two syllables are giventhe

same length. In *wai *not *gm? the three stressed syUables arcalso equal inlength.But in *wai*not*teik it? the first two syUables*wai *nDt are equal inlengthbutthefollowingtwosyllablesteikitaresaidinthesametimeas*wai,so

theyarebothonlyhalfthelengthof*waiand*not.Thisisexactlywhathappenswith*nainandnaintiaswesawonp.96.couldshowthisasfoUows.

rwai*rmt*gau*wai*nDt*teikitSimilarlyin*Saets*kwait*plezntthetwosyllablesof*pleznthavethesame

amountoftimeasthesinglesyllable*3aetsor*kwaitandarethereforeonlyhalfaslong.

*3aats*kwait*plezpt[lIn *d3Dnz*eldist *saii the stressed syUables *d3t>nz and *SAnwhichare

not followed by an unstressed syllable are of the same length, andthe twosyllablesof*eldistsharethissamelengthoftimebetween

them.In*bau0sv3am*keim*baek the threesyUables*bau0av3amaresaid in

thesameamountoftimeas*keimor*baek.|*bau0avdam*keim*baek97RhythmunitsIn*bau0avflam*left*3:li the threesyllablesof*bau0av3amandthetwo

syllablesof*3:liaresaidinthesameamountoftimeasthesinglesyllable*left,so*leftisthelongestsyllable,thetwosyllablesof*3:liareshorterandrhethreeof*bau0av3amareshorterstill.

UfJ*bau0ay3am*left*3iliAstressedsyllabletogetherwithanyunstressedsyllableswhichmayfollowit

forma stress group.So*bau0 av3am is one stress group, *leftis another and*3:liisanother.ThefundamentalruleofEnglishrhythmisthis:eachstressgroupwithinawordgroupisgiventhesameamountoftime.

If we leave out any spaces between syllables belonging to the samestressgroupitwillremindusthattheybelongtoasinglestressgroupandmustbesaidinthesametimeasotherstressgroup?inthesamewordgroup:

I*bau0av3am*left*3:liDothisforthefollowingexamples:*letim *teikit*teikp: *hastDf*dauntteik *tu:mAtJ *taim*izji: *gauiQDn

*mAndi?*WDzntit*wAndafli*kaindavim?*send3am*leita*nAnavas*laiktit*3ea*meiai*borauit*nau?*haevju:*h3idhau*d3Dniz?*breikitinta*se'/ral*pi:sizNowpractise those examples; thebestway is tobeat the rhythmwithyour

hand,onebeatforeachstressedsyllableandwithexactlythesametimebetween

eachpair of beats. I find it useful to bang rhythmi-cally on the tablewithmypen,andateachbangcomesastressedsyllable;youtryittoo.Anddon’tforgetthat each stressgroupgetsthe same timeas theothers in thatwordgroup, andthateachsyllableinthestressgroupgetsthesametimeastheothersinthatstressgroup.

In the group aim *gauig *haum there are two stress groups*gauig and*haum. The syllable aim does not belong to any stressgroup since it comesbeforethestress,anditissaidveryquickly,aswe

saw earlier, quicker than the unstressed syllable in the stress group*gauig.Wecanshowthisasfollows:

aim*gauig*haumKJ~Inthegroupaim*haomt3*deitheunstressedsyllable/ta-/in ta*dei behaves exactly like aim, it is said very quickly, and thestressed

syllable*haumisstill justas longas the twosyllablesofgauig,notreduced inlengthasyoumightexpect.

aim*gauig*haumta*deiSowesaythat/ta-/doesnotbelongtothesamestressgroupashaumbutthat

it is outside any stress group, like aim. Exactly the same is truefor fa in aim*gauiQ*haumfa*krismas

aim*gauii]*haumfa*krismasWesaythattheseveryquick,veryshortsyllablescomebeforethestress,and

wemightwritetheseexampleslikethis:1aim*gauiQ*haumta*deiaim*gauu]*haumfa*krismasIn this sort of arrangement any unstressed syllable fee/bre the

stressedsyllable is said very quickly and does not affect the length ofsyllablesbeforeit.Wesaythemasquicklyaswecansothattheyinterfereaslittleas possible with the regular return of the stressed syllables. Anyunstressedsyllable after the stress is of course part of the stress groupand shares theavailabletimewiththeothersyllablesofthestressgroup.

Aunitof thiskind,witha stressed syllableas its centreandanyunstressedsyllables which may come before it and after it, is called arhythm unit. Soaim*gauiQisarhythmunit,andsois*haumandsois

f9*krism9s...,Howdoyoudecidewhatwordsorsyllablesgotogetherinarhythmunit?Herearetherules:

1Anyunstressedsyllablesatthebeginningofawordgroupmustgotogetherwiththefollowingstressgroup.

Saiwazin*lAndanmai9*pDl3d3iz|2Iftheunstressedsyllable(s)ispartofthesamewordasthestressedsyllable

theybelongtothesamerhythmgroup:[“3*t{i:pa*feaz*tji:pa*fe9z(cheaperfares,cheapaffairs)9899

3 If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically tothestressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to thesamerhythmunit:

*givitta*djDn*teik3amfara*wa:k*haudidju:*maenid3tabi*3earin*taim?4Whenever you are in doubt as towhich rhythm unit unstressedsyllables

belongto,put themafterastressrather thanbefore it.SoinHewasolder thanme,ifyouaredoubtfulaboutdan,putitwithauldaandnotwithmi::

LhJhi:waz*auldadan*mi:.Inmanylanguagestherhythmunitisthesyllable:eachsyllablehasthesame

lengthaseveryothersyllableandtherearenot theconstantchangesofsyllablelengthwhich occur in English word groups. Somesuch languages are French,Spanish,Hindi,Yoruba.SpeakersoftheselanguagesandothersinwhichallthesyllableshavethesamelengthwillfindEnglishrhythmratherdifficult,andtheywillneedtoworkhard,atit.IfeverysyllableismadethesamelengthinEnglishit gives theeffect of amachine gun firing andmakes the utterances very hardtounderstand.SomegoodworkonEnglishrhythmwillhelpgreatlyinimprovingthesoundofyourspeech.

Practisethefollowingexamples,beatingtherhythmofthestressed,syllablesasyougoandvaryingthelengthsofthesyllablessoastokeepthestressgroupsequalinlength:

IZJ*teikit*haum*teikitta*d3Dn*teikitta*d3Dnsan*laitda*faia*laitigda*faiahi:waz*iaitigda*faiahi:waz*mausta*mju:zighi:waz*veria*mju:zig*d3onwaz*leit*d3eniwaz*leit*d3enifawaz*leithi:z*d3Ast*tenhi:z*d3Ast*sevanhi:z*d3A$t*sevantiitsa*ha:d*d3Dbitsa*triki*d3Dbitsa*difaklt*d3Dbitwaza*riali*gud*mi:litwaza*riali*pleznt*mi:litwaza*riali*ek$alant*mi:hi:*pleiz *veri *wel hi:z*pleng *veri *wel hi:z*plengit *veri *welju:*didit

*ra:3a*welju:*didit*ra:5a*betaju:*didit*ra:da*klavali6.6FluencyOneotherthingwhichyoumustpayattentiontoinsayingwordgroupsisthat

yousaythemfluently,smoothly,withnogapsorhesita-

IOORhythmunitstionsinthemiddle.Whenyouknowwhatwordsyouhavetosayyoushould

becapableofsaying themwithoutstumblingover thesoundsandsequencesofsounds.InEnglish,aswehaveseen,onewordisnotseparatedfromanotherbypausingorhesitating;theendofonewordflowsstraightontothebeginningofthe next.To improveyour fluencytry themethodof lengtheningwordgroups.Hereisanexample.

IwenthomeontheSundaymorningtrain.

First you say the short group Iwent home smoothly; if you stumble,say itagain,untilyouaresurethatyoucandoit.ThenaddthenextthreewordsandsayIwenthomeontheSunday,alsowithoutstumbling.Nowaddmorningandsaythewholethingfromthebeginning;andfinallyaddtrain.Don’tbesatisfieduntilyoucansayitwithouthesitationandwithyourbestEnglishsoundsandrhythm.Other

examplesforpracticeareonp.106.Onedifficultywhichoftenaffectsforeignlearnersisconnectedwithavowel

atthebeginningofwords,especiallyifitbeginsastressedsyllable.Anexampleis:He’s alwaysaskingawkwardquestionswhere*d:Iwiz,*a:skii] and*a:kwadall beginwith a stressed vowelEnglishspeakers glide smoothly from the finalsound of the word before to theinitial vowel of the following word with nobreak,nohesitation.

Many speakers of other languages separate the twowords by a glottalstop(see p. 14) and this gLves a very jerky effect in English. You musttry to gosmoothlyandcontinuouslyfromoneword to theother,withnoglottalstop,nobreak.

hi:z*D:lwiz*a:skii]*D:kwad*kwe$tjanzWhen the final sound of theword before is a consonant itwill help ifyou

imagine that it belongs to the following word, and we mighttranscribe ourexample:hi:*zd:!wi*za:ski*rp:kwad*kwestjanz|.Thiswillstopyoumakingagapbeforethevowel.

If the final sound of theword before is a vowel there are variousways ofavoiding thegap. Indi:*aS9 itmayhelp towritea little /)/before the /a/ :Si:**aS9.Theglidefrom/i:/to/a/isverylikea/j/butaverygentleone.Thesametrickcanbeusedafter /i/and thediph-thongs /e1,ai,at/whichend in /i/.Sei*'a:,mar*ia:nt,39bDi*'etit(theyare,myaunt,theboyateit).However,wedodistinguishbetweenmyearsandmyyears,etc.,mai*hazandmai*jiaz,wherejmzhasalongerandstronger/j/thantheshortandgentleglidebeforemz.

Similarly,after/u:/andthediphthongs/9u,au/whichendin/u/,wecanusealittle/w/-soundasthelink,forexampletwoothers,*tu:

IOI

*wAdaz,goin*gau*win,howodd*hau*wod.Againwedistinguishbetweentwo-eyedandtoowide:*tu:*waid,*tu:*waid.

Thevowels/3:/and/a/canalwaysbelinkedtoafollowingvowelbylrl:herownha:r *aun, for ever far *eva, and this is also true for /ia, ea,ua/: clear atr*kliar*ea,shareout*Jear*aut,poorEve!*puar*i:v.

Again itmay help to attach the /r/ to the followingword: fi3: *raun,*klia*rea,etc.When/a:/or/a:/occurat theendofawordandavowelimmediatelyfollows we also use /r/ as a link if the spelling has the letterr in it, but nototherwise,so/r/occursinmoreandmore*ma:ran*ma:butnotinsawoff*so:*vf,anditalsooccursinfaraway*fa:ra*wei.Whenwegofrom/a:/or/a:/toafollowing vowelwithout a linking/r/we glide smoothly fromone to the otherwithnointerruptionofthevoicebyaglottalstop.Otherexamplesforpracticeareonpage107.

6.7ChangingwordshapesWe have already seen that some words have weak and strong

formsdependingon theirplace in thegroupandonstress.Theshapeofawordmayalsobealteredbynearbysounds;normallywepronounceoneasWAn,butonemoremay be pronouncedWAmm::,where theshape of ewe has changed

becauseofthefollowing/m/inmore.Alsonextisusuallypronouncednekst,butinnextmonthmaybeneksmAn0,wherethefinal/t/hasdisappeared.

AlterationsFormslikeWAmm::whereonephonemereplacesanothermainlyaffectthe

alveolarsounds/t,d,n,s,z/whentheyarefinalintheword:Before/p,d,m//p/replaces/t/:rightplaceraippleiswhitebirdwaipb3:dnotmenDpmi:/b/ replaces /d/: hard path ha:b pa:0good boy gub boigood morning gub

moinig/m/replaces /n/:gonepastgDmpa:stgonebackgDmbaektenmentemmen

Before/k,g//k/replaces/1/:whitecoatwaikkautthatgirldaekg3il102Changingwordshapes

/g/replaces/d/:badcoldbaegkauldredgatereggeit/rj/replaces/n/:onecupwaqkApmaingatemen]geitSimilarly, the sequences /nt/ and /nd/maybe replaced by /mp/ or /Qk/and

/mb/or/gg/inplantpotplaimppDt,standbackstaembbaek,plantcarrotsplaigkkaerats, stand guard staegg ga:d. Even the sequences /dnt/and /tnd/ may becompletely altered in a similar way in couldnt comekuggk kAm, couldnt bekubmpbi:.

Before/J,j/HIreplaces/s/:niceshoesnaijjuizthisyear61JjiaIIIreplaces/z/:thoseshopsdaujjbpswhere’syoursweajjaizNone of these alterations is necessary, so although you will hear

Englishpeople use them, especially when they speak quickly, you neednotimitatethem.

Inanotherkindofalterationthestrongconsonantofapairreplacestheweakconsonant incompoundwords likefivepence faifpansandnewspapernjuispeipaand in the closely connected I have to, he has to:ai haef tu:, hi: haes tu:.Youshouldusethesepronunciations,butdonotmakeitageneralruletoreplacetheweakconsonantby the strong inothercases;youmustdistinguishbetween theprice ticketand theprizeticket:5aprais tikit,dapraiz tikit.Notice too that theEnglish do notreplace the strong consonant by theweak in phrases like blackbox,great day, which must be pronounced blaek boks, greit dei and notblaegbDks,greiddei

Some of the alterationsmentioned here have taken place in the pastinsideEnglishwords, leaving themwitha shapewhich isnownormal.Examplesare:handkerchiefhxi)kztl\:f,specialspejj,soldiersauldja;youmustusetheseforms,butthereareotherswhichyoumayhearwhicharenotessentialthoughyoucanuse them if youwish. Examples are:admirable aebmarabj,WatkinsWDkkinz,broadcastbra:gka:st,utmostApmaust,inmateimmeit.

DisappearancesTheomissionofsounds,asinneksdei,mostoftenaffect/t/whenitisfinalin

awordafter/s/or/f/(asinlastorleft)andthefollowingwordbeginswithastop,nasalorfrictionsound.

103/st/-f-stop:lasttimelaistaimfastbusfa:sbAS+nasal:bestmanbesmaenfirstnightf3isnait+friction:Westsidewessaidbestfriendbesfrend/ft/+stop:liftboylifboistuffedchickenstAftJikin+nasal:softmattressSDfmaetrasleftkneelefni:+friction:leftshoeefju:softsnowSDfsnauThe/t/in/st,ft/mayalsodisappearwhenotherconsonantsfollow,butthisis

lesscommon.Examplesare:lastlapla:slaep,nextweeknekswi:k,bestroadbes

raud,leftleglefleg,softrainSDfrein,softwaterSDfwa:ta.The /d/in/nd/or/md/ often disappears if the following word beginswith a

nasalorweakstopconsonant:Shi+nasal:blindmanblainmaenkind nurse kain n3:s+weak stop : tinned beans tin biinzstand guard staen

ga:d/md/+nasal:skimmedmilkskimmilkheseemednicehi:siimnais+weakstop:itseemedgooditsi:mgud

heclimbedbackhi:klaimbaek

The/d/in/nd,md/mayalsodisappearwhenotherconsonantsfollow,butthisislesscommon.Examples:blindchanceblaintja:ns,sendsevensenSevan,hand-wovenhaenwauvan,heblamed themhi:bleim5am, sheseemedwell l i: si:mwel,aframedpictureafreimpiktfa.

When ft I or /d/ occur between two other stop consonants they areneverheard and you should leave them out, for example: locked car lokka:, strictparents strik pearants, he stopped behind hi: stop bihaind,dragged back draegbaek,rubbeddownrAbdaun.It isnotrecessaryforyoutouseanyoftheotherreducedformsmentionedabove,butifyoufinditeasiertodosoyoumayusethemorecommonones.

Similar disappearances have taken place in the past inside Englishwords,leaving them with a shape which is now normal. Examples are:grandmothergraenmAda, handsomehaensam, castle ka:sl, postmanpaus-man, draughtsmandra:fsman.Inallthesecasesyoushouldusethis

104Changingwordshapes

normal form. There are other cases where two forms may be heard:oftenDfn,oftan;kindnesskainnis,kaindnis;askedaistya:skt;clothesklauz,klau5z;andyoucanusewhicheveryoufindeasiest.

Vowels have often disappeared fromEnglishwords in the past, leav-ing aform which is the normal one, for example '.family faemli, gardenga:dn,

Edinburgh ednbra, awfuloif\, evil\iv\, interest intrast, historyhistri. You shouldnaturally use these normal forms. In other casesthere are two possibilities, forexample:generous d3enras, d3enaras;pattern paetan, paetn; deliberate dilibrat,dilibarat\probablypmbbli,probabli;properlypmpli,pmpali.Intheseandsimilarcasesitisbestforyoutousethelongerform.

All these examples of changes and disappearances of soundsshouldencourageyoutolistenmostcarefullytotherealshapesofEnglishwords,whichare sooftendifferent from the shapeswhich theordinaryspellingmightsuggest.Youcanalwaysfindthenormalshapeofawordbylookingfor it inapronouncing dictionary, for instanceDaniel Jones’s English PronouncingDictionary,which ismost useful forany foreign user of English, but themostimportantthing,asalways,istouseyourearsandreallylistentoEnglishasitis.

6.8Exercises(Answers,whereappropriate,onp.135)1Dividethefollowingpassageintowordgroups(p.90).Ihaveneededsomenewbookshelvesforalongtime.SoduringmyholidayI

decidedtotacklethejobmyself.NotthatIamverycleverwithmyhandsbutitdidnotseemtoodifficultandasIhadalreadysaidthatwecouldnotaffordtogoaway I thought it wouldbe prudent not to spend money having it doneprofessionally. Ibought thewood at the local handicraft shop and I had plentyofscrews, but I found that my old saw^which had been left behind bythepreviousownerof thehouse]wasnotgoodenoughandIdecidedtobuyanewone.Thatwasmyfirstmistake,mysecondwastogotothebiggestironmongerinLondonandask for a saw.Youwouldthink itwas simple,wouldn’tyou, tobuyasaw.Butitisnot.Isaidtothemanbehindthecounter,‘Iwantasaw.’Hewasanicemananddidhisbestforme.‘Yes,sir,whatkindofsaw?Oh,asawforcuttingwood.’‘Yessir,butwehavefifteendifferentkindsfordifferent jobs.What did youwant it for?’ I explained aboutmybookshelves) ^nd felt like anignorantfoolinaworldofexperts,whichwastrue]HesawthatIwasanoviceandwasverykind.He

105

WordsincompanytoldmewhatIshouldneedandadvisedmetohavealadies’size.‘Easierto

manage for the beginner, sir.’ He was not being nasty justhelpful and I wasgratefultohim.Healsosoldmeabookonwood-workforschoolboysandI’vebeenreadingitwithgreatinterest.ThenexttimeIamonholidayIshallstartontheshelves.

2Eachof thefollowingexamplescontainsoneormoreof thewordswhichoften haveweak forms (p. 92). Transcribe the examplesphonetically, showingthestressedsyllablesandtheweak(orstrong!)formsofthosewords:

Theycametothedoor.Thereweretwoofthem.Whatareyousurprisedat?Sheisasoldasthehills.ShehasanuncleandacousinIshallbeangry.Whowillmeethimattheairport?Iwill.Whatisherphonenumber?Whatdoesthatmatter?Iwouldlikesometea.Well,makesome.WhathasJohncomefor?Forhissawthatyouborrowed.WhatcanIdo?MorethanIcan.Hewaspleased,wasn’the?Ofcoursehewas.

WhenamIgoingtogetit?Iamnotsure.Ihavetakenitfromtheshelf.Yes,Ithoughtyouhad.Theyhadalreadyreadit.ButsohadI.3Mark thewords in the passage in Exercise 1which should have aweak

form.4Usethefollowinglengtheningwordgroupsforpractisingfluency(P.100):Idon’tknowhowlongIneedtowaitforJohntocome-home.ItwasneartheendoftheweekbeforeIarrivedbackfromScotland.Whowasthatawfulwoman-youtalkedtoalleveningattheparty?Ican’tunderstandhowyoudiditsoquicklyandefficiently,-MrSouthwood.Whendidyouhear-thatstoryaboutJohnandthegirlnextdoor?Comeandhavedinnerwithus-onThursdaythetwenty-third-ofthismonth.5Usethefollowingforpractiseinsmoothnesswithinitialvowels(p.ior):106

ExercisesIwasbetteroffonmyown.Don’targuewithanyoneasoldasIam.Howawfulitistobeillwheneveryoneelseisallright.ThehungrierIam,themoreIeat.Isthereanyflawinmyargument,Oscar?HaveyoueveraskedAnnaboutArthurandAmy?

IoweeverythingIamtomyuncleandaunt.Comeovertoourhouseforanevening.Ihaven’tseteyesonAlecforagesandages.Iendedupowingeighty-eightpounds.Youalwaysoughttoearnanhonestliving.6 Arrange each word group in the passage in Exercise i into one ormore

rhythmunitsshowingthestressedsyllableandtheunstressedsyllablesattachedtoit.7Whichwords in the passagemight show alterations or disappearancesin

sounds(pp.102and103)?8Transcribe thewholepassagephonetically showingwordgroups,stressed

syllables, rhythm groups and weak forms of words; thencompare it with theversiononp. 135 andnotice anydifferences.Practise eachwordgroupaloud,concentratingonsmoothnessand

rhythm.107Everylanguagehasmelodyinit;nolanguageisspokenonthesamemusical

noteallthetime.Thevoicegoesupanddownandthedifferentnotesofthevoicecombinetomaketunes.Insomelanguagesthetunemainlybelongstotheword,beingpartofitsshape,andifthetuneofthewordiswrongitsshapeisspoiled.TheChinese languagesare likethis and soaremanyothers in south-eastAsia,AfricaandAmerica.Intheselanguagesthesamesoundssaidwithdifferenttunesmay makequite different words: in Mandarin Chinese ma: said with a leveltunemeans mother but ma: with a rising tune means horse, animportantdifference! In many other languages, of which English is one, thetunebelongsnottothewordbuttothewordgroup.IfyousaytheEnglishwordNowithdifferent tunes it is still thesameword,butneverthelesstuneplaysanimportantpart inEnglish.Wecansayawordgroupdefinitelyorwecansay ithesitantly,wecansayitangrilyorkindly,wecansayitwithinterestorwithoutinterest,andthesedifferencesarelargelymadebythetunesweuse:thewordsdonotchangetheirmean-ingbutthetuneweuseaddssomethingtothewords,andwhat it addsis the speaker’s feelings at that moment; this way of using tunesiscalledintonation.

EnglishintonationisEnglish:itisnotthesameastheintonationofanyotherlanguage.Somepeopleimaginethatintonationisthesameforalllanguages,butthisisnottrue.YoumustlearntheshapesoftheEnglishtunes,andthesemaybequitedifferentfromthenormaltunesofyourownlanguage;andyoumustlearnthemeaningsoftheEnglishtunestoo,becausetheyareimportant.Forexample,thankyoumaybesaidintwoways:inthefirstthevoicestartshighandendslow,

andthisshowsrealgratitude;inthesecondthevoicestartslowandendshigh,andthisshowsarathercasualacknowledgementofsomethingnotvery;mportant.Abus conductor will say thank you in this second way whenhe collects yourmoneyandthisisquitereasonablesincehedoesnotfeelgreatgratitude.ButifanEnglishfriend invitesyou tospendaweek-endathishomeandyoureplywiththesecondthankyouinsteadofthefirstyourfriendwillbeoffendedbecauseyoudon’tsoundreally

108Tuneshapesgrateful.Youmayhavemadeanhonestmistakebutit isdifficultforhimto

realizethat;hewillthinkthatyouarebeingimpolite.7,1TuneshapesTheshapeofa tune isdecidedpartlyby^thenumberof importantwords in

thegroupandpartlybytheexactattitudeyouwishtoexpress.Whatdowemeanby‘importantwords’?Thesearethewordswhichcarrymostofthemeaninginawordgroup:forexample,supposethatinanswertothequestionHowwasJohn?you say He wasin an appallingly bad temper. The first four words are notspecially help-ful to the meaning, not important, but the last three words areimpor-tant; eachof themaddsquitea lot to thepictureyouaregivingotJohn.Let’sseehowitmightbesaid.

”'•"••••••^*-Hewasinanap*pallingly*bad*temper.Thisdiagramshowstheapproximateheightofthevoiceoneachsyllable:the

firstfivesyllableshavelowpitch;thenthereisajumptothestressedsyllableofappallinglyandthenexttwosyllablesareonthesameratherhighpitch;thenbadis a little lower and temper glides down-wards from the stressed to theunstressedsyllable.

Noticethattherearethreechangesofpitchconnectedwithstressedsyllables.This shows that these words are important. An importantword always has astressedsyllableandusuallyhasachangeofpitch

connectedtoit.,.T,.NowsupposethatthequestionisWasJohninagoodtemper.Intcase temper occurs in the question so that in the answer it is not

speciallyimportant,itdoesn’taddanythingtothepicture,itgiveslittleinforma-tion;andthetuneshowsthis:

Hewasinanap*pallingly*bad*temper,Now there are only two changes of pitch, connected with the

stressedsyllables of appallingly and bad. So these two words are still markedasimportant,buttemperisnot.Althoughitstillhasthefirstsyllaestressed,thefactthatthereisnochangeofpitchshowsthatthespeaker

isnottreatingitasimportant.,„,,Lastly,supposethatthequestionisWasJohnin*badtemper?Badand109

temper are not important in the answer because both are already inthequestioner’smindsothespeakersays:

•\•••x••Hewasinanap*pallingly*bad^temper.Bothbadandtemperarestillstressed,buttheyareshowntobeunimportant

because they have no change of pitch. Important wordsare not the same asstressedwords.Stressedwordsmaynotbeimpor-tant, thoughimportantwordsmustbestressed.Itisnotonlythenormallystressedwords,likeappallinglyand

bad and temper in ourexample, which may be felt to be important by thespeaker; any wordmay be important if the situation makes it important. Forexample, ifthe first speaker refuses to believe in John’s bad temper and saysHecanthavebeeninanappallinglybadtemper,thenourexamplewouldbe:

••••••*•He*wasinanap*pallingly*bad^temper.Herethewordwaswhichisnotusuallystressedatallhasboththestressand

changeofpitchwhichmark itas important, indeedas theonlyreally importantwordinthegroup;andrememberthatwhenitisstressedithasitsstrongform.

InanswertothequestionWhatisJohnlike?wemightreply:Heseemsveryniceandtheusualwayofsayingthisis:

•\He*seems*very*nice.Hereseems isnotmarkedas important;even though it is stressed it isona

lowpitchliketheunimportantinitialwordsinourfirstexample;themeaningofthegroupisapproximatelythesameasHe’sverynice.Butifitis:

.*••\He*seems*very*nice.there ismuchmoreweight on seemsbecause of the jump in pitch, andwe

understand that the speaker considers it important: he does so inorder toemphasizethatheistalkingabouttheseeming,theappearance,andisnotsayingthatJohnreallyisverynice.Sotheimportantwordsinagroupaffecttheshapeofatune.

Nowlookatthefollowing:noTuneshapes

*What’s*that?*Whats*that?In both these examples the words what and that are marked asimportant;

what isstressedandonahighpitchand thathasafall inpitch in thefirstcaseandariseinthesecond.Soitisnotonlythenumberofimportantwordswhichaffects the tune-shape. The differencehere is a difference of attitude in thespeaker; the firstexample isaratherserious,business-likequestion, thesecondshows rathermoreinterest and friendliness. So the attitude of the speaker, hisfeelingsashesaysthegroup,affectsthetune-shape,andaffectsitverymuch,aswe

shallseeBeforewe thinkabout the speaker’sattitudes let’s seewhat tunesyoumust

learn to use in speaking English: I cannot teach you all the tunesthat Englishspeakersuse,butIshalldescribetheonesyoumustknowtomakeyourEnglishsoundlikeEnglish.

7.2Thefallingtune-theGlide-Down

In the shortest word-groups, where we use just one important word>thefallingtuneconsistsofafall inthevoicefromafairlyhighpitchtoaverylowone.Thefallisonthestressedsyllableorfromthestressed

syllabletoafollowingone:XTXI★No*Two*Tcnpence•5.****_^Excellent^DefinitelyNOTICE1Onasinglesyllablethevoicefallswithinthesyllable.2Onmorethanonesyllablethevoiceeitherfallswithinthestressedsyllable

oritjumpsdownfromthatsyllabletothenext.3Unstressedsyllablesattheendareallverylow.Startwith*Tenpenceandstartbysingingititdoesn’tmatterifyoursinging

isnotverygood,itwillbegoodenoughforthis.Singthefirstsyllableonafairlyhighnote,butnotveryhigh.IcannottellyouexactlywhatnotetosingbecauseIdon’tknowwhetheryouhavea

IIInaturallyhighvoiceoranaturallylowone,butsinganoteratherabovethe

middleofyourvoice.Thensingthesecondsyllableonthelowestpossiblenotegrowlit!Dothisseveraltimesandhearthefallinpitch,thengraduallygomorequicklyandstopsinging.Sayit,butwiththesametuneasbefore.Dothesamewith*Excellentand*Definitelyandbesurethattheunstressedsyllablesareaslowaspossible.Don’tletthemriseattheend;keepgrowling!

Ifthereareotherwordsfollowingthefalltheymaystillhavestress,asinourpreviousexample:

•••••Hewasinanappallingly*bad^temper.Buttheyarestillsaidonthatverylowpitch,justliketheunstressedsyllables.

Keepthemrightdown.Nowtry*No.Singitontwonotes,thehighone,thenthelowone,asifithad

twosyllables,andagainincreaseyourspeedand-stopsinging,butkeepthesametune. Be sure that you finish with the pitch as low asyou possibly can, right

downinyourboots!Whenthereismorethanoneimportantwordinthegroup,thelastonehasthe

fallbuttheothersaretreateddifferently:•\*Whatwas*that?*Whatwasthe^matterwith*that?NOTICE1Thestressedsyllableofthefirstimportantwordishighandanyunstressed

syllablesfollowingitareonthesamepitch.2Thestressedsyllableofthesecondimportantwordisalittlelowerandany

unstressedsyllablesfollowingitareonthesamepitch.3Thefallstartsatthesamepitchasthesyllablejustbeforeit.Ingroupswithmc^ethanthreeimportantwordsthestressedsyllableofeach

oneislowerthantheonebefore;thisiswhywecallthetunetheGlide-Down:•••••**HowcanIpossiblypayhim*two^hundredpounds?112TheGlide-Down

Startwith*What'ssaidonaratherhighpitchinyourvoice;keepthevoicelevel,don’tletitriseorfall.Thenadd'thatwiththesamefallasbefore.Thenputwasbetweenthetwo,atthesamelevelasWhatandthebeginningof'that;don’tlet it behigheror lower thanWhat.Ifnecessary startby singing it.Then try*Whatwas thematterwith*that in three parts: *Whatwas the all on the highnote,thenmatterwithallalittlelower;putthemtogether:*Whatwasthematterwithtoformahighstepfollowedbyalowerstep.Thenaddthatfallingasbeforefromthesamepitchaswith.Similarlypractisethelongestexampleinparts,eachpartalittlelowerthantheonebefore,andthefallattheendfromthepitchofthesyllable before. Try to keep theunstressed syllables on the same pitch as thestressedones,andnottoletthemjumpeitherupordown.Thistreatmentoftheimportantwordsindownward‘steps’occursalsoinothertunes,asweshallsee

^If thereareanyunstressedsyllablesbefore thestressedsyllableof thefirstimportantword,theseareallsaidonaratherlowpitch:

ITZX:Iwas*glad.Iwas*very*glad.—•*Butitwasri*diculous.

Also,anystressedsyllablenearthebeginningwhichbelongstoawordwhich

isnotimportantissaidonthissameratherlowpitch:

He*seems*very*nice.Itaughthim*allI*know.Theselowsyllablesatthebeginningarenotatthelowestpossiblepitchlike

theonesattheend,buttheymustbelowerthanthehighpitchwhichfollows..,..jPractisetheseexamplesandbesurethatthevoicejumpsupwardsfromthelowsyllablesatthebeginningtothefirsthigh-pitchedstress.We have a way of showing the Glide-Down which is simpler andquicker

thanthedotsandlinesuseduptonow.Beforethestressedsyllablewhere thevoicefallsweput(').So: 'No 'TwoTen'pcnce 'Excellent

'Definitely.NoticethatnoothermarkisneededID

toshowtheverylowunstressedsyllablesattheend-anyunstressedsyllablesafterafallarealwayslow\

Before the stressed syllable of each other important word we put (').So:'What’sThat'Whatwas'that'Whatwasthe'matterwithThatHowcanI'possibly'payhim 'two 'hundredxpounds .Eachofthesemarks showsa step,beginning

withahighoneandgraduallycomingloweruntilthefallisreached.Unstressedsyllablesatthebeginninghavenomarkbeforethem:Iwasxglad

Iwas'veryxglad|Butitwasridiculous.Ifthereisalow-pitchedstressnearthebeginning(asinHe*seems*very*nice)itismarkedby(,);so:He,$eems‘veryxniceI,taughthim'allIxknow.Andthesamemarkisusedforstressedsyllableswhichcomeafterthefall.So:Hewasinanapxpallingly,bad,temper.

SowiththesefewmarkswecanshowallthefeaturesoftheGlide-Down.Inthe following examples, first write them out in the longerway with dots andlines,tomakesureyouunderstandwhatthesimplersystemmeans,thenpractisethemcarefully:

LmJxTakeitxHavethemxSplendidxNonsensexWonderfulxJohn’s ,coming xSusan’s ,knocking at the ,door xTen xTwoxFive xEight

xSix xHalf xThis xWhich 'Fifty xpounds'Seventy xfive Oneandaxhalf It wasimpossible I could havexcried They were in a 'terrible xmess I’ll see you on'ThursdayxnightIt’s'just'afterxmidnightTherewere'too'manyxpeoplepthere'Whydidyou 'tellhimhewasxwrong?It,wasn’t 'halfas'difficultas IThoughtit,wouldbeYoucan,phonemeat'any'timeofthe'dayorxnightI,waited,almost'twenty-'fivexminutesforthe,wretched,man.

7.3Thefirstrisingtune-theGlide-UpTheGlide-UpisjustliketheGlide-Downexceptthatitendswithariseinthe

voiceinsteadofafall.Bothimportantandunimportantwordsbeforetherisearetreated exactly as in theGlide-Down.Anexample isBut is it true that you rechangingyourjob?

But*isit*truethatyou’re^changingyour*job?The last importantword is jobandhere thevoice rises froma lowpitch to

onejustabovethemiddleofthevoice.ApartfromthisthetuneisthesameasintheGlide-Down:theunstressedsyllableatthe

114TheGlide-Upbeginningislow,andthereisastepatthestressedsyllableofeachimportant

word.Similarly,Areyoumarried?wouldbe:l^J•_*Areyou*married?Notice that thestressedsyllableof the last importantword is lowand .that

thevoice jumpsup to theunstressed syllable.Andnotice too thatmHaveyou

postedittohim?wehave:••.•*Haveyou^postedittohim?whereagainthestressedsyllableofthelast importantwordis lowandeach

followingunstressedsyllableisalittlehigher,thelastoneofabeingonthesamefairlyhighnoteasinthepreviousexamples.

Onceagaintheremaybestressedwordswithintherise,buttheyarenotfelttobeimportant:

w•*Haveyoubeenat*workto*day,*John?Work is the last important word, and although today and John arestressed

they behave just like the unstressed syllables of the last exampleand are notconsideredimportantbythespeaker.

Practisewiththefollowing:•*Forty•**Fortyofthem..•••**Fortyofthemwere*thereThefirstsyllablemustbelow,andthelastsyllablefairlyhigh,concentrateon

these and let any syllables between these points take careof themselves.Howyougetfromthelowtothehighernoteattheenddoesn’tmatter,butbesurethatyoustartlowandendfairlyhigh(notveryhigh!).

Nowtrytheriseononesyllable:ySS*Two*Five*Eight*SixH5But ‘is it 'true thatyou’re 'changingyour ,job? 'Areyouparried?'Haveyou

,postedittohim?'Haveyou'beenat/workto'day,•John?,Forty7Fortyofthem7Furtyufthemwere‘there/Two7Five/Eight,Six'Arethere,twoofthem?'Canyoube'hereby,five?.

Comparethesewiththefullermarkingonthepreviouspages,thenwriteoutthefullermarkingfortheexamplesbelowandfinallypractisethemcarefully:

LfJ'Who’s/that?'Don’tbe,long'GiveittO/ineI’m'justcomingIs'anythingthe,matter?Can'anyone'tellmethe/time?Iwas'only'tryingto,helpYoucan'seeit

a'gain tomorrowHe’s'perfectly 'capable of'looking 'after him,self I ,told him Iwas'very'pleasedto7seehimI‘shan’tbe'any'laterthan17usually’am‘Didyou'sayitwasyourtwentieth'birthdayto’day?'CouldI'borrow'this,bookfora'dayor'two?'Wouldyou'mindifI'broughtmy^other-in-'lawto'seeyou?.

7.4Thesecondrisingtune-theTake-OffAftertheGlide-DownandtheGlide-UpwehavetheTake-Off;thisalsoends

withariseinthevoice,liketheGlide-Up,butanywordsandsyllablesbeforetherisearelow.Anexampleis:

If necessary sing the two notes as if there were two syllables andthengraduallyspeedupandstopsinging.Noticethattheriseissloweronalongsyllablelike*Twoor*Five,quickeron*Eightwherethediphthongisshortened,andquickeston*Sixwherethevowelisshortest.

Nowtryaddingotherimportantwordsbeforetherise;saythemasyoudidintheGlide-Down:

Arethere*twoofthem?*Canyoube*hereby*five?Andgetthevoicedownlowforthebeginningoftherise.In the simpler intonationmarking,weuse (,)before the stressedsyllableof

thelastimportantwordtoshowwheretherisestartsand(•)beforeanystressedsyllablewithintherise.TheothermarksarethesameasfortheGlide-Down.Sotheexamplesusedinthissectionaremarkedasfollows:

116TheTake-OffIwas*only*tryingto*help.We call it the Take-Off because, like an aeroplane taking ott, itstarts by

runningalongatalowlevelandfinallyrisesmtothe:air.Therise,asintheGlide-Up,eithertakesplaceononesyllable,likehelp,orit

isspreadoverseveralsyllables:••9•9•••LseJIwas*only*tryingto*helphimwithit.Beforetheriseanystressedwordisfelttobeimportant,eventhoughthereis

nochangeofpitch.Allthesyllablesbeforetherisearesaidonthesamelowpitchasthebeginningoftherise;theymustnotbehigherthanthis,oryouwillhaveaGlide-UpinsteadofaTake-Off.

Practise the following and concentrate on keeping the syllables up toandincludingthebeginningoftheriseonthesamelowpitch:

.^LiJIt*was.

Iwas*trying.•••*You*didn’t*really*hurtyour*self.In the simpler intonationmarking the rise has the samemark asbefore (.),

anystressedsyllablesafterthishave(•),andanystressedsyllablesbeforeithave(,).Soourexamplesaremarked:

Iwas.only.tryingto.helpIwas.only.tryingto.helphimwithit||It/wasIwas.trying|You.didn’t.really.hurtyourselt.

Practisethefollowingexamplesandbesuretokeepthesyllablesbeforetheriselow:

|Youlikedit11Youenjoyedit |YouwereenjoyingitI.didnthurtyou,No-one’s.stoppingyou!]Itwas.perfectly,under.stan-ableI.wasn’tex.pectinghimat .sixo,clock in the .morning |didn’t .thinkhe’d .mindme .borrowing it fora.while|IlYou'.shouldn’thave.givenhim.allthat.money,you-silly-boy|.

7.5Thefalling-risingtune-theDiveThelastofourtunesthatyoumustlearnistheDive.Initsshortest

formthisconsistsofafallfromratherhightolowandthenarisetoaboutthemiddleofthevoice.

VVV*Five*Why?*SoonThis fall-rise is connected with the stressed syllable of the lastimportant

word,likethefallandtheriseoftheothertunes.Butitisonlycompletedononesyllable if that syllable is final in thegroup. Ifthere isoneor several syllablesfollowing,thefallandtheriseareseparated:

\s*\.s.S’uiJ^Twenty^Seventy^SeventyofthemThefallisonthestressedsyllableofthelastimportantwordandtheriseon

thelastsyllableofall.Inthefollowingexamples:

*Thatwas*nice.*That*wasn’t*very^friendly,therearestressed(butnotimportant)wordsfollowingthefall;inthatcasethe

riseattheendisfromthelastofthestressedsyllables.Wordsorsyllablesbefore the fallaresaid in thesamewayas for theGlide

DownandGlide-Up.Examples:

..*VShewas*quite*kind.

I*maybe*ableto*comeon^Monday.Noticethatthefallofthefall-riseisalwaysfromafairlyhighnote.Ifthestressedsyllableofthelastimportantwordisfinalinthegroup,orifit

is followed only by unstressed syllables, we put (^) before it inthe simplerintonationmarking,so:

"'Five "'Why?"Soon "'Twenty"'Seventy |"SeventyofthemButifthefallisfollowedbyoneormorestressedsyllableswemarkthefall

with(')andweput (,)before the laststressedsyllableofall;anyotherstressedsyllableshave(,)beforethem.So:

118TheDivewas/mce'That.wasn’t,veryfriendlyOtherintonationmarksarethesameasfortheGlide-DownandGlide-Up*|Shewas'quite"'kindI'maybe'ableto'comeon"'MondayAlso:She,saidshewas 'quite 'pleaseda/boutitStartpractisingonthreesyllables:

fallonthefirst,keepthesecondlowandriseonthethird.Doitslowlyandsingthemifnecessary:

'She.won’t/helpT.don’t/know'That’s,no,good'Thatwas,nice'Johncan/Come'Thisis/mineNotice that when the first syllable has a short vowel theremay be ajump

downtothenextsyllableratherthanafall.Compare:i.'She.won’t,help.'That’s,no,good.When you are sure that you have the fall followed by the rise, speedup

graduallytonormalspeed.Thentryexampleswithtwosyllables,fallingonthefirst(orjumpingdownfromit)andrisingonthesecond.Remembertostartquitehigh:

'You,can'I/Can’t'John/does'That’s/nice'Pat/Came'Tuesday'Friday'Sunday'April'August'Eighty'SixtyNext try theDiveononesyllable.Do itveryslowlyat firston threenotes:

highlowhigh:'Two|'Nine'You'Please'Four'Me'Soon'TryThengraduallyspeedupandstopsinging.Nowtrywithshortvowels:IpTen''Him|"SingvComcH-BadirLong"Goodl''Bob|"AnnThevoicingofthefinalconsonantwillhelpyouwiththosetherisingpartof

theDiveisonthefinalconsonant,souseit.Moredifficultaretheshortvowelsfollowedbyconsonantswithnovoice,but

youmaylengthenthevowelalittletogiveyoutimetomakeboththefallandtherise:

"Six''This''What''Stop'Which'That'Us'YesAlways be sure that you start high, go low and finish higher. Nowsome

longerexamples,whichareeasier,ratherlikeafallfollowedbyaTake-Off.Keepthesyllablesafterthefalldownlowuntilyoureachtherise:

'I,couldn’t ,help it'Someone’s ,got to ,do it'Mary would .probably /tellyou'John,came.hometo/day

'Several.peoplehave.toldmethey.thoughtit.looked/prettyNowtryaddingotherwordsbeforethefall-rise:'Don’t"worry'Don’tbe"lateYou'mustn’t"loseitYoucan'haveitfora'coupleof"days'Try'notto'break/thatI'wentupto‘Londonby'carto,day'John'toldmehewas'goingon'holiday.next/weekI'hearthere’s'beena'great'dealof'troublea,bout,that|7.6HowtousethetunesStatementsiUsetheGlide-Downforstatementswhicharecompleteanddefinite:120Howtousethetunes|Itwas'quite'goodI'likedit'very'muchI'wouldn’t‘mind'seeingita'gainj.2IfthestatementisintendedtobesoothingorencouragingusetheGlide-Up:I‘shan’tbe/long|‘John’llbe‘here/Soon)I'won’t'drive'too/fast(sodon’tworry).3Ifthestatementisagrumble,usetheTake-Off:I.didn’t/hurtyou(sowhymakeallthatfuss?)You.can’t.possibly,do/that(yououghttoknowbetter)I/did(grumblingcontradiction),4Ifthestatementisnotcompletebutleadingtoafollowingword-group,use

theDive:

I"lookedathim(andrecognizedhimatonce)She'tookthe"carj(anddrovetoLondon)When'everhe'comesto"visitus|(hetriestoborrowmoney).5IfthestatementisintendedasaquestionusetheGlide-Up:You/likeit?You'can’t,go?He'doesn’t'wantto,lendyouit?6 For statements which show reservations on the part of the speakerand

whichmightbefollowedbybut...orbyyoumustadmitorImustadmitusetheDive:He’s"generous(butIdon’ttrusthim)He’s"handsome(youmustadmit)IIcould'takeyou'thereto"morrow|(butnottoday)I'likeyour"hat(Imustadmit)It'wasn’ta'very'nice'thingto"do|(youmustadmit).7Ifthestatementisacorrectionofwhatsomeoneelsehassaid,usetheDive:(He’sforty-five)'Forty"six(Ilikehimalot)You'usedto,likehim(Ican’tdoit)You'can’tdoit'that,way.121

Howtousethetunes8Ifthestatementisawarning,usetheDive:You’llbe''lateI‘shan’t'tellyoua^gain|You'mustn’t^shakeit,too,much.9Ifthestatementhastwoparts,ofwhichthefirstismoreimportantthanthe

second,usetheDive,withthefallat theendofthefirstpartandtheriseattheendofthesecond:

I'wentto'Londonon,MondayYoucan'keepitifyou,really,wantitHewas'very'wellwhenI,last,sawhimI'm'very'comfortable,thankyou.

Wh-questions(containingWhich,What,Who,etc.)10UsetheGlide-Upifyouwanttoshowasmuchinterestintheotherperson

asinthesubject:'How’syour/laughter?'Whenareyou'comingto,seeus?'Whendidyouget'backfrom,holiday?|nUsetheGlide-Downifyouwantthequestiontosoundmorebusiness-like

and interested in the subject, and also for one-wordquestions (unless they arerepetition-questions,see12):

'Whydidyou'changeyour'mind?

'Whoon'earthwas'that?|'Which?.12Forrepetition-questions,whenyouarerepeatingsomeoneelse’squestion

orwhenyouwant theotherperson to repeat some infor-mation,use theTake-Off:

,WhendidI*go?(Orwhere?)|7Why?(BecauseIwantedto)(Iarrivedatteno’clock),When?|(Ittookmetwohours),How'long?(Johntoldmetodoit),Who-toldyouto-doit?1.Notice that in examples like the last three,where the other personis being

askedtorepeatinformation,therisebeginsonthewh-word.Yes-Noquestions(questionsanswerablebyYesorNo)13Forshortquestionsusedasresponses,likeDidyou?,Hasshe?,etc.,use

theGlidc-Down:L=J(John’sonholiday)|'Ishe?(Iwenttothetheatrelastnight)|'Didyou?|.14ForallotherYes-NoquestionsusetheGlide-Up:'Haveyou,seenhim*yet?|'Did'John'post'that,letter?'CanI,seeit?NoticethattheGlide-Upisalsousedforrepetition-questionsofthistype:(Haveyouseenhimyet?)'Have17seenhim*yet?|(Willyouhelpme?)'WillI,helpyou?).Tag-questions(shortYes-Noquestionsaddedontostatementsorcommands)

Fortag-questionsaftercommands,usetheTake-Off:'Comeover'here/willyou?'Let’shavesome'music|/hallwe?‘Hold'thisforme|/wouldyou?.16 If neither the statement nor the tag-questionhave thewordnot inthem,

usetheTake-Off:\mSmlYou'likedit/lidyou?They’d'likesome'more|/wouldthey?||.17

Wherethewordnotoccursineitherthestatementorthetag-questionusetheGlide-Downtoforcetheotherpersontoagreewithyou:

It’s'coldto,day|'isn’tit?(ForcingtheanswerYes.)

Itwasa'very'good'film'wasn’tit?|You,won’t/worry'willyou?(ForcingtheanswerNo)He‘can’t'really''helpitj'canhe?.18Whenyoudon’twanttheotherpersontoagreewithyou,buttogivehis

opinion,usetheTake-Off:You’re'comingto'teawithus,aren’tyou?|122123

You'weren’t'hereon/Wednesday/wereyou?He,didn’t,look/ill|/didhe?.Commands

19Ifyouwantthecommandtosoundpleading,morearequestthananorder,usetheDive,withthefallonDoorDontiftheyoccur,oronthemainverbifnot,andtheriseattheend:

'Shutthe/Window'Dohavesome,more,tea?|'Senditas,soonasyou,can'Don’t,makeme,angryNoticecommandswithonlyoneimportantword:'"Try'"Takeit

['"Lendittothem.20ForstrongcommandsusetheGlide-Down:LmJ'Don’tbea‘stupid'idiot‘Take your ‘feet off the 'chair‘Come and have 'dinner with us‘Have some

'cheese.Exclamations21ForstrongexclamationsusetheGlide-Down:‘Good'Heavens!'Howextraordinary!Whata'very'pretty'dress!'Nonsense!'Splendid!.Remember that Thank you comes in this class when it expresses

realgratitude:'Thankyou'Thankyou‘very'much.

22ForgreetingsandforsayinggoodbyeusetheGlide-Up:‘Good/morning‘Hul/o124Howtousethetunes'Good/bye|'Good/night].23IftheexclamationisquestioningusetheTake-Off:S/Oh?/Really?|/Well?.24 For exclamations which refer to something not very exciting

orunexpected,usetheGlide-Up:iSml/Thankyou/Good'All/right'Good/luck.The 24 rules given here for using the tuneswill help you to choose atune

whichissuitableforwhateveryouwanttosay.ThisdoesnotmeanthatEnglishspeakersalwaysfollowtheserules; ifyoulistencarefullytotheir intonation(asyoumust!)youwillnoticethattheyoftenusetuneswhicharenotrecommendedhereforastatementorcommand,etc.Youmust trytofindoutwhat tunestheyuse andwhen,and justwhat theymeanwhen they do it. But if you study therulescarefullyandusethetunesaccordinglyyouwillatleastbeusingtheminanEnglishway,eventhoughyouwillnothavethesamevarietyorflexibilityintheir

use that an English speaker has. This will only comewith careful, regularlistening and imitation.Don t be afraid to imitatewhat you hear,whether it issoundsorrhythmorintonation,eventhoughitmaysoundfunnytoyouatfirst.Itwon t soundhalf as funnytoanEnglishear as it does toyou, and in anycaseyou’llsoongetusedtoit!

7.7Exercises(Do not look at the answers on p. 136 until you have completed allthese

exercises.)1 Practise again all the examples given in this chapter. Be sure that

youunderstand the relation between the short and the longway ofshowing theintonation.

2 Transcribe the following conversation phonetically; divide it intowordgroupsandrhythmunitsandthenunderlinetheimportantwords:

125IntonationCanyourecommendsomewhereforaholiday?Conversationalpassagesfor

praCCOWhatanoddcoincidence!Iwasjustgoingtotellyouaboutourholiday!Really?Wheredidyougo?TheSouthofFranceagain?No,thistimewewenttoIreland!Oh,youwenttoIreland,didyou?Youwerethinkingaboutitthelasttimewe

met.Ohyes,Imentionedittoyou,didn’tI?YouwerethinkingofBelfast,weren’tyou?Dublin.Butwedidn’tgothereintheend.Didn’tyou?Wheredidyougo?Whcic?ToGalway.That’sontheWestcoast,isn’tit?Wastheweathergood?Reasonablygood.Tellmeaboutthepricesthere,wouldyou?Theyweren’t toobad.You shouldgo there and try it.But youought to go

soon.Summer’snearlyover!Itisn’toveryet.Butthankyouverymuchforyouradvice.Goodluck.Haveagoodtime.Thankyou.Goodbye.3Studytherulesforusingthetunesandthenrearrangethemsothatall the

rulesconcerningtheGlide-Downarebrought together;andsimilarlywith thoseconcerningtheGlide-Up,theTake-OffandtheDive.

4Usingtherules,marktheintonationofeachwordgroupintheconversation

in 2. After you have finished the whole conversationcheck your markingcarefully with the answer on p. 136 and noticeany differences. Then practisesaying each part of it separately untilyou are satisfied that it is correct, andfinally put the parts togetherso that you can say the whole thing fluently,rhythmically,andwithEnglishsoundsandintonation.

126

Conversationalpassagesv8aets a.nais ,sju:t ai'haevnt x$i:nit bi,fb: | ,haevai||xnau itsfla'feis 'taim

aivxwa:nit^ktjaliai'aunlixgDtita.baut,fb:,deiza,gauju:xlaikit,du:ju:'verixmAtJ'didju:'haevit'spejli,meida:'didju:'baiit'DfS9speg||ai'haedit xmeid| ai'veri xreali (bai a/Sjuitlsauai'Bsit aid'haevitxteilad

anaim'kwait xpli:zdwi8it||aijudx0iqks9u| its'veri xhaensam 'meiai 'a:sk 'we9ju:,gDtit||5a'seim'pleisazai'gDtmaixla:stwAn|'naintiinxjiaza,gau'naintiinJiazlldajui'riali'mi:nta,telmi:|jui'haevnt'haeda'sjuit'sins,8en

'Saets,raitai'daunt'ofnxweara.sjuitjui.siilsauflei'tendta'laist9'IdqxtaimI'naintiin 'jiaz iz's3itnli a'log^taim | an'iivan ifjui'daunt xwea8am,mAtJ

jair'auldwAn'mAstav 'laistid^wel |xauitxdidflei,didaveri 'gud 'djDbomt,WDtwaz5a*neimav8a*teila

xfilipsnits'kwaitaxsma:l,Jt>p['raitatdii'endav'kirj,stri:t||'ai,nauit'ra:3araxJaebi,lukig,pleis|aiv'nevabim^indeaai'wudnt'kailit^Jaebi

batit'iznt'veri^modn aiad'mit hau'eva]Seia'veri axblaid3ig an.teik a'greit 'di:lavxtrAb||

’sauaikanxsi:ai'Sigkail'gauax(Dgfleaaixni:da,njj:,sju:t|xau|'baida'wei'wotsa:t avxpraisizda8ei,tja:d3'priti xri:znabl ,riali '81$waz'eiti xpaundzx8aets ,not,baed ai'Bigk ail'luk 'inflea taxmorau|xjes xdu:|'menjan 'mai xneim ifju:,laik|it'waunt'duiem^haim)amt'mait'du:samxgudaiv'd3AS'peidmaixbil|

That’sanicesuit.Ihaven’tseenitbefore,haveI?No.It’sthefirsttimeI’vewornit,actually.Ionlygotitaboutfourdaysago.

Youlikeit,doyou?Verymuch.Didyouhaveitspeciallymade,ordidyoubuyitoffthepeg?Ihaditmade.Iveryrarelybuyasuit,soI thoughtI’dhaveittailored,and

I’mquitepleasedwithit.Ishouldthinkso.It’sveryhandsome.MayIaskwhereyougotit?ThesameplaceasIgotmylastone,nineteenyearsago.Nineteenyears?Doyoureallymeanto tellmeyouhaven’thadasuitsince

then?That’sright.Idon’toftenwearasuit,yousee,sotheytendtolastalongtime.Nineteen years is certainly a long time; and even if you don’t wearthem

much,youroldonemusthavelastedwell.Oh,itdid.Theydidaverygoodjobonit.Whatwasthenameofthetailor?Philipson.It’squiteasmallshoprightattheendofKingStreet.Iknowit.Ratherashabby-lookingplace.I’veneverbeeninthere.Iwouldn’tcallitshabby,butitisn’tverymodem,Iadmit.However,they’re

veryobliging,andtakeagreatdealoftrouble.So Icansee. I think I’llgoalong there. Ineedanewsuit.Oh,by theway,

whatsortofpricesdotheycharge?Prettyreasonable,really.Thiswaseightypounds.That’snotbad.IthinkI’lllookintheretomorrow.Yes,do.Mentionmynameifyoulike.Itwon’tdoanyharm,anditmightdo

somegood.I’vejustpaidmybill.Conversationalpassagesai'niida'kApjavvJ3its'greivterali:n,pli:zps3:tnli,S31ail'djAS'getsAmxaut'wudju:'maind'teikigdysi:tIfara'minitai'Jairtbijorjxnauxdsuntbi.tu:,Idqai'haevnt'veri'mAtJxtaim'veriygud*S3:'hiaza.nais

J3:t wii'sel a'lot avy6iswAnxdu:ju:,nau xjes itsda'ssitav x$tail ai,WDnt

batai'a:stfaxgrei'6isizNp31pj,p3:pl *S3: 'Juab, not its'wot 'wi: ko:\ 'silva xblu:welit'luks vp3:pj ta,mi:

xeniweiaid'laik'SAm0iga'litjlesxbrait'mo:'laikda'WAnaim'wearigx3ux5aet,sDitav.greiaihaevnt'si:n'6aetfaxjiazai'bDititxhia,'siksxmAn0s

a gaudidju: /riali*S3: it mAstavbiin 'auld xstDkwel'sinfjuiv'stil gDt'em xleft/Wilju:

xa:,jesxhiawi:a:aimxSDria.baut3a,dASt*S3:kaenai'lendju:a/haeQkatJi:f'nau,03er)kju:ailsa,vaivxjesx6aet,luks,beta‘hasvju:a'nAdawAnJaikitaima freid xnDt ,S3: its'probabli 6a la:st in6axkAntrixau d:I ,rait aihteikit

'haumAtJ xizit'twelv xpaundz ,S3: itwaza'veri 'gud xj3:t initS/taimaijudx0igk,sau at twelv ,paundz ‘kaenai lpei bai,tjekxS3:tnli ,S3: ju:xhaev aytjekka:dxjesaixhaev

anwudju:^as'putja:neimana'dreson6a/baekaikan'nevarAndaxstaendy6aet'ifda'tjekwaz'nau^gudaid'putvaxfDls,neimana,dres|'wudnt,ju:jo:xdjaukiQ,s3:rIafxka:sainaetjaralia'sjuimjai'tjekizxgud|'veri xtrAstiQ .ovju: itxizaza,maetar av/aektiz6ear'em0ig xels ju:,ni:d

.sai^taizySDks,ve$tsai.daunt,0igk*sau|^aegkju:'gud^ainig'gud,dei,S311|Ineedacoupleofshirts.Greyterylene,please.Certainly, sir. I’ll just get some out. Would you mind taking a seatfor a

minute.Ishan’tbelong.No,don’tbetoolong.Ihaven’tverymuchtime.Verygood,sir.Here’saniceshirt;wesellalotofthisone.Doyou,now?Yes, it’s thesortofstyleIwant,butIaskedforgrey.This is

purple.Purple,sir?Surelynot.It’swhatwecallsilver-blue.Well, it looks purple tome.Anyway, I’d like something a little lessbright,

moreliketheoneImwearing.Oh,thatsortofgrey.Ihaven’tseenthatforyears.Iboughtithere,sixmonthsago.Didyoureally,sirrItmusthavebeenoldstock.Well,seeifyou’vestillgotanyleft,willyou?Ah,yes,hereweare.I’msorryaboutthedust,sir.CanIlendyouahandkerchief?No,thankyou,I’llsurvive.Yes,thatlooksbetter.Haveyouanotheronelike

it?I’mafraidnot,sir.It’sprobablythelastinthecountry.Oh,allright,I’lltakeit.Howmuchisit?

Twelvepounds,sir. Itwasaverygoodshirt in its timeIshould thinkso,attwelvepounds.CanIpaybycheque?

Certainly,sir.Youhaveachequecard?Yes,Ihave.Andwouldyoujustputyournameandaddressontheback?Icanneverunderstandthat.Ifthechequewasnogood,I’dputafalsename

andaddress,wouldntyou?You’re joking, sir, of course. I naturally assume your cheque is good.Very

trustingofyou.Itis,asamatteroffact.Isthereanythingelseyouneed,sir?Ties,socks,vests?Idon’tthinkso,thankyou.Goodmorning.Goodday,sir.

ConversationalpassagesConversationalpassages|xpira,gaidnar|'aintjuida'juinau'eniSiQa’baut'biziJiziza'baut,WDt'biziJizizWDtDn'3:0axdei|'jx9u ai'0:>itjuid xnau 5eiaxhaus .plaints aiv'd3Asbi:n

xgivnwAn|baimaTsistaranaiwontta'nau'hautalukxaiftarit

aima freid ai'daunt xnau .mAtJ a.baut ,haus plaints bataiv'gDtaxbuk.SAmwea 3at,mait ,help lets xsl: xa: ,jes xhiarit,iz3a'kear av'haus .plaints xmix3ast ,luks juisfldajuihaepan ta'nau3a,laetin •neimavitaima'freidaixdaunt 'bizixlizizdli.aunli,neimaiv,h3id|

1wDtdazitxluk,laikwelits.got a rai3a 'wDitari 'lukig^stem 'veri 'peil ,gri:n an'feali'small 'pigk

xflauaz'haumemxpetjz'gud xgreijas aiv'neva xkauntid3am 'fair aixfaiv aisa,pauz|3eia'ra:3a laik'

waildxrauzpetjzaillukAp'bizi'Iiznn3iixindeks3eixmei,givit|xje$|xhiarit,izpeidjnairtixeit

x8eariz,3aetitmai xW3id x3aetsa7bigwAn 'mainz aunli'gDt'wAn xstem |an'3aet•siimzta

haevxdAznzbatai0igkits3aseim^wAnwel3ei'laik~lait bat'nDt xhlit 'waitadam'wel in3a^$Ama| bat‘nDt'veri

'mAtJinxwinta an 3aets a'baut xail xau| x3aets ,rai3a ,nais||it'sez'hia3at3axd33iman ,neimfarit| .miinzin'dAstrias ixlizaba0'mAtJ 'graendadan'bizi^lizi

ai'0igk aid'raiSa haeva'bizi xlizi inmai^ausIdananin'dAStriasTlizaba0bat'0aegkjui‘verixmAtJ|aimverixgreitfjtuijui1praepsailbii'eibjta'kiipitaxlaiv,nauaiju^uali'haevadixzaistrasi,fektDn,pla:nts

| aijud'aunli 'waitarit 'v/Ans axmAn0 ,nau| An'til 3axsprig |\\3a,waizjuil'probablixkilit|

|xgud|ailxdui3aet'0aegksaxgen|You’reagardener,aren’tyou?DoyouknowanythingaboutBusyLizzies?Aboutwhat?BusyLizzies?Whatoneartharethey?Oh,Tthoughtyou’dknow.They’rehouse-plants;Ivejustbeengivenone,by

mysister,andIwanttoknowhowtolookafterit.I’m afraid I don’t know much about house-plants, but I’ve got abook

somewherethatmighthelp.Letssee.Ah,yes,hereitis.‘TheCareofHouse-Plants’.Mm,thatlooksuseful.DoyouhappentoknowtheLatinnameofit?I’mafraidIdon’t.BusyLizzie’stheonlynameI’veheard.Whatdoesitlooklike?Well,it’sgotaratherwatery-lookingstem,verypalegreen,andfairlysmall

pinkflowers.Howmanypetals?Good gracious, I’ve never counted them. Four or five, I suppose.They’re

ratherlikewildrosepetals.I’lllookupBusyLizzyintheindex.Theymaygiveit.Yes,hereitis.

Pageninety-eight.There,isthatit?Myword,that’sabigone!Minesonlygotonestem,andthatseemstohave

dozens.ButIthinkitsthesameone.Welltheylikelight,butnotheat;waterthemwellinthesummer,butnotvery

muchinwinter.Andthatsaboutall.Oh,thatsrathernice;itsaysherethattheGerman name for it means IndustriousElizabeth! Much grander than BusyLizzie.

I think I’d rather have a Busy Lizzie in my house than anIndustriousElizabeth. But thank you very much, I’m very grateful to you.PerhapsI’ll be able to keep it alive now. I usually have a disastrous effectonplants.

Ishouldonlywater itonceamonthnow,until thespring.Otherwise,you’llprobablykillit.

Good.I’lldothat.Thanksagain.1AnswerstoexercisesChapter1(p.12)1write,3/r,ai,t/;through,3/0,r,u:/;measure,4/m,e,5,a/;six,4/$,1,k,s/;half',3/h,a:,f/;where,2/w,ea/;one,3/w,a,n/;first,4/f,3:,s,t/;

vo/ee,3 /v,di,s/;cast/e,4IKs>■/*»^toors,5 /«,1,z>9,z/;sfcouM,3 /J,d/;judge,3/dj,a,d^/,/atfar,4(f,a:,d,a/;/omfc,

3/I,m/.2 Some examples are: forjourjorehi; see, seash; sent, scent, cent sent;sole,

soulsaul;choose,chews tju:z;herd,heardh3:d;meet,meat,metemi:t; too, to,twotu:;sight,sitesait.

3 rait,0ru:, meja, siks, ha:f, wea, WAn, f3ist, vdis, ka:sl,sizazjud,djAd3,fa:6a,laem.

maet,met,mi:t,meit,mait,kot,kAt,ka:t,lik,luk,b3:d,ba:d,laud,laud,baiz,ba:z,beazjia,Jua,kDpa,grim,tja:d3,sDQ,faiv,wi5,tru:0,jelau,ple3a,halau.

4mAda,fa:daseparate/m,a,f,a:/.Chapter2(p.22)2 Complete obstruction (glottal stop); vibration (voice); and openposition

(breath).4 You cannot sing a voiceless sound; tune depends on variations inthe

frequency of vibrations of the vocal cords, and voiceless soundshave novibrations.

5Itallowsthebreathstreamtopassintothenasalcavity,orpreventsit.10Thetonguemovesfromalowtoahighfrontpositionfor/ai/,fromalow

back to ahigh frontposition for/ai,/and froma low to ahighbackposition for

/au/.12 The side teeth gently bite the sides of the tongue because the sidesare

touchingthesidesofthepalateandthesideteeth.AnswerstoexercisesChapter3(p.63)iYoushouldconcentrateonthephonemedifficultiesfirst.Chapter5(p.89)■4baeg,baek;kAb,kAp;ha:v,half; tog,bk;ka:d,ka:t;pul,puj; lu:z,lu:s;

S3id3, S3itj; seiv, seif; raiz, rais; djoiz, d3ais (Joyce)', kaud,kaut; hauz (vb.),haus(n.);fiaz,fias;skeaz,skeas;buaz(boors),buas(Bourse).

Chapter6(p.105)

i,6,8 aiv*nl:didsam*nju:*buk*J'elvz fara*bg*taim sau*djuarigmai*ht>ladiaidi*saididta*taekj3a*d3Dbmai*self*nDt3ataim*veri*klevawi3mai*haendzbatit*didnt *siim *tu:*difikjt anazaida:l*redi *sed 5atwi:*kudnt a*fa:dta*gaua*wei ai*0a:titadbi*pru:dnt *nDtta*spend *mAm *haevigit*dAnpra*fejanali ai*ba:t 3a*wud at3a*laukl *haendi*kra:ft*fop anaihaed*plentiav*skru:z batai*faund3atmai*auld *sa: witjadbi:n*left bi*haindbai3a*pri:vias*aunarav3a*haus *WDznt *gud i*nAf anaidi*saididta*baia*nju:wAn *3ast wazmai*f3ist mi*steik mai*sekandwazta*gauta3a*bigist *aian *mAggar in*Undan an*a:skfara*sa: ju:d*0igk itwaz*simp!*wudntju: ta*baia*sa:|batit*iznt ai*sed ta3a*maen bi*haind 3a*kauntaai*wDnta*sa: hi:waza*nais *maen an*didiz *best fa*mi: *jess3i[*WDt*kaindav*sa: *au a*sa:fa*kAtig *wud *jess3ibatwi:haev*fif *ti:n *difrant *kaindzfa*difrant*d3Dbz|

*wDt didju:*wDntit *fb: ank*spleind a*baut mai*buk*felvz an*feltlaikan*ignarant*fu:lina*w3ildav*eksp3itswitjwaz*tru:hi:*sa:3ataiwaza*mmsanwaz*veri *kaindhi:*tauldmi: *wDt aijud*ni:d anad*vaizdmi: ta*haeva*leidiz*saiz *i:zia ta*maenid3faSabi*ginas3i hi:*WDznt *bi:ig*na:sti *d3Ast*helpful anaiwaz*greitful *tu:im hi:*3ilsau*sauldmi: a*bukDn*wudw3ikfa*xku:| *baiz anaivbi:n*ri:digit wi5*greit *intrast 3a*nekst *taimaimon*hDladiaijl*meika*sta:tDn3a*Jelvz.

2 3ei *keim ta 3a *d:>: 3ea wa *tu: av 3am *WDtaju:sa*praizd aetJi:zaz*auldaz3a*hilzJi:haezan*Agkjana*kAznaiJjbi:*aeggri*hu:l*mi:timat3i:*ea*pa:t

134135Answerstoexercises

*ai*wil*wDt$3:*faun*nAmba*WDtdaz*6aet*maeta|aid*laiksam*ti:wel*meik*sAm*wots*djDn*kAmfb:|fariz*sa:8atju:*boraud*wotkanai*du:*m:>:6an*ai*kaenhi:waz*pli:zd*WDznti:av*ka:$i:*wdz*wenam

ai *gauig ta *get it aim *nDt *Jua aiv *teikan it fram 6a*Jelf *jesai*0a:tju:*haed6eida:l*redi*reditbat*sauad*ai

3Have, some, for, a.To, the.That, am,but, not, and, as, had,that, not, to,would,be,to.The,at,the,and,of,but,that,had,the,of,the,not,and,to,a.Was,to,to,the,and,for,a.

Would,was,to,a.But,not.To,the,the,a.Was,a,and,his.Of.A,for.But,for.And,an,a,of,was.That,was,a,and,was.And,to,a.To,

for,the.Not,and,was,him.A,for,and,have.The,am,shall,a,the.7haen(d)z, itabbipruidnt, spen(d)6amAni,dAmprafejanali,haendikra:f(t)

Jbp, ai haeb plenti, aifaun(d) 6at, aul(d) sa:,witjab biin, lef(t) bihain(d) bai,wdziJIcgud,f3is(t) misteik,wudntju:, bihain(d) 6a kaunta, bes(t) fa mi:, wokkaind,difragk kain(d)z, taul(d) mi:, advaiz(d) mi:, wozmp bi:ig,helpfl, greitfj,saul(d)mi:,neks(t)taim.

Chapter7(p.125)

2,4Thenumberinbracketsaftereachwordgroupis thenumberoftherulewhichhasbeenusedtoselectanappropriatetune.

kaenju: reka'mend SAmwea fara,hDladi (14)wDtan'Dd kau'insidans (21)aiwaz'djAS'gauigtatelju:a'baut.holadi(1)

,riali (23) 'wea didju:,gau (10) 6a'sau0 av,fra:ns a*gen (5)xr»au (1) x6is7taim (4) wi:'went tu:xaialand (1)xau(21) ju:'wenttu:xaialand (1) ,didju:(16)ju:wax0igkiga,bautit(4)|6axla:s,taimwi:,met(1)

| 'au xjes (1) aixmenjandit ,tu:ju: (1)| xdidntai (17)ju:wa'0igkig avbelxfa:st(1),w3:ntju:(18)

^dAblin (7) batwi:'didnt xgau6ear in6i:,end (9)xdidntju: (13) 'wea xdidju:,gau(11)ywea(12)taxga:lwei(1)

'6aetsDn6a'westxkaust(1),izntit(18)'wdz5a,we6a•gud(14)xri:znabliygud(6)'telmi:a'baut6axpraisiz,6ea(20)|,wudju:(15)1361Answerstoexercises6ei'w3:nt 'tu: /baed(2) ju:Judxgau,6ea(1)|anxtrant(1)|Ibatju:'a:t ta'gau^sum

(8)'SAmaz'mailxauva(1)*it,iznt,auva,jet(3)bat'0aegkju:'veri'mAtJfaja:radxvais(21)

'gud,lAk(24)xhaeva,gud,taim(19)|x0aegkju:(21)'gud,bai(22)3Glide-Down:Rules1,11,13,17,20,21.Glide-Up:Rules2,5,10,14,22,24.ITake-Off:Rules3,12,15,16,18,23.fDive:Rules4,6,7,8,9,19.II1I1$J137

*Appendix1ThedifficultiesofEnglishpronunciationfor speakersofArabic,Cantonese,

French,

German,HindiandSpanish!On the followingpagesareveryshort summariesof themaindifficultiesin

Englishpronunciationfcspeakersofsixmajorlanguages(Arabic,Cantonese,French,German,HindiandSpanish).Someofthecon-IsonantsandvowelsarereferredtoasequivalentinEnglishandtheotherlanguage,butyoumustunderstandthatthisdoesnotmeanthatyouneednotbotherwiththesesounds.Itmeansthatthesesoundsareindependentinthelanguageconcerned,thattheyareausefulstarting-pointforacquiringthecorrectEnglishsoundandthattheywillprobablynotcauseanymisunderstandingiftheyareusedinEnglish.In some cases an equivalent soundmay be very different from theEnglish

one,e.g.thetongue-tiprollortapfor/r/inArabicand|Spanish,butEnglishlistenerswillneverthelessrecognizeitas/r/.Sometimes, also, the equivalent of the English sound is not the onewhich

firstcomes tomind(orwhich ismostoftenusedby the learner),but it is thereand can be found. An example is /a/ for French speakers:they usually use avowelwhich is quite foreign to English (the vowelin Fr. ceuf'cgg*)when thevowelinFr.patte‘paw*wouldbeverymuchnearer.

Themaindifficultiesarelistedandspeakersoftheselanguagesareadvisedtopayspecialattentiontothosepartsofthisbookwhichdealwiththesedifficulties,butdonotassumethatthesearetheonlydifficulties;foreveryone,includingthemanyreaderswhoselanguagesarenotdiscussedhere,theonlyreliableguideisacriticalearand,ifpossible,agoodteacher.

iArabic(Cairocolloquial)ConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/f,s,z,J,h,t,k,b,d,g,tj,m,n,I,j,w,r/.138ArabicDIFFICULTIES1/f/and/v/maybeconfused,/f/beingusedforboth,but/v/may2occurinArabicinborrowednames./0/andI&IoccurindependentlyinsomeformsofArabic(Iraqui,Saudi Arabian, Kuwaiti, etc.) but not in Egyptian Arabic, wherethey are

replacedby/s/and/z/.3/3/occursinArabiconlyinborrowedwordsandisoftenreplacedbyeither

/J/or/z/.

4Ip/and/b/areconfused,/b/beingusedforboth.5/t/and/d/aredentalstopsinArabic.6StopsarenotgenerallyexplodedinfinalpositioninArabicandthestrong

stopsareoftenunaspirated.7 /tj/ and /d3/maybeconfused, /tj/ beingused forboth, though inpractice

doesnotusuallygivedifficulty.8/1]/doesnotoccurindependentlyinArabicandisreplacedby/Qk/or/Qg/.9/r/isatongue-tiprollortapinArabicandisoftenusedbeforeconsonants

andbeforeapause.10 /I/ occurs in both its clear and dark forms in Arabic, but they

aredistributeddifferentlyandmaysometimesbeinterchangedinEnglish.SequencesofthreeormoreconsonantsdonotoccurinmanyformsofArabicandcarefulattentionmustbepaidtothese,especiallyinordertopreventtheoccurrenceofavoweltobreakuptheconsonantsequence.VowelsEQUIVALENTS/!:,e,ae,a:,o:,u,u:,a,ai,au,di/.DIFFICULTIES1/i/and/e/areconfused,/e/beingusedforboth.2 /ae/ and /a:/ arenotentirely independent inArabicand there isdangerof

replacingonebytheotherinsomeplaces.3/a/and/d/areconfused,anintermediatevowelbeingusedforboth.4/a:/isnotalwaysmadelong,andisthenconfusedwith/a/or/d/.5/3:/isreplacedbyavowelofthe/a/or/e/typefollowedbyArabic/r/.6 /ei/ is replaced by the usually non-diphthongal vowel in Arabicbelt

‘house*.7 /au/ is replaced by the non-diphthongal vowel inArabicmo:z‘bananas*,

andthismaycauseconfusionwithEnglish/d:/.1398/ia,ea,ua/arereplacedbythenearestvowelsound/i:,ei,u:/+Arabic/r/.CantoneseConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/f,s,h,p,t,k,b,d,g,tj,m,n,r),j,w/.DIFFICULTIES1Noweakfrictionsounds(/v,d,z,3/)occur.2/v/isreplacedby/w/ininitialpositionandby/f/infinalposition.3/0/and/3/arereplacedeitherby/t/and/d/orby/f/.

4/z>L3/areaUreplacedby/s/.5/b,d,g/donotoccurfinallyinCantoneseandareconfusedwith/p,t,k/.6/p,t,k/arenotexplodedinfinalposition.7/tf/and/d3/areconfused,/tj/beingusedforboth.8 /I/, jn/and /r/areconfused insomeorallpositions, /I/ (oftennasa-lized)

beingusedforallthree.Beforeconsonantsandfinally/I/isreplacedby/u:/.Theonlyconsonantswhichoccur finally inCantoneseare /p, t,k,m,n,0/;

the English final consonants and the differences among themneed great care.Consonant sequences do not occur in Cantonese, andthe English sequences,particularlythefinalones,alsorequireagreatdealofpractice.

VowelsEQUIVALENTS/i:,a,a:,u:,3:,a,ei,au,ai,au,di,ia,ea,ua/.DIFFICULTIES1/I:/and/1/areconfused;sometimes/i:/isusedforbothandsome-times/i/,

dependingonwhatfollows.2 /e/ and /ae/ are confused, an intermediate vowel being used for both;the

samevowelalsoreplaces/e1/beforeconsonants.3/d/and/a:/areconfused,anintermediatevowelbeingusedforboth.4/u:/and/u/areconfused;sometimes/u1/isusedforbothandsome-times

/u/dependingonwhatfollows.5/3:/and/a/usuallyhavelip-rounding,/a/isoftenreplacedbyothervowels

becauseofthespelling.140Cantonese6Thedifferencebetweenlongandshortvowelsandthevariationsofvowel

length caused by the following consonant and by rhythmgrouping are verydifficultandneedspecialcare.

Cantoneseisatonelanguageinwhicheachsyllablehasafixedpitchpattern.OnthewholethisdoesnotmakeEnglishintonationmoredifficult thanit isforspeakersofotherlanguages,butitdoesaffecttherhythmandparticularattentionshouldbepaidtothis.

FrenchConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/f,v,s,z,J,3,p,t,k,b,d,g,I,m,n,j,w,r/./tf/andalthoughtheyhaveno

equivalentsinnormalFrenchwords,donotcausedifficulty.DIFFICULTIES

1 /0/ and /3/donotoccur inFrenchandare replacedby /s/ and /z/, orlesscommonlyby/f/and/v/.

2/h/doesnotoccurinFrenchandisomittedinEnglish.3/p,t,k/aregenerallynotaspiratedinFrench,whichmayleadtoconfusion

with/b,d,g/inEnglish.4/1/and/d/aredentalstopsinFrench.5/q/doesnotoccurinFrenchandisreplacedinEnglishbythecon-sonantat

theendofFrenchgagne‘earns’.6/!/inFrenchisalwaysclear.7/r/inFrenchisusuallyaweak,voiced,uvularfrictionorglidesound.Although sequences of four final consonants do not occur in Frenchand

sequences of three are rare, English consonant sequences cause littledifficultyexceptwhen/0,6,h,g/areconcerned.

VowelsEQUIVALENTS/I:,e,a,a:,d,u:,a,ai,au/./di/hasnoobviousequivalentinFrenchbutcauses

nodifficulty.DIFFICULTIES1/i:/and/i/areconfused,/i1/beingusedforboth.2/ae/and/a/areconfused,/a/beingusedforboth.3/d/isoftenpronouncedinawaythatmakesitsoundlikeEnglish/a/.1414/d:/isreplacedbythevowel+/r/inFrenchforme‘shape’,whenthereisa

letterrinthespelling,orbythevowelinFrenchbeau‘beautiful’,whenthereisnor.

5/au/isreplacedbythenon-diphthongalvowelinFrenchbeau,whichcausesconfusionwith/:>:/.

6/u:/and/u/areconfused,/u:/beingusedforboth.7/3:/isreplacedbythelip-roundedvowel+/r/inFrench/ie«re‘hour’.8/ei/isreplacedbythenon-diphthongalvowelinFrenchgai‘gay’.9 /ia, ea, ua/ are replaced by the vowel + /r/ in French //re ‘read*,ferre

‘earth’,lourd‘heavy’.10/a/isoftenreplacedbyothervowelsbecauseofthespelling.VowelsareusuallyshortinFrench,comparedwithEnglish,andcaremustbe

takentomakethelongvowelsofEnglishlongenough.Each syllable in French has approximately the same length and thesame

stress.Englishrhythmbasedonthestressedsyllableandtheresultingvariationsof syllable length cause great difficulty and must begiven special attention,togetherwithweakformsofwords,whichdonotexistinFrench.

GermanConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/f,v,s,zj,3,h,pt,k,b,d,g,tf,dj,m,n,g,I,j,r/.DIFFICULTIES1/0/and/6/donotoccurinGermanandarereplacedby/s/and/z/.2 /b, d, g, d3, v, z, 3/ do not occur in final position in German, but

thecorrespondingstrongconsonants/p,t,k,tj,f,s,f/do,whichcausesconfusionbetweenthetwosetsinEnglish,thestrongconsonantsbeingusedforboth.

3/3/ and /d3/ occur only in borrowed words in German and they maybereplacedby/J/and/tf/.

4Thesequence/r)g/doesnotoccurinGermanandisreplacedinEnglishbysimple/g/.

5/I/inGermanisalwaysclear.6/w/and/v/areconfused,/v/beingusedforboth.7/r/inGermaniseitheraweak,voiced,uvularfrictionsoundoratongue-tip

trill.142GermanEnglish consonant sequences cause no difficulty except when /0, 3, w/are

concernedorwhen/b,d,g,dj,v,z,3/arepartofafinalsequence.VowelsEQUIVALENTS/i:,1,e,a,a:,d,u,u:,a,ai,au,di/.DIFFICULTIES1/e/and/ae/areconfused,/e/beingusedforboth.2 jo:/ is replacedby thevowel+ / r/ofGermanDorf‘townwhenthere is a

letterrinthespelling,orbythevowelofGermanSohn‘son’whenthereisnor.3 /au/ is replaced by the non-diphthongal vowel of German Sohn,which

causesconfusionbetween/d:/and/au/.4/3:/isreplacedbythelip-roundedvowel+/r/ofGermanDorfer‘towns’.5Non-final /a/ is usually too like English /i/, and final /a/ usually toolike

English/d/.6/ei/isreplacedbythenon-diphthongalvowelinGermanSee‘lake’.7 /ia, ea, ua/ are replaced by the vowel 4- /r/ of German v/er‘four’,Herr

‘gentleman’,andUhr‘clock’.German has long and short vowels as in English, but the influence

offollowing consonants is not so great and caremust be taken inparticular toshortenthelongvowelswhentheyarefollowedbystrongconsonants.

Astressedvowelatthebeginningofawordandsometimeswithinawordispreceded by a glottal stop. This must be avoided in Englishfor the sake ofsmoothness.

HindiConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/s,z,J,h,p,t,k,b,d,g,tf,d3,m,n,I,j,r/.DIFFICULTIESI/f/and/p/areconfused,/p/beingusedforboth.2/0/and/3/arereplacedbydentalstops,whichcausesconfusionwith/t/and

/d/.3/z/issometimesreplacedby/d3/or/dz/.1434/3/and/z/areconfused,/z/(orsometimes/difor/dz/)beingusedforboth.5/t/and/d/aremadewiththeextremeedgeofthetongue-tipcurledbacktoa

point just behind the alveolar ridge. These retroflexsounds colour the wholespeechandshouldbeavoided.

6 /p, t, k/ are often made with no aspiration even though theaspiratedconsonantsoccurinHindi;thismaycauseconfusionwith/b,d,g/.

7/q/mayoccurinfinalposition,butbetweenvowelsitisalwaysreplacedby/gg/.

8/I/isalwaysclearinHindi.9/w/and/v/areconfused,anintermediatesoundbeingusedforboth.10 /r/ is often like the English sound in initial position, but elsewhereis a

tongue-tiptrillortap.11 Final consonants are often followed by /a/ when they should notbe,

causingconfusionbetweene.g.bitandbitter.VowelsEQUIVALENTS/i:, 1, as, a, a:, u, u:, a, ai, au/. /ai/ has no obvious equivalent inHindibut

causesnodifficulty.DIFFICULTIES1/e/isreplacedbyeither/ae/or/ei/.2/a:,d,a:/areconfused.3/3i/isreplacedby/a/+Hindi/r/.4 /a/ in final position is often a shortened form of /a:/, and in allpositions

maybereplacedbyothervowelsbecauseofthespelling.5/ei/isreplacedbythenon-diphthongalvowelinHindirel‘train’,andasthis

vowelisoftenquiteshortitmaybeconfusedwithEnglish/e/.

6/au/isreplacedbythenon-diphthongalvowelinHindilog‘people’.7/ia,ea,ua/arereplacedby/i:Ar,eAr,u:Ar/.The English long vowels are made much too short by Hindi

speakers,especially in final position, and care must be taken to lengthenthemconsiderablywhenevertheyarefullylonginEnglish.

RhythminHindiismorelikethatofFrenchthanEnglish.ThereismuchlessvariationoflengthandstressandnogroupingofsyllablesintorhythmunitsasinEnglish.Thewrong syllableof aword isoftenstressedandgreat caremustbetakenwiththisandwithrhythmin

144Hindigeneral.Thereisalsodifficultyinidentifyingtheimportantwordsonwhichtuneshapepartlydepends.SpanishConsonantsEQUIVALENTS/f,0,s,h,p,t,k,g,tJ,m,n,l,J,w,r/.DIFFICULTIES1 /v/ and /b/ are confused; sometimes /b/ replaces /v/ and sometimesthe

reverse, jbjmustbea complete stop inallpositions, and /v/ alip-teeth frictionsound.

2/6/and/d/areconfused;sometimes/d/(averydentalvariety)replaces/3/andsometimesthereverse./d/mustbeacompletealveolarstopinallpositions,and/6/adentalfrictionsound.

3/g/isoftenreplacedbyasimilarfrictionsound;thisdoesnotgenerallyleadtomisunderstanding but should be avoided; /g/must be a complete stop in allpositions.

4 /$/ and /z/ are confused, /s/ usually being used for both, thoughonly /z/occursbeforevoicedconsonants./$/beforeothercon-sonantsisveryweakandinLatinAmericanSpanishisoftenreplacedby/h/.

5/3/occursinArgentinianSpanishbutnotelsewhereandboth/J/andIIIarethenreplacedby/s/.

6Idlland/tj/areconfused,/tj/beingusedforboth.7 In Latin American Spanish /h/ is usually acceptable for English.

InPeninsular Spanish /h/ is replaced by a strong voiceless frictionsoundmadebetween the back of the tongue and the soft palate. Thisdoes not causeconfusion, but gives a disagreeable effect, and themouth friction must beavoided.

8/t/isverydentalinSpanish.

9/q/doesnotoccurindependentlyinSpanishandisreplacedby/n/or/QS/-10/!/isalwaysclearinSpanish.11/r/inSpanishisatongue-tiprollortap.12/p,t,k/arenotaspiratedinSpanish.ConsonantsequencesinSpanishconsistofaninitialstopor/f/+/r,I,w/or/j/.Otherinitialconsonantsmaybefollowedonlyby/j/or/w/.ManyoftheEnglishinitialsequencesandalmostallfinalsequencesareverydifficultandneedmuchpractice.145Appendixi:Difficulties,Vowels-’j^EQUIVALENTS/i:>e,a,o,u:,ei,ai,au,di/.DIFFICULTIES1/I:/and/i/areconfused,thereplacementbeingavowelusuallymoreIlike/!:/than/i/.2/ae/,/a/and/a:/(ifthereisnoletterrinthespelling)areallconfused,/a/beingusedforallthree.Whereroccursinthespelling,/a:/isreplacedbythevowel+/r/ofSpanishcarta‘map*.|3 /d/, /au/ and /a:/ (if there is no letter r in the spelling) are all confused,a

vowelintermediatebetween/d/and/o:/bemgu^cdforallthree.Where r occurs in the spelling jo:/ is replaced by the vowel+/r/

ofSpanishporque'because*.4/u:/and/u/areconfused,thereplacementbeingavowelusuallyfmorelike/u:/than/u/.5/3:/isreplacedbythevowel+/r/ofSpanish5er‘be*.6/a/isusuallyreplacedbysomeothervowelsuggestedbythespelling(with/r/addedifthespellinghasr).17/ia,ea,ua/arereplacedbythevowel-p/r/ofSpanishir‘go*,ser‘be’,duro

‘hard*.8ThereisnodistinctionbetweenlongandshortvowelsinSpanish,andallvowelshavethesamelengthastheEnglishshortvowels.]Specialattentionmustbegiventolengtheningthelongvowels.RhythminSpanish is like thatofFrenchorHindi.Stressedsyllablesoccur,

but each syllable has approximately the same length and there isnone of thevariation in lengthwhich results inEnglish from thegroupingof syllables intorhythmunits. Special attentionmust begiven to this, to the use of /a/ inweaksyllables and to the weak formsof unstressed words, which do not occur inSpanish.

M|ipCIlUIAA

UsefulmaterialsforvurvnersvuujdATextbooks0&CQq®q•OOQOQOBritishcqunC||MOSCOWGimson,A.C.AnIntroductiontothePronunciationofEnglish.EdwardArnold,1970Jones,D.AnOutlineofEnglishPhonetics.CambridgeUniversityPress,9th

edn,1975Jones,D.EnglishPronouncingDictionary.Dent,14thedn,1977Kenyon, J.

S. American Pronunciation. Wahr, 10th edn, 1958MacCarthy, P. A. D. TheTeachingofPronunciation.CambridgeUniversityPress,1978

O’Connor,J.D.andArnold,G.F.IntonationofColloquialEnglish.Longman,1973(withrecording)Roach, P. English Phonetics and Phonology. CambridgeUniversity Press,

1983Practicebooks(withrecordings)Arnold,G.F.andGimson,A.C.EnglishPronunciationPractice.University

ofLondonPress,1973Baker, A. Introducing English Pronunciation. Cambridge UniversityPrebs,

1982Baker,A.ShiporSheep?CambridgeUniversityPress,2ndedn,1981Baker,A.TreeorThree?CambridgeUniversityPress, 1981Barnard,G.L.

andMcKay,P.S.PracticeinSpokenEnglish.Macmillan,1963Gimson,A.C.APracticalCourseofEnglishPronunciation.EdwardArnold,

1975Hill,L.A.DrillsandTestsinEnglishSounds.Longman,1967Mortimer,C.

ElementsofPronunciation.CambridgeUniversityPress,1985Trim,J.L.M.EnglishPronunciationIllustrated.CambridgeUniversityPress,

1975Appendix2:UsefulmaterialsPhoneticreaders(withintonationmarkingandrecordings)O’Connor,J.D.PhoneticDrillReader.CambridgeUniversityPress,1973O'Connor, J. D. Advanced Phonetic Reader. Cambridge UniversityPress,

1971148Glossary

alveolarridge:seepalate.aspiration: short period after the explosion of/p, t, k/ when air leavesthe

mouthwithoutvoice.consonant: one of a set of sounds in which air from the lungs is

seriouslyobstructedinthemouth,andwhichoccurinsimilarpositionsinwords.diphthong: a smooth glide from one vowel position to another, thewhole

glideactinglikeoneofthelong,simplevowels.Dive:thefallingrisingtuneinintonation.frictionconsonants:soundsmadebynarrowingtheairpassageuntiltheairis

interferedwithandcausesfriction.Glidp-Dnwn*thefallingtuneinintonationGlide-Up:oneofthetworisingtunes.gliding consonants: consonantswith no stop or frictionwhich have arapid

glidetoavowel.glottal stop: air from the lungs is compressedbelow the closedvocalcords

andthenburstsoutwithanexplosion.glottis:thespacebetweenthevocalcords.intonation: the patterns of pitch on word groups which give informa-tion

aboutthespeaker’sfeelings.larynx: structureat the topof thewind-pipe from the lungs,whichcontains

thevocalcords.lateralconsonant:aconsonant(/I/)inwhichthetongue-tipblocksthecentre

ofthemouthandairgoesoverthesidesofthetongue.lateralexplosion:thereleaseof/t/or/d/,whenfollowedby/1/,bylowering

only the sides of the tongue, causing the compressed air toburst out over thesides.

nasal consonant: a consonant inwhich themouth is blocked and all theairgoesoutthroughthenose.

nasalexplosion: thereleaseofastopconsonantby lowering thesoftpalate,causingthecompressedairtoburstoutthroughthenose.

nasalizedvowel:avowelinwhichthesoftpalateisloweredandairgoesoutthroughboththemouthandthenose.

149Glossarypalate:theroofofthemouth,dividedintothesoftpalateattheback,thehard

palateinthemiddle,andthealveolarridge,justbehindtheteeth.phoneme:asetofsimilarsoundswhichcontrastswithothersuchsetstodifferentiatewords.

phonemic transcription: the representation of each phoneme by asinglesymbol.

Received Pronunciation: that kind of pronunciationwhich is used bymanyeducated speakers, particularly in south-eastEngland.Sometimes calledB.B.C.English.

rhythmunit:onestressedsyllablewhichmayhaveunstressedsyllablesbeforeand/orafterit.

stop consonants: consonants in which the air is completely blockedandthereforecompressedandreleasedwithanexplosion.stress:greatereffortona syllable or syllables in a word or longerutterance than on the othersyllables.stressgroup:thestressedsyllableandanysyllable(s)whichfollowitinarhythmunit.

strongconsonant: a consonant inwhich air is pushedoutby the lungswithconsiderableforce.strongform:secweakform

syllabicconsonant:normallyasyllablecontainsavowel;sometimes/n/or/!/replace the vowel they are then syllables (e.g. in ritn, midi).syllable: a unitconsisting of one vowel or syllabic consonant which maybe preceded and/orfollowedbyaconsonantorconsonants.

Take-Off:thesecondrisingtuneinintonation,tongue:whenthetongueisatrest, the back is under the soft palate, thefront under the hard palate, and thebladeunderthealveolarridge.

Thetipisthepartrightatthefrontoftheblade.vocalcords:bandsofelastictissue in the larynxwhichcanvibrate,causingvoice,canallowfreepassageofthe air, for voiceless sounds,and can completely stop the air-flow, giving theglottal stop.voice: musical note generated by vibration of the vocal cords.Voicedsoundshavethisvibration(e.g./m,I,a:/),voicelesssoundsdonot(e-g-/p,s,tj/).

vowel:oneofasetofvoicedsoundsinwhichair leaves themouthwithnointerference and which occur in similar positions in words.weak consonants:consonantsinwhichairispushedoutbythelungswithlittleforce.

weak form: certain words are pronounced differently when they arenotstressed. This unstressed pronunciation is the weak form, and thestressedpronunciationisthestrongform.

150•COfOQ#O^O'f>30OO■00OOr„oQCO'3oBRIT'GHCOUNCILMOSCOW