Chapter 6: Learning

Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment

Section 1: Classical Conditioning

Section 2: Operant Conditioning

Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning

Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

Case Study: The Little Albert Experiment

The Little Albert experiment showed that emotional reactions such as fear can be taught through classical conditioning.

The Experiment

· Eleven-month-old Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat rather than be amused by it.

· Psychologists achieved this by pairing the rat with something that Albert would find instinctively frightening.

The Results

· After they paired the rat with loud noises, Albert showed a fear of the rat even when there was no noise.

· Albert’s fear spread to similar objects.

· By today’s standards, the experiment was unethical.

Section 1 at a Glance

Classical Conditioning

· Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov pioneered research into a form of learning known as classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, one stimulus causes a response that is usually caused by another stimulus.

· Classical conditioning can help people adapt to the environment and can help eliminate troubling fears or other behaviors.

Classical Conditioning

Main Idea

Classical conditioning is a form of learning that involves the use of a stimulus to generate a specific response.

Reading Focus

· What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?

· How might classical conditioning help people or animals adapt to the environment?

· What are some applications of classical conditioning?

Principles of Classical Conditioning

· _____________________ is a type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections.

· Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth the __________________ that is usually called forth by another _______________________

Pavlov’s Dogs

· Russian physiologist _______________________ used dogs in his studies of classical conditioning.

· He trained the dogs to associate the sound of a __________ with ________________

· They learned that the sound of the bell meant food was coming.

Stimulus and Response

· Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that causes a response that is ___________________, not learned

· Unconditioned response: caused by an unconditioned ________

· Conditioned response: a learned response to a neutral ________

· Conditioned stimulus: a previously ____________________ stimulus that causes a conditioned response

Adapting to the Environment

Taste Aversions

· Taste aversion: ______________ response to a particular food

· ______-trial learning

Spontaneous Recovery

· Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of an ______________________ conditioned response after some time has passed

Extinction

· Extinction: Disappearance of ______________________________ when unconditioned stimulus no longer follows conditioned stimulus

Generalization and Discrimination

· Generalization: The tendency to respond in the ________ _________ to stimuli that have similar characteristics

· Discrimination: The act of responding _____________________ to stimuli that are not similar to each other

Applications of Classical Conditioning

Flooding and Systematic Desensitization

· In flooding, a person is ______________ to the ________________stimulus until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished.

· With systematic desensitization, people learn ________________techniques and then, while they are relaxed, they are __________________ exposed to the stimulus they fear.

Counterconditioning

In counterconditioning, a __________________ stimulus is paired repeatedly with a ______________one, counteracting the fear

Current Research in Psychology

Learning from a Virtual Rat

To research learning and conditioning, psychologists often design laboratory experiments with animals such as rats. But experiments with live animals can be costly and time-consuming. Why not take advantage of computer technology and use a virtual rat?

· “Sniffy the Virtual Rat” allows students to design lab experiments in a virtual environment with a virtual rat.

· To create “Sniffy,” researchers studied how real rats move and learn.

· Students can use the program to design and run classical conditioning experiments.

· A virtual rat is less costly than a real animal.

They never get tired, are always hungry, and learn more quickly, saving researchers time and effort

Section 2 at a Glance

Operant Conditioning

· Psychologist B.F. Skinner helped pioneer research into a form of learning known as operant conditioning, in which individuals learn from the consequences of their actions.

· Operant conditioning depends on the use of reinforcements and a schedule to execute them.

· The principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people or animals learn to combine a series of simple steps or actions to form complex behaviors.

Operant Conditioning

Main Idea

Operant conditioning occurs when people or animals have learned to respond to a certain situation.

Reading Focus

· How are operant conditioning and reinforcement related?

· What are the main types of reinforcers?

· How do rewards and punishments shape learning?

· How do schedules of reinforcement influence learning?

· What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement

· In operant conditioning, people and animals learn to _____ or ____________ certain things because of the ______________ of what they do.

· They learn from the _______________________ of their actions.

· In operant conditioning, voluntary responses are _________________.

· B.F. Skinner used the “Skinner box.” (rat presses bar for food)(reinforcement)

· His experiment demonstrated _____________________, or the process by which a stimulus (food) increases the chances that a preceding behavior (a rat pressing a lever) will occur again.

· Knowledge of _________________ is often all the reinforcement that people need to learn new skills.

Types of Reinforcers

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

· Primary reinforcers - function due to the _________________ makeup of an organism.

· Secondary reinforcers are learned by being ______________ with primary reinforcers.

· _______________ is a secondary reinforcer because we have learned that it may be exchanged for primary reinforcers like food and shelter.

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

· Positive reinforcers _______________ the frequency of a behavior.

· In positive reinforcement, a person receives something he or she wants following the behavior.

· Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of a behavior when they are ____________________

· In negative reinforcement, a behavior is reinforced because something unwanted stops happening or is removed following the behavior.

Rewards and Punishments

Rewards

· Like positive reinforcement, rewards help ________________ learning.

Some psychologists, however, prefer positive reinforcement because the concept of reinforcement can be explained without trying to guess what an organism will find rewarding

Punishments

· Punishments are quite different from negative reinforcers.

· Punishments are __________________ events that __________________ the frequency of the behavior they follow.

· Punishments tend to work only when they are ________________

· Most psychologists believe it is preferable to reward children for desirable behavior than punish them for unwanted behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

· The effectiveness of a reinforcement depends on the schedule of reinforcement—when and _______ ____________ the reinforcement occurs.

Continuous and Partial Reinforcement

· Continuous reinforcement is the reinforcement of a behavior __________ time the behavior occurs. (not always practical or possible)

· The alternative is partial reinforcement, which means __________ reinforced every time the behavior occurs.

Interval Schedules

· Fixed-interval schedule: a ____________ amount of ________ must elapse between reinforcements

· Variable-interval schedule: ______________ amounts of time go by between reinforcements

Ratio Schedule

· Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of __________________

· Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a _____________ number of responses

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

· In operant conditioning, extinction results from repeated performances of the response without ____________________

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Shaping and Chaining

· Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces ______________ steps in the ______________ activity.

· Chaining is ___________________ the steps of a sequence to progress toward a ____________ action.

· Chaining can be forward or backward.

· Chaining can be used to teach complex behavior patterns to animals.

Programmed Learning

· Programmed learning is based on shaping and chaining.

· Developed by B.F. Skinner, it assumes that any task can be broken down into small steps.

· Programmed learning does not involve punishments.

· Instead, it reinforces correct responses.

Section 4 at a Glance

The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

· The PQ4R method is a study method based on the work of educational psychologist Francis P. Robinson. Robinson believed that students will learn more when they take an active approach to learning.

· The PQ4R method includes these six steps: preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review.

Preview

· Previewing a textbook means getting a general picture of the material before you start to read.

· Many textbooks are designed to encourage previewing.

· Previewing helps form a cognitive map of a chapter.

Question

· You can create learning goals by writing questions about the chapter after you preview it.

· One way to write questions is to read the headings or the first sentence of each paragraph and write a question about it.

Read

· Read the chapter with the goal of answering the questions you wrote.

· As you read, jot down a few key words that will remind you of the answer.

Reflect

· Relate new information to old information.

· Relate new information to events in your own life or to people you know.

Recite

· After you have answered your questions, recite the answers out loud or silently to yourself.

· You can recite alone or with a study group. Both are effective.

Review

· Learning that occurs regularly and is distributed over time is distributed learning.

· Learning that occurs all at one time is massed learning, or cramming.