bda 40804 course learning outcomes (clo)

BDA40203/BDA40804 - Engineering Design 09/10/2021

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) 1

1

Ts. Dr. Ahmad Mubarak bin Tajul Arifin (Coordinator) (S5, S9 & S10)

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nik Hisyamudin bin Muhd Nor (S1 & S2)

Ts. Dr. Mohd Fahrul bin Hassan (S6, S7 & S8)

Ts. Dr. Aslinda binti Saleh (S3 & S4)

Integrated Engineering Design

BDA40804

BDA 40804

Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)1) Engineering Knowledge - Apply suitable technique in every stages of

design process. (LOD 1, C3, LO1)

2) Design/Development of Solution - Describe overall process of product

design according to the design methodology and product requirement.

(LOD 3, C5, LO10)

3) Investigation – Determine variety of disciplines in mechanical and

manufacturing engineering in the development of mechanical product.

(LOD 4, C5, LO4)

4) Modern Tool Usage – Analyse the drawing and analytical simulation of the

proposed product using CAE software in detail. (LOD 5, C4, LO2)

5) Environment and Sustainability - Practice the final product designed based

on functional, economical, sustainability and other technical requirements.

(LOD 18, C3, LO12)

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1) Engineering Knowledge - Apply suitable technique inevery stages of design process. (LOD 1, C3, LO1)

3

PLO1

Engineering Knowledge - Apply knowledge

of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals and an engineering specialisation

to the solution of complex engineering problems

1) .

2) Design/Development of Solution - Describe overallprocess of product design according to the designmethodology and product requirement. (LOD 3, C5,LO10)

4

PLO10

Design/Development of Solutions - Design

solutions for complex engineering problems and

design systems, components or processes that meet

specified needs with appropriate consideration for

public health and safety, cultural, societal, and

environmental considerations;

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1) .

2) .

3) Investigation – Determine variety of disciplines inmechanical and manufacturing engineering in thedevelopment of mechanical product. (LOD 4, C5, LO4)

5

PLO4

Investigation - Conduct investigation into complex

problems using research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and

interpretation of data, and synthesis of information to

provide valid conclusions;

1) .

2) .

3) .

4) Modern Tool Usage – Analyse the drawing andanalytical simulation of the proposed product usingCAE software in detail. (LOD 5, C4, LO2)

6

PLO2

Modern Tool Usage - Create, select and apply

appropriate techniques, resources, and modern

engineering and IT tools, including prediction and

modelling, to complex engineering activities, with an

understanding of the limitations;

1) .

2) .

3) .

4) .

5) Environment and Sustainability - Practice the finalproduct designed based on functional, economical,sustainability and other technical requirements.

(LOD 18, C3, LO12)

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PLO12

Environment and Sustainability - Understand the

impact of professional engineering solutions in societal

and environmental contexts and demonstrate

knowledge of and need for sustainable development;

Complex Engineering Problem (Complex Problem Solving

& Knowledge Profile)

Project Oriented Problem Based Learning

Student Centered Learning (SCL)

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Symposium on Integrated Engineering

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Symposium on Integrated Engineering Design

Examples of Details Drawings:

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Examples of Product:

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Teaching & Learning Tools

• Lecture Plan - Edisi : 5 / No. Semakan : 1

• Reference book (Dieter, G. E., & Schmidt, L. C. (2013). Engineering Design, Fifth Edition.New York: McGraw Hill.)

• Lecture notes (~90% from Dieter, G. E., & Schmidt, L. C. (2013). Engineering Design, Fifth Edition. New York: McGraw Hill. ~10% from other relevant resources)

• Supporting documents [Final & Progress Report Fr page; Format for CONTENTS; Format for Final & Progress Report Sem 1 20142015; Marking criteria for Final & Progress Report; Example of Final Report]

• Integrated Engineering Design (Techching and Learning Module), 9/2019

13BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN 14BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN

CONTENT

Lecture 1 – Engineering Design Process and Methodology

Lecture 2 – Identification of Needs and Establishing Design Specification

Lecture 3 – Conceptual Design

Lecture 4 – Embodiment Design

Lecture 5 – Detail Design

Lecture 6 – Prototyping and Case Studies of Product Development

Lecture 7 – Sustainability and Environment Consideration in

Engineering Design

Lecture 8 – Economic, Costing, and Business Plan

BDA40804 – INTEGRATED ENGINEERING DESIGN

Lecture 1:

Engineering Design Process and Methodology

16BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN

1.1 Definition of Engineering Design

What is design?• “To fashion after a plan!”

• To design is:

To synthesize new or to arrange existing things in a new way to satisfy a recognized need of society.

“Design establishes and defines solutions to and pertinent structures for problems not solved before, or new solutions to problems which have

previously been solved in a different way.”

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The Four C’s of Design

• Creativity

Requires creation of something that has not existed before or has not existed in the designer’s mind before.

• Complexity

Requires decisions on many variables and parameters.

• Choice

Requires making choices between many possible solutions at all levels, from basic concepts to the smallest detail of shape.

• Compromise

Requires balancing multiple and sometimes conflicting requirements.



Importance of the Engineering Design Process

• Decisions made in the design process cost very little in terms of the overall product cost but have a major effect on the cost of the product.

• You cannot compensate in manufacturing for defects introduced in the design phase.

• The design process should be conducted so as to develop quality, cost-competitive products in the shortest time possible.



Product Cost Commitment during Phases of the Design Process

Adapted from D. Ullman, The Mechanical Design Process, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,2010.



Types of Designs

• Original Design: Innovative design

• Adaptive Design

• Redesign: Variant design

• Selection design

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1.2 Historical Background

Great Pyramids of Egypt, 2560 BC Roman Aqueducts, 312 BC

Aeroplane, 1903

Great Wall of China, 5th century

Car, 1335 (first)Programmable computer, 1936Kota A Famosa (?)

Shelter, 500,000 years ago

History of design has started very long ago and the Industrial Revolution occurred in 18th and 19th century led to a variety of creation; textile machine, steam engine etc.

Rapid development of design : 1900 - 1959

Time span with varied and complex progression, and set the stage for design paradigms that

designers currently working follow. This period presented a rapid progression of ideas, materials,

and methods.


1.3 Product and Process Cycles

Product Life Cycle



Product Development Cycle



Technology Development

Simplified Technology Development Cycle Transferring Technology Development Cycle

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1.4 Creativity in Design

What is Creativity?

Creativity is the ability to bring something intoexistence that was not there before.- Webster’s Dictionary

Creativity is the connecting and rearranging of knowledgein the minds of people, who allow themselves to thinkflexibly - to generate new, often surprising ideas thatothers judge to be useful.

- Consensus of 40 Different Definitions From 1950 to1997 from “Creativity, Innovation and Quality” by PaulE Plsek



Why Creativity?Creativity has become the most highly priced commodity in our economy.Human creativity is the ultimate economic resource. – Richard Florida

Creativity is the most sought after and valued property in search ofproductive people for the higher job market. – Daniel Eriksson andNumerous Authors, Researchers and Politicians

The result of creativity ... is the effectiveness, the wellbeing, the alivenessand the optimal experience called FLOW, making our lives moreinteresting and productive. Our future is now closely tied to humancreativity. – Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi





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We can’t be creative without good support

Creativity shows up in cooperation between people supporting each other.


1.5 Good and Bad Design

Considerations of Good Design

1) Achievement of Performance Requirements

2) Life-Cycle Issues

3) Social and Regulatory Issues



(1) Achievement of Performance Requirements

• A major characteristic of a design is its function.

• Performance Requirements:

Primary Performance Requirements

Complementary Performance Requirements

Part (Component): A single piece requiring no assembly

Assembly: When two or more parts are joined.

Subassemblies: Smaller assemblies which compose larger assemblies.

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(2) Total Materials Life Cycle

Reproduced from “Materials and Man’s Needs,” National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974.



(3) Regulatory and Social Issues

✓ The code of ethics of all professional engineering societies require the engineer to protect public health and safety.

Example of Standards and Codes:

ASME: American Society of Mechanical EngineersASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health AdministrationCPSC: Consumer Product Safety Commission

EPA: Environmental Protection AgencyDHS: Department of Homeland Security



1. Works all the time

2. Meets all technical requirement

3. Meets cost requirement

4. Requires little or no maintenance

5. Safe

6. Creates no ethical dilemma

7. Environmental friendly

1. Works initially, but stops working

after a short time

2. Meets only some technical

requirement

3. Costs more than it should

4. Requires frequent maintenance

5. Poses a hazard to user

6. Fulfills a need that is questionable

7. Not environmental friendly



1. Listen to new ideas with an open mind.

2. Considers a variety of solution

methodologies before choosing a

design approach.

3. Does not consider a project complete

at the first sign of success, but insists

on testing and retesting.

4. Is never attempt to arrive at a set of

design parameters solely by trial and

error.

5. Uses phrases such as “I need to

understand why,” or “Let’s consider all

the possibilities.”

1. Thinks he/she has all the answer;

seldom listens to the ideas of others.

2. Has tunnel vision; pursues with

intensity the first approach that

comes to mind.

3. Ships the product out the door

without through testing.

4. Equates pure trial and error with

engineering design.

5. Uses phrases such as, “Good

enough”, or “I don’t understand why

it won’t work; so-and-so did it this

way.”

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1. Industrial designer – To establish essential productappearance, human factors.

2. Design engineer – To decide and propose part or

product form, including shape, size, configuration,materials and manufacturing processes.

3. Materials engineer – To investigate and developimproved materials.

4. Testing engineer – To conduct performance and

safety tests.

Role as a Designer


1.6 Design Failure, its Consequences and Ethical Issues

Design failure and its consequences

Silver Bridge, Gallipolis OH, 1966.

Failed as a result of lack of

redundant support in design (killing

46 people) -- one support failed

under heavy rush hour load

(including trucks), and bridge

subsequently collapsed.

Titanic: The ship collided with an

iceberg. The great ice mass

pierced the hull. The gap then

filled with glacier, cold water. The

ship sunk within 3 hours. About

1,500 died. Failed due to the steel

used for the hull was not suited for

low temperatures

The original Tacoma Narrows

Bridge, dubbed Galloping Gertie,

was the world's third-longest

suspension bridge when it opened

on July 1, 1940. It collapsed in a

windstorm about four months later,

becoming famous as "the most

dramatic failure in bridge

engineering history. The real cause

of the bridge's failure was

aeroelastic flutter.



Causes of Failure

When engineers were at fault, the researchers classified the causes of failure as follows:

• Insufficient knowledge ............................................. 36%

• Underestimation of influence....................................16%

• Ignorance, carelessness, negligence …...................... 14%

• Forgetfulness, error ...................................................13%

• Relying upon others without sufficient control......... 9%

• Objectively unknown situation .............................. ….7%

• Imprecise definition of responsibilities ..................... 1%

• Choice of bad quality .................................................. 1%

• Other ........................................................................... 3%



Societal Considerations in Engineering Design

• ABET Code of Ethics:

“Engineers shall hold paramount the safety,

health, and welfare of the public in the

performance of their profession.”

• Some influences on the practice of engineering design due to increased societal awareness of technology:

▫ Greater influence of lawyers on engineering decisions

▫ More time spent in planning and predicting

▫ Emphasis on “defensive research and development”

▫ More effort expended in research, development, and engineering in environmental control and safety.

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Ethical issues

We start by making a distinction between morality and professional ethics. Morality refers to those standards of conduct that apply to all individuals within society rather than only to members of a special group. These are the standards that every rational person wants every other person to follow and include standards such as follows:

• Respect the rights of others• Show fairness in your dealings with others• Be honest in all actions• Keep promises and contracts• Consider the welfare of others• Show compassion to others

Note that each of these standards is based on the italicized values.



While professional ethics mean those standards of conduct that every member of a profession expects every other member to follow. These standards apply to member of that group simply because they are members of that professional group. Like morality, standards of ethical conduct are value-based. Some values that are pertinent to professional ethics include:

• Honest and truth

• Honor – showing respect , integrity and reputation for achievement

• Knowledge – gained through effectively minimum of unnecessary effort

• Diligence – persistent effort

• Loyalty – allegiance to employer’s goals

• Confidentiality – dependable in safeguarding information

• Protecting public safety and health

Note that some of these values are directed toward the employer (eg., diligence), some toward the customer (eg., confidentiality), some toward the profession (eg., honor), and some toward society (eg., public health and safety). These values reflect the professional’s value obligations.


1.7 The Types of Engineering Design Methods

Simplified Iteration Model

Adapted from M. Asimow, Introduction to Design, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1962.

Ways To Think About The Engineering Design

Process



Design Method Versus Scientific Method

Adapted from P. H. Hill, The Science of Engineering Design, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1970.

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A Problem-Solving Methodology

• Definition of the problem

• Gathering of information

• Generation of alternative solutions

• Evaluation of alternatives and decision making

• Communication of the results



How The Design Depends On How The Problem Is Defined



Design Paradox Between Design Knowledge and Design Freedom


1.8 Design Process

Design Process Phases

• Phase I:

Conceptual Design

• Phase III:

Detail Design

• Phase II:

Embodiment Design

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1.8 Design Process

Phase I. Conceptual Design


1.8 Design Process

Phase II. Embodiment Design


1.8 Design Process

Phase III. Detail Design


1.8 Design Process

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1.9 Managing Design Project

Organization’s Effect on Design & Product Development

• The organization of a business enterprise can have a major influence on how effectively design and product development are carried out.

Fundamental ways for organizing a business

FUNCTION PROJECTS



Engineering Functions



Links Between Individuals

• Reporting Relationships:

A subordinate is concerned about who his or her supervisor is, since the supervisor influences evaluations, salary increases, promotions, and work assignments.

• Financial Arrangements:

Another type of link is budgetary. The source of funds to advance the project, and who controls these funds, is a vital consideration.

• Physical Arrangements:

Studies have shown that communication between individuals is enhanced if their offices are within 50 feet of each other!



Example of a functional organization

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Simplified Project Organization



A Good Team Member

• There is a set of attitudes and work habits that you need to adopt to be a good team member:

▫ Take responsibility for the success of the team

▫ Be a person who delivers on commitments

▫ Be a contributor to discussions

▫ Give your full attention to whomever is speaking and demonstrate this by asking helpful questions

▫ Develop techniques for getting your message across the team

▫ Learn to give and receive useful feedback



Characteristics of an Effective Team

• Team goals are as important as individual goals

• The team understands the goals and is committed to achieving them

• Trust replaces fear, and people feel comfortable taking risks

• Respect, collaboration, and open-mindedness are prevalent

• Team members communicate readily; diversity of opinions is encouraged

• Decisions are made by consensus and have the acceptance and support of the members of the team



Student Design versus Business World Team

• Student Design teams differ in several important respects from a team in the business world:

▫ Team members are all close to the same age and level of formal education

▫ Team members are peers and no one has authority over the other team members

▫ Team members often prefer to work without a designated leader in a shared leadership environment

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Team Sponsor

• An important role that is external to the team but vital to its performance is the team sponsor.

• The team sponsor is the manager who has the need for the output of the team. In the case of the student design project the sponsor is the course instructor or a representative from a company proposing the project.

• The team sponsor provides any special resources needed by the team, and formally commissions the team.



Team Leader

• The team leader convenes and chairs the team meetings using effective meeting management practices.

• He or she guides and manages the day-to-day activity of the team by:

▫ Tracking the team’s accomplishment toward stated goals

▫ Helping team members to develop their skills

▫ Communicating with the sponsor about progress

▫ Trying to remove barriers toward progress

▫ Helping to resolve conflict within the team



Three Leadership Types



Importance of Team Meetings

• Much of the work of teams is accomplished in team meetings.

• It is in these meetings that the collective talent of the team members is brought to bear on the problem, and in the process, all members of the team “buy in” to the problem and develop a solution.

• Students who complain about design projects taking too much time often are really expressing their inability to organize their meetings and manage their time effectively.

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Helpful Rules for Meeting Success(1 to 7)

• Pick a regular meeting location and try not to change it.

• Pick a meeting location that:

▫ Is agreeable, accessible to all, and conducive to work!

▫ Has breathing room when there is full attendance!

▫ Has a pad and easel in the room!

▫ Is not too hot, too cold, or too close to noisy distractions!

• Regular meeting times are not as important as confirming the time of meetings.

• Send an email reminder to team members just before the first of several meetings.

• If you send materials out in advance of a meeting, bring extra copies just in case people forget to bring theirs, or they did no arrive.

• Start on time!

• Pass out an agenda at the beginning of the meeting and get the team’s concurrence with the agenda



Helpful Rules for Meeting Success(8 to 15)

• Rotate the responsibility for writing summaries of each meeting.

• Notice members who come late, leave early, or miss meetings.

• Observe team members who are not speaking.

• Occasionally use meeting evaluations to gather anonymous feedback on how the group is working together.

• Do not bring guests or staff support or add team members without seeking the permission of the team.

• Avoid canceling meetings!

• End every meeting by creating a list of action items.

• Follow up with any person who does not attend.



Time Management

• Time is an invaluable and irreplaceable commodity.

• You will never recover the hour you squandered last Tuesday!

• The chief difference between time management in college and as a practicing engineer is that time management in the world of work is less repetitive and predictable than when you are in college.

• Effectiveness is doing the right things, but efficiency is doing those things the right way, in the shortest possible time!



Planning and Scheduling

• Planning:

▫ Consists of identifying the key activities in a project and ordering them in the sequence in which they should be performed.

• Scheduling:

▫ Consists of putting the plan into the time frame of the calendar.

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Four Major Decisions

• Performance:

▫ The design must possess an acceptable level of operational capability or the resources expended on it will be wasted.

• Time:

▫ In the early phases of a project the emphasis is on accurately estimating the length of time required to accomplish the various tasks and scheduling to ensure that sufficient time is available to complete those tasks.

• Cost:

▫ The importance of cost in determining what is feasible in an engineering design has been emphasize in earlier chapters.

• Risk:

▫ Risks are inherent in anything new.



Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

• Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a tool used to divide a project into manageable segments to ensure that the complete scope of work is understood.

• The WBS lists the tasks that need to be done.

• The tasks are expresses as outcomes (deliverables) instead of planned actions.

• Outcomes are used instead of actions because they are easier to predict accurately at the beginning of a project.

❖Example of WBS can bee seen in Table 4.4





Gantt Chart

This Gantt chart is made for the first three phases of the work breakdown structure mentioned in Table 4.4.

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Lecture 2:

Identification of Needs and Establishing Design Specification


2.1 Problem Definition

Problem Definition: Start of the Conceptual Design Process



Problem Definition

• Product Development begins by determining what the needs are that a product must meet.

• Problem definition is the most important of these steps in the PDP.

• Understanding any problem thoroughly is crucial to reaching an outstanding solution.

• The problem definition process is mainly the need identification step.


2.1 Problem Definition : Case Study

• Counting Device for Packaging Bulk Items

The users’ task in this case is to count specified numbers of different products and place in one box for shipping. For instance, 3 packages of product A, 5 packages of product B and 2 packages of product C go together in one box for shipping. Currently, the users are persons with disabilities and have difficulty counting the required number of products consistently.

The current quality control mechanism is to consider a completed box to check if the correct number of items is included. The variance in the weight of each package makes this check not entirely reliable. A device capable of counting each type of product as it is dispensed into a box is needed.

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2.1 Problem Definition :

• After clarifying the customer’s statements, the design team’s charge was:▫ To create an assistive device to aid in

counting and packaging dog food sample packets

▫ Assistive device NOT fully automated replacement

▫ Increase accuracy and reliability of packet count

▫ No reduction of current production rate

▫ Create an ergonomically friendly and versatile solution

Case Study



• Development of a product, process, assembly or component not previously in existence

• Clarification phase is perhaps the most important phase

▫ As a designer, you must understand the problem your customer wants solved

▫ Structured approaches exist to help guide you through this phase


2.2 Related Products – Patent Search, Catalogue, Website,

Commercial Products

Product Dissection

• Observing a product during its use is one of the most natural ways to gather information about it.

• The process of taking the object apart to see how it works is known as both product dissection and reverse engineering.



Commercial Products

Product Dissection (2)

• The product dissection process includes four activities:

1) Discover the operational requirements of the product.

2) Examine how the product performs its functions.

3) Determine the relationship between parts of the product.

4) Determine the manufacturing and assembly processes used to produce the product.

✓ Engineers do reverse engineering to discover information that they cannot access any other

way!

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Commercial Products

Types of Design Information

Customer Surveys & Feedback, Marketing Data

Related Designs Specs & Drawings for previous versionsSimilar designs of competitors

Analysis Methods Handbooks, Textbooks, Monographs, Technical Reports, Specialized computer programs

Materials Performance in past designs, Properties

Manufacturing Capability of Processes, Capacity analysisManufacturing sources, Assembly methods

Cost Cost history, Current material & manufacturing costs

Standard Components Availability & Quality of vendors, Size & Technical Data

Technical standards ISO, ASTM, Company specific

Governmental Regulations Performance-based, Safety requirements

Life Cycle issues Maintenance/service feedback, Reliability/quality/warranty data



Commercial Products

Sources of Design Information

Libraries Dictionaries, engineering handbooks, texts, periodicals

Internet A massive depository of information

GovernmentTechnical reports, databases, agency-based search engines, laws & regulations

Engineering professional societies & trade associations

Technical journals & news magazines, Technical conference proceedings, Codes & standards

Intellectual property Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks

Personal activities

Buildup of knowledge, Contacts with colleagues, Personal network, contacts with suppliers & vendors, Attendance f conferences, Visits of other companies

CustomersDirect involvement, Surveys, Feedback from warranty payments



Commercial Products

Product and Technical Literature

• Consumer Product Literature:

▫ There are private nonprofit organization dedicated to informing consumers about products (e.g. Consumers Union).

• Internet Shopping Sites:

▫ Internet sites exist to compile information for specialty products.

• Technical Literature:

▫ In addition to information from special interest publications, there are scholarly journals that publish research quality information.

• Patent Literature:

▫ Not all products are patented, but patent literature does include inventions that have become successful products.



Commercial Products

Patent and Other Intellectual Property

Patent:

A patent, granted by a government, gives its owner the right to prevent others from making, using, or selling the patented invention.

Copyright:

A copyright gives its owner the exclusive right to publish and sell a written or artistic work.

Trademark:

A trademark is any name, word, symbol, or device that is used by a company to identify its goods or services and distinguish them from those made or sold by others.

Trade Secret:

A trade secret is any formula, pattern, device, or compilation of information that is used in a business to create an opportunity over competitors who do not have this information.

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Commercial Products

Patent

• There are three general criteria for awarding a patent:

▫ The invention must be new or novel.

▫ The invention must be useful.

▫ It must not be obvious to a person skilled in the art covered by the patent.

✓ A key requirement is novelty.



Commercial Products

Patent Literature

• The U.S. Patent system is the largest body of information about technology in the world!

• The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) has been highly computerized.

• Typical reasons for making a patent search are:

▫ You have been asked to comment on a patent used by a competitor.

▫ You are looking fro ideas to improve your design concept.

▫ You have come up with a really cool design concept, and you want to determine if the idea is novel enough to warrant the expense of preparing a patent submission.

▫ You want to continue to update yourself on a particular technology of interest.



Commercial Products

US Patent 5,540,428

Basketball retrieval and return device

J. G. Joseph, , “Basketball Retrieval and Return Apparatus,” Patent 5540428, July 30, 1996.



Commercial Products

US Patent 5,681,230

Basketball retrieval and return device

H. F. Krings, “Automatic Basketball Return Apparatus,” Patent 5681230, Oct 28, 1997.

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Commercial Products

Physics of the Product or System

• Engineering Models of a problem:



Commercial Products

Model of Free Throw

C. M. Tran and L. M. Silverberg (2008), “Optimal release conditions for the free throw in men’s basketball,” Journal of Sports Sciences, 26:11, 1147-1155.


Free Body Diagrams


Commercial Products


2.3 Benchmarking of Product Specification

Engineering Characteristics

• Establishing the engineering characteristics is a critical step toward writing the product design specification.

• The process of identifying the needs that a product must fill is a complicated undertaking.

• Just knowing what a customer or end user wants from a product is not sufficient for generating designs.

• Concept generation starts when a good description of the product is given.

• A “good description” of a product is comprised of solution-neutral specifications.

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Description of a Product

• Design Parameters:

▫ Parameters are a set of physical properties whose values determine the form and behavior of a design.

• Design Variable:

▫ A design variable is a parameter over which the design team has a choice.

• Constraints:

▫ A design parameter whose value has been fixed becomes a constraint during the design process.



General and Competitive Performance Benchmarking

• Benchmarking is a process for measuring a company’s operations against the best practices of companies both inside and outside of their industry.

• Benchmarking operates most effectively on a quid pro quo basis.

• A company can look for benchmarks in many different places.



Sources of Resistance to Benchmark

• Fear of being perceived as copiers.

• Fear of yielding competitive advantages if information is traded/shared.

• Arrogance: A company may feel that there is nothing useful to be learned by looking outside of the organization.

• Impatience: Companies that engage in an improvement program often want to begin making changes immediately.



Two Initial Steps of Benchmarking

• Select the product, process, or functional area of the company that is to be benchmarked:

▫ That will influence the selection of key performance metrics that will be measured and used for comparison.

• Identify the best-in-class companies for each process to benchmarked:

▫ A best-in-class company is one that performs the process at the lowest cost with the highest degree of customer satisfaction, or has the largest market share.

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Competitive-Performance Benchmarking

• Determine features, functions, and any other factors that are important to:

▫ End user satisfaction

▫ Technical success of the product

• Determine functions that are:

▫ Increase the costs of the product

▫ Have the greatest potential for improvement

• Determine the features and functions that differentiate the product from its competitors.

• Establish metrics by which the most important functions or features can be quantified and evaluated.

• Evaluate the product and its competing products using performance testing.

• Generate a benchmarking report summarizing all information learned about the product, data collected, and conclusions about competitors.


2.4 Identification of Market Needs (Market Survey) and Customer

Satisfaction – Questionnaire, Construct, Distribute, Analysis

Definition of Customer

• Webster Definition of Customer:▫ “One that purchases a product or service.”

▫ End user

• Total Quality Management Viewpoint of Customer:▫ “Anyone who receives or uses what an individual or organization

provides.”

▫ HomeDeopt and Lowes act as customers but they are not end users!




Preliminary Research on Customers Needs

• In a large company, the research on customer needs for a particular product or for the development of a new product is done using a number of formal methods and by different business units.

• The initial work may be done by:

▫ Marketing department specialist

▫ Team made up of marketing and design professionals.

• Designers focus on need that are:

▫ Unmet in the marketplace

▫ Products that are similar to the proposed product

▫ Historical ways of meeting the need

▫ Technological approaches to engineering similar products of the type under consideration




Gathering Information from Customers

Interviews with

customers

Focus groups

Customer complaints Warranty data

Customer surveys

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Constructing a Survey Instrument

• Determine the survey purpose.

• Identify what specific information is needed.

• Design the questions. Each question should be:

▫ Unbiased

▫ Unambiguous

▫ Clear

▫ Brief

• Three categories of questions:

▫ Attitude questions

▫ Knowledge questions

▫ Behavior questions




Example of Customer

Survey for Shot-Buddy

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DEPARTMENT OF MATERIAL AND DESIGN ENGINEERINGFACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERINGUNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN



Evaluating Customer Surveys

✓ Evaluating a survey question depends on the type of question and the kind of information sought.


2.5 Clarifying Objectives – Objective Tree

• The objectives tree method is an approach to transform vague design statements into more specific customer requirements

• Make vague statements more specific by asking:▫ What is meant by that statement?

• Other useful questions to ask when expanding and clarifying design objectives:▫ Why? How? What?

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• Three step procedure:1. Prepare a list of design objectives2. Order the list into sets of higher-level and

lower-level objectives3. Draw a tree of objectives, showing

hierarchical relationships and interconnections



• This can be done by:

▫ Talking with (interviewing) your customer

▫ Thoroughly reading any written design statements and requirements

▫ Brainstorming within your team

• Take vague statements and make them clearer by asking “what is meant by this statement”

Step 1: Listing the Objectives



Step 2: Ordering the List

Major objective 1Second level objective 1.1

Third level objective 1.1.1

Third level objective 1.1.2

Second level objective 1.2

Major objective 2

Second level objective 2.1

…

Order the list into sets of higher-level and lower-level objectives



Step 3: Draw the Tree

• From Step 2, you have a clustered set of objectives▫ Notice that some of the objectives within a cluster

may be more specific than others▫ This implies a hierarchical nature to the objectives

• The hierarchy (general to more specific) can be represented in a graphical structure known as an objectives tree

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Step 3: Draw the Tree• The Objectives Tree diagram looks like an “upside-down” tree

▫ The overall objective of the tree is at the top

▫ Underneath it, branches break the objective into more detailed objectives

▫ Can have many levels and interconnections

As you move deeper into the

hierarchy, the objectives answer

the question “how is the above

objective met?”

As you move higher up in the

hierarchy, the objectives answer

the question “why are the below

objectives important?”



• Consider the example objectives list and resulting tree for the design of a safe ladder:

The ladder should be safeThe ladder should be stable

Stable on floors and smooth surfaces

Stable on relatively level ground

The ladder should be reasonably stiff

The ladder should be marketable

The ladder should be useful

Useful indoors

Useful for electrical work

Useful for maintenance work

Useful outdoors

Be useful at the right height

The ladder should be relatively inexpensive

The ladder should be portable

Be light weight

Be small when ready for transport

The ladder should be durable


2.5 Clarifying Objectives – Weighting of Objective Tree

Example: Design of a Crane Hook


2.6 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

• Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a planning and team problem-solving tool that has been adopted by a wide variety of companies as the tool of choice for focusing a design team’s attention on satisfying customer needs throughout the product development process.

• The term deployment is QFD refers to the fact that this method determines the important set of requirements for each phase of PDP planning and uses them to identify the set of technical characteristics of each phase that most contribute to the satisfying the requirements.

✓ QFD process is known as a methodology for infusing the voice of the customer into every aspect of the design process.

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House of Quality

• House of Quality translates customer requirements into quantifiable design variables, called engineering characteristics.



House of Quality Configuration



Streamlined House of Quality



Example: Streamlined House of Quality for Shot-Buddy

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Example: HOQ Rooms 2 and 3 for Shot-Buddy



Interpreting Results of HOQ

• The highest-ranking ECs from the HOQ are either constraints or design variables whose values can be used as decision-making criteria for evaluating candidate designs.

• If a high-ranking EC has only a few possible candidate values then it may be appropriate to treat that EC as a constraint.

• There are certain design parameters that can only take a few discreet values.

• The lowest-ranking ECs of the HOQ are not as critical to the success of the design. These ECs allow freedom during the design process because their values can be set according to priorities of the designer or approving authority.


2.7 Requirement List (RL)/Engineering Design Specification (EDS)

Product Design Specification

• In the product development process, the results of the design planning process that governs the engineering design tasks are compiled in the form of a set of product design specification (PDS). (example: Table 3.3)

• The PDS is the basic control and reference document for the design and manufacture of the product.

• The PDS is a document that contains all of the facts related to the outcome of the product development.

• Creating the PDS finalizes the process of establishing the customer needs and wants, prioritizing them, and beginning to cast them into a technical framework so that design concepts can be established.


2.7 Requirement List (RL)/Engineering Design Specification (EDS)

Table 3.3

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Lecture 3:

Conceptual Design


3.0 Conceptual Design - Introduction

Concept Generation in PDP


3.0 Conceptual Design - Introduction


3.1 Clarifying Function

Methods to clarify the product’s functional requirement:

1. Activity analysis – used to learn how the customer will use and ultimately retire the product. It helps to understand all the required functions, not just those during daily use and how the product interacts with the environment.

2. Component decomposition – a block diagram of the parts and subassemblies that make up the product in the form of hierarchical structure of component forms, not functions. Better overall understanding of how individual components interact with each other and ultimately contribute to overall product function.

3. Functional decomposition – a hierarchical structure of functions, not forms. It helps to identify whether the functions are connected, and where the interface connections might be.

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3.1.4 Function Structure

Functional Representation: Standard Flow Classes & Member Flow

R. E. Stone, “Functional Basis”, Design Engineering Lab Webpage, designengineeringlab.org/FunctionCAD/FB.htm, accessed November 10, 2011.



Components Abstracted into Function Blocks



Function Structure Black Box for a Basketball Ball Return



Performing Functional Decomposition

• Functional decomposition produces a diagram called a function structure.

• A function structure is a block diagram depicting flows of energy, material, and signal as labeled arrows taking paths between function blocks.

• The most general function structure is a single function block description of a device.

• This type of function structure (a single function block) is called a black box representation of a device.

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Function Structure for a Mechanical Pencil



Function Structure for a Basketball Return Device



Strengths and Weaknesses of Functional Synthesis

• Strengths:

▫ First, creating function structures forces re-representation into a language that is useful for the manipulation for mechanical design problems.

▫ Second, using a function structure to represent a design lends functional labels to potential solution components, and these labels serve as hints for new memory searches.

• Weaknesses:

▫ Some products are better suited to representation and design by functional decomposition and synthesis than are others.

▫ The function structure is a flow diagram where flows are connecting different functions performed by the product the structure represents.


3.2 Concept Generation

Generating Design Concepts

• Systematic methods for generating engineering designs exist.

• The task of the designer is to find the best of all possible candidate solutions to a design task.

• Generative design is a theoretical construct that creates many feasible alternatives to a given product design specification (PDS).

• The set of all possible designs is an n-dimensional hyperspace called a design space.

• The key idea to remember in design is that it is beneficial in almost every situation to develop a number of alternative designs that rely on different means to accomplish a desired behavior.

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Schematic of an n-dimensional design space



Systematic Methods for Designing

• Some design methods are labeled as systematic because they involve a structured process for generating design solutions.

• Systematic methods for mechanical, conceptual design generation are:

▫ Functional Decomposition and Synthesis

▫ Morphological Analysis

▫ Theory of Inventive Problem Solving

▫ Axiomatic Design

▫ Design Optimization

▫ Decision-Based Design


3.2.1 Brainstorming

Improving Creativity

• Improving creativity is a popular endeavor.

• A search of Google under Creative Methods yielded over 12 million hits!

• The following methods are aimed at improving the following characteristics of the problem solver:

▫ Sensitivity: The ability to recognize that a problem exists.

▫ Fluency: The ability to produce a large number of alternative solutions.

▫ Flexibility: The ability to develop a wide range of approaches to a problem.

▫ Originality: The ability to produce original solutions to a problem.


3.2.1 Brainstorming

Brainstorming

• Brainstorming is the most common method used by design teams for generating ideas.

• The word brainstorming has come into general usage in the language to denote any kind of idea generation.

• Brainstorming is a carefully orchestrated process.

• A well-done brainstorming session is an enthusiastic session of rapid, free-flowing ideas.

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3.2.1 Brainstorming

SCAMPER Checklist to Aid in Brainstorming


3.2.1 Brainstorming

Refinement and Evaluation of Ideas

• The objective of creative idea evaluation is not to winnow down the set of ideas into a single or very small number of solutions.

• The primary purpose of the refinement and evaluation step in concept generation is the identification of creative, feasible, yet still practical ideas.

• A quick way of sorting ideas:

▫ Ideas that are feasible as they stand.

▫ Ideas that may have potential after more thought or research are applied.

▫ Ideas that are very unfeasible and have no chance of becoming good solutions.


3.2.1 Brainstorming

Idea Generating Techniques Beyond Brainstorming

• Six Key Questions:Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?

• Five Whys:▫ Why has the machine stopped?– A fuse blew because the fan

overloaded.▫ Why was there an overload?– Inadequate lubrication for

bearings. ▫ Why wasn’t there enough lubrication?– The pump stopped

working.▫ Why wasn’t the pump working?– Pump shaft vibration caused

by abrasion wear.▫ Why was there abrasion? – No filter on lube pump, allowing

debris to enter the system• Checklists• Fantasy or Wishful Thinking


3.2.1 Brainstorming

Concept Map

• A very useful tool for the generation of ideas by association, and for organizing information in preparation for writing a report, is the concept map.

• A concept map is good for generating and recording ideas during brainstorming.

• The team is asked to locate the main problem at the center of a large sheet of a paper and then:

▫ Write down team-generated thoughts surrounding the central problem label.

▫ Underline or circle them and connect them to the central focus.

▫ Use an arrow to show which issue drives what.

▫ Create new major branches of concepts to represent major subtopics.

▫ If the process develops a secondary or separate map, label it and connect it to the rest of the map.

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3.2.1 Brainstorming

Concept Map for the Recycling of a Metal


3.2.2 Morphological Chart – Combine and firm up into concept

variants

Morphological Methods

• Morphological analysis is a method for representing and exploring all the relationships in multidimensional problems.

• The word morphology means the study of shape and form.

• Morphological analysis is a way of creating new forms.

• Morphological methods have been recorded in science as a way to enumerate and investigate solution alternatives as far back as the 1700s.

• Zwicky formalized the process of applying morphological methods to design in the mid-1960s with the publication of a text that was translated into English in 1969.



variants

Morphological Method for Design

• The general morphological approach to design is summarized in the following three steps:

▫ Divide the overall design problem into simpler subproblems.

▫ Generate solution concepts for each subproblem.

▫ Systematically combine subproblem solutions into different complete solutions and evaluate all combinations.



variants

Morphological Chart for Shot Buddy Basketball Return System

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145

List of required functions

in the system

List of alternative solutions

Function Structure to

Morphological Chart analysis

Functi

on S

tructu

reM

orp

holo

gic

al Chart



variants

Sketch of Shot-Buddy Concept

Adapted from J. Davis, J. Decker, J. Maresco, S. McBee, S. Phillips, and R. Quinn, “JSR Design Final Report: Shot-Buddy,”

unpublished, ENME 472, University of Maryland, May 2010.

Class activity/discussion/assignment

Discuss in a group project and use the group project as a case study in this activity:

• Please construct a Function Structure

• Based on the Function Structure, form a table of Morphological Chart to generate the alternative solutions

(30 minutes)

147 148BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN

3.3 Concept Analyzing – Feasibility of the concept generated

Concept Generation & Selection

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3.3 Concept Analyzing – Feasibility of the concept generated

Requirements for Selecting a Design

1) A set of design selection criteria

2) A set of alternatives believed to satisfy the set of criteria

3) A means to evaluate the design alternatives with respect to each criterion


3.4 Concept Evaluation

Evaluate & Select Concept Stage in PDP



Behavioral Aspects of Decision Making

• Behavioral psychology provides an understanding of the influence of risk taking in individuals and teams.

• Making a decision is a stressful situation for most people because there is no way to be certain about the information about the past or the predictions of the future.

• This psychological stress arises from at least two sources:

▫ Decision makers are concerned about the material and social losses that will result from either course of action that is chosen.

▫ They recognize that their reputations and self-esteem as competent decision makers are at stake.



Challenges of Decision Making

• Unconflicted adherence:

▫ Decide to continue with current action and ignore information about risk of losses.

• Unconflicted change:

▫ Uncritically adopt whichever course of action is most strongly recommended.

• Defensive avoidance:

▫ Evade conflict by procrastinating, shifting responsibility to someone else, and remaining inattentive to corrective information.

• Hypervigilance:

▫ Search frantically for an immediate problem solution.

• Vigilance:

▫ Search painstakingly for relevant information that is assimilated in an unbiased manner and appraised carefully before a decision is made.

All of the above except the last one are defective!

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List of Steps to Make a Good Decision

• The objectives of a decision must be established first.

• The objectives are classified as to importance.

• Alternative actions are developed.

• The alternatives are evaluated against the objectives.

• The choice of the alternative that holds the best promise of achieving all of the objectives represents the tentative decision.

• The tentative decision is explored for future possible adverse consequences.

• The effects of the final decision are controlled by taking other actions to prevent possible adverse consequences from becoming problems and by making sure that the actions decided on are carried out.



Concept Generation and Evaluation



Shot Buddy Concept Generation

Adapted from J. Davis, J. Decker, J. Maresco, S. McBee, S. Phillips, and R. Quinn, “JSR Design Final Report: Shot-Buddy,” unpublished, ENME 472, University of Maryland, May 2010.



Design Selection Based on Absolute Criteria

• Evaluation based on judgment of functional feasibility of the design

▫ Concepts should be placed into one of the followings:

Feasible

Not Feasible

Will Work

• Evaluation based on assessment of technology readiness

▫ Product design is not the appropriate place to do R&D.

• Evaluation based on go/no-go screening of the constraints and threshold levels of engineering characteristics

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Measurement Scale

• Rating a design parameter of several alternative designs is a measurement process.

• Various scales of measurement:

▫ Nominal Scale – data defined by named categories

▫ Ordinal Scale – data is placed in rank order (1st, 2nd, … nth)

▫ Interval Scale – data arranged in numerical order without a “zero” point

▫ Ratio Scale – data arranged on an interval scale

Standard arithmetic operations are only valid for a ratio scale

Addition and subtractions are valid on an interval scale


3.4.1 Evaluation Matrix – Weighted Rating Method and Pugh’s

Method

Pugh Chart

• A particularly useful method for identifying the most promising design concepts among the alternatives generated at is the Pugh chart.

• Pugh’s method compares each concept relative to a reference or datum concept and for each criterion determines whether the concept in question is better than, poorer than, or about the same as the reference concept.

• Pugh Chart is a relative comparison technique.



Method

Steps of Building the Pugh Chart

1) Choose the criteria by which the concepts will be evaluated

2) Formulate the decision matrix

3) Clarify the design concepts

4) Choose the datum (benchmark) concept

5) Complete the matrix entries

6) Evaluate the ratings

7) Establish a new datum and rerun the matrix

8) Examine the selected concept for improvement opportunities



Method

Pugh Chart 1 for Shot-Buddy Example (s=same)

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Method

Pugh Chart 2 for Shot-Buddy Example



Method

Weighted Decision Matrix

• A decision matrix is a method of evaluating competing concepts by ranking the design criteria with weighting factors and scoring the degree to which each design concept meets the criterion.

• To do this it is necessary to convert the values obtained for different design criteria into a consistent set of values.

• The simplest way of dealing with design criteria expressed in a variety of ways is to use a point scale.



Method

Evaluation Scheme for Design Alternatives or Objectives



Method

Systematic Methods for Determining Weighted Factors

• Direct Assignment:

▫ This method is only recommended for design teams where there are many years of experience designing the same product line.

• Objective Tree:

▫ This method relies on some experience with the importance of the criteria in the design process.

• Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) –goal ,criteria, alternative:

▫ This method is the least arbitrary method for determining weighting factors.

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Method

Weighted Decision Matrix: Steel Crane Hook

Class activity/discussion/assignment

Discuss in a group project and use the group project as a case study in this activity:

• Generate a number of solutions (sketch at least three combinations)

• Based on the listed combinations, select the best combination using Weighted Decision Matrix approach

(30 minutes)

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Lecture 4:

Embodiment Design


4.0 Embodiment Design

Embodiment Design in PDP

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4.0 Embodiment Design - Introduction

• We have divided the embodiment phase of design lectures into three groups of:

▫ Product Architecture:

Arranging the physical elements of a design in order to carry out it’s functions

Setting the arrangement of the physical elements of the design into groupings, called modules.

▫ Configuration Design:

The design of special-purpose parts and the selection of standard components, like pumps or motors.

▫ Parametric Design:

Determining the exact values, dimensions, or tolerances of the components or component features that are deemed critical-to-quality.


4.1 Product Architecture

Product Architecture

• Product architecture is the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to carry out its required functions.

• A product’s architecture is related to its function structure, but it does not have to match it.

• A product’s architecture is selected to establish the best system for functional success once a design concept has been chosen.

• There are two entirely opposite styles of product architecture:

▫ modular

▫ integral



Integral Architecture

• In an integral architecture the implementation of functions is accomplished by only one or a few modules.

• In integral product architectures, components perform multiple functions.

• When a component provides more than one function it enables function sharing.

• Product architecture has strong implications for manufacturing costs.



Modular Architecture

• A modular architecture makes it easier to evolve a design over time.

• The product can be adapted to the needs of different customers by adding or deleting modules.

• Modular design may even be carried to the point of using the same set of basic components in multiple products, creating a product family.

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Types of Modular Architectures

• Slot-modular: Each of the interfaces between modules is of a different type from the others.

• Bus-modular: The modules can be assembled along a common interface, or bus.

• Sectional-modular: All interfaces are of the common type, but there is no single element to which the other chunks attach.



Components Functional Elements



Components Functional Elements



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Four-Step Process for Establishing Product Architecture

• Ulrich and Eppinger propose a four-step process for establishing product architecture:

▫ Create a schematic diagram of the product

▫ Cluster the elements of the schematic

▫ Create a rough geometric layout

▫ Identify the interactions between modules



Schematic Diagram: Shot-Buddy Example Showing Flows




Schematic Diagram: Shot-Buddy Example Clustered into Modules




Geometric Layout: Shot-Buddy Example


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Define Interactions & Determine Performance Characteristics

• The most critical task in determining a product’s architecture is accurately modeling the interactions between the modules and setting the performance characteristics for the modules.

• Function happens primarily at the interfaces between modules, and unless modules are carefully thought out, complexity can build up at these interfaces.

• The most critical items in the module description are the descriptions of the interfaces and the modeling of interactions between neighboring modules.



Documentation of Module

• The documentation on each module should include:

▫ Functional requirements

▫ Drawings or sketches of the module and its component parts

▫ Preliminary component selection for the module

▫ Detailed description of placement within the product

▫ Detailed descriptions of interfaces with neighboring modules

▫ Accurate models for expected interactions with neighboring modules



Interactions Between Component Modules

• There are four types of interactions possible between component modules:

▫ Spatial interactions describe physical interfaces between modules.

▫ Energy flows between modules represent another important type of interaction.

▫ Information flow between modules often takes the form of signals to control the product’s operation or feedback relative to that operation.

▫ Material can flow between product modules if that is an element of the product’s functionality.



Establishing Product Architecture

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4.2 Configuration Design

Configuration Design

• In configuration design we establish the shape and general dimensions of components.

• Exact dimensions and tolerances are established in parametric design.

• The term component is used in the generic sense to include special-purpose parts, standard parts, and standard assemblies.

• A part is characterized by its geometric features such as holes, slots, walls, ribs, projections, fillets, and chamfers.

• The arrangement of features includes both the location and orientation of the geometric features



Terms Used in Configuration Design

• A standard part is one that has a generic function and is manufactured routinely without regard to a particular product.▫ Bolts, Washers, Rivets, and I-beams.

• A special-purpose part is designed and manufactured for a specific purpose in a specific product line.

• An assembly is a collection of two or more parts.• A subassembly is an assembly that is included within another

assembly or subassembly.

• A standard assembly is an assembly or subassembly that has a generic function and is manufactured routinely.▫ Electric motors, Pumps, Gearboxes.



Possible Configurations of Features

• Four possible configurations of features for a right-angle bracket:



Interrelationship between Function and Form


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Starting Steps for Configuration Design

• Review the product design specification and any specificationsdeveloped for the particular subassembly to which the componentbelongs.

• Establish the spatial constraints that pertain to the product or thesubassembly being designed.

• Create and refine the interfaces or connections betweencomponents.

• Before spending much time on the design, answer the followingquestions: Can the part be eliminated or combined with anotherpart?

• Can a standard part or subassembly be used?



Progression of a

Design Configuration



Activities of Configuration Design

• Refining is a natural activity as we move through the design process inwhich we develop more specificity about the object as we move from anabstract to a highly detailed description.

• Patching is the activity of changing a design without changing its level ofabstraction.

• Substituting looks for other concepts, components, or features that willwork in place of the current idea.

• Combining aims to make one component replace multiple components orserve multiple functions.

• Decomposing is the opposite approach from combining.

• Magnifying involves making some feature of a component larger relative toadjacent components.

• Minifying involves making some feature of a component smaller.

• Rearranging involves reconfiguring the components or their features.



Analyzing and Evaluating Configuration Designs

• The first step in analyzing the configuration design of a part is thedegree to which it satisfies the functional requirement and productdesign specification (PDS).

• Alternative configuration designs of a part should be evaluated atthe same level of abstraction.

• The analysis used for this decision is fairly rudimentary, because theobjective at this stage is to select the best of several possibleconfigurations.

• A body of guidelines that result in best practice for design formanufacture and design for assembly have been developed to assistdesigners in this area.

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Typical Design

For Function



Best Practices for Configuration Design

• Clarity of function pertains to an unambiguous relationshipbetween the various functions and the appropriate inputs andoutputs of energy, material, and information flow.

• Simplicity refers to a design that is not complex and is easilyunderstood and readily produced.

• Safety should be guaranteed by direct design, not by secondarymethods such as guards or warning labels.

• Minimal impact on the environment is of growing important, andshould be listed as a fourth basic guideline.


4.3 Parametric Design

• In configuration design the emphasis was on starting with the productarchitecture and then working out the best form of each component.

• Qualitative reasoning about physical principles and manufacturingprocesses played a major role.

• In parametric design the attributes of components identified duringconfiguration design become the design variables for parametricdesign.

• A design variable is an attribute of a part whose value is under thecontrol of the designer.

• This aspect of design is much more analytical than conceptual orconfiguration design.

• The objective of parametric design is to set values for the designvariables that will produce the best possible design considering bothperformance and cost.


4.3 Parametric Design

Systematic Steps in Parametric Design

• Step 1: Formulate the parametric designproblem.

• Step 2: Generate alternative designs.

• Step 3: Analyze the alternative designs.

• Step 4: Evaluate the results of the analyses.

• Step 5: Refine/Optimize.

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4.3.1 Parametric Design Problem – Component and Failure

Analysis

Parametric Design Example:

Helical Coil Compression Spring


4.3.1 Parametric Design Problem – Component and Failure

Analysis

Details of the

Spring


4.3.2 Design for X – Failure and Safety

Design for X (DFX)

• The terminology to describe a design methodologybecame known as Design for X, where X represents aperformance measure of design, as in:▫ Design for Manufacture (DFM)▫ Design for Assembly (DFA)

▫ Design for the Environment (DFE)

• The development of the DFX methodologies was accelerated bythe growing emphasis on concurrent engineering.

• Today, design improvement goals are often labeled, “Design forX,”



Steps of DFX Strategy

• Determine the issue (X) targeted for consideration

• Determine where to place your focus.

• Identify methods for measuring the C characteristicsand techniques to improve them.

• The DFX strategy is implemented by insisting theproduct development team focus on the X and byusing parametric measurements and improvementtechniques as early in the design process as possible.

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Design for Manufacturing(DFM) and Design For Assembly(DFA)

• It is imperative that during embodiment design decisionsconcerning shape, dimensions, and tolerances be closelyintegrated with manufacturing and assembly decisions.

• This is achieved by having a member of the manufacturing staffas part of the design team.

• Generalized DFM and DFA guidelines have been developed.• Many companies have specific guidelines in their design

manuals.• The reason for the strong emphasis on DFM/DFA is the

realization by U.S. manufacturers in the 1980s thatmanufacturing needs to be linked with design to producequality and cost-effective designs.



Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA)

• A failure is any aspect of the design ormanufacturing process that renders acomponent, assembly, or system incapable ofperforming its intended function.

• FMEA is a methodology for determining allpossible ways that components can fail andestablishing the effect of failure on the system.

• FMEA analysis is routinely performed duringembodiment design.



Design for Reliability and Safety• Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a

component or system to operate without interruptionof service or failure in the service environment.

• Durability is the amount of use that a person gets outof a product before it deteriorates.(it is a measure ofthe product lifetime)

• Safety involves designing products tat will not injurepeople or damage property.

• A safe design is one that instills confidence in thecustomer and does not incur product liability costs.



Design for Quality and Robustness• Achieving a quality design places great emphasis on

understanding the needs and wants of the customer.• In the 1980s there was the realization that the only way to

ensure quality products is to design quality into the product,as opposed to the then-current thinking that quality productswere produced by careful inspection of the output of themanufacturing process.

• A robust design is one whose performance in insensitive tovariations in the manufacturing process by which is has beenmade or in the environment in which it operates.

• The methods used to achieve robustness are termed robustdesign, which are mostly the work of Genichi Taguchi.

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4.3.3 Material Selection

Interrelations of Design, Materials, and Processing to Produce a Product



Relation of Materials Selection to Design

• An incorrectly chosen material can lead not only to partfailure but also to excessive life-cycle cost.

• At the concept level of design, essentially all materialsand processes are considered in broad detail.

• The materials selection charts and methodologydeveloped by Ashby are highly appropriate at this stage.

• Depending on the importance of the part, materialsproperties may need to be known to a high level ofprecision.

• Material and process selection is a progressive process ofnarrowing from a large universe of possibilities to aspecific material and process.



General Criteria for Selection

• Materials are selected on the basis for four general criteria:

▫ Performance characteristics (properties)

▫ Processing (manufacturing) characteristics

▫ Environmental profile

▫ Business consideration



Materials Selection for a New Product or New Design

1) Define the functions that the design must perform and translate these into required materials properties.

2) Define the manufacturing parameters. 3) Compare the needed properties and parameters

against a large materials property database. 4) Investigate the candidate materials in more details,

particularly for trade-offs in produce performance, cost, fabricabiltiy, and availability in the grades and sizes.

5) Develop design data and/or a design specification.

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Material Substitution in an Existing Design

1) Characterize the currently used material in terms of performance, manufacturing requirements, and cost.

2) Determine which properties must be improved for enhances product function.

3) Search for alternative materials and/or manufacturing routes.

4) Compile a short list of materials and processing routes, and use these to estimate the costs of manufactured parts.

5) Evaluate the results of step 4 and make a recommendation for a replacement material.



Two Different Approached to Materials Selection

• There are two approaches to settling on the material-process combination for a part:▫ Material-first approach▫ Process-first approach

• In the material-first approach, the designer begins by selecting a material class and narrowing it down as described previously.

• With the process-first approach, the designer begins by selecting the manufacturing process, guided by the same factors.


4.3.4 Ergonomic Consideration

Human Factors Design• Human factors is the study of the interaction between people,

the products and systems they use, and the environments in which they work and live.

• This field also is described by the terms human factors engineering and ergonomics.

• Human factors design applies information about human characteristics to the creation of objects, facilities, and environments that people use.

• Human factors expertise is found in industrial designers, who focus on ease of use of products, and in industrial

• engineers, who focus on design of production systems for productivity.



Human Physical Effort• Measurement of the physical effort that a man could

perform in the manual handling of materials (shoveling coal) and supplies was one of the first studies made in human factors engineering.

Correspondence Between Human Factors Characteristics & Product Performance

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Sensory Input• The human senses of sight, touch, hearing, taste,

and smell are chiefly used for purposes of controlling devices or systems.

• In selecting visual displays remember that individuals differ in their ability to see, so provide sufficient illumination.

• Different types of visual displays differ in their ability to provide on-off information, or exact values and rate of change information.



Types of Visual Displays




Characteristics of Common Visual Displays

Adapted from D. Ullman, The Mechanical Design Process, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2010.



User-Friendly Design• Simplify Tasks • Make the controls and their functions obvious• Make controls easy to use• Match the intentions of the human with the actions

required by the system• Use mapping• Displays should be clear, visible, large enough to

ready easily, and consistent in direction• Provide feedback • Utilize constraints to prevent incorrect action• Standardize

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Design for Serviceability

• Serviceability is concerned with the ease with which maintenance can be performed on a product.

• There are two general classes of maintenance:▫ Preventive maintenance is routine service required

to prevent operating failures, such as changing the oil in your car.

▫ Breakdown maintenance is the service that must take place after some failure or decline in function has occurred.



Design for Packaging• Packaging is related to visual aesthetics because

attractive, distinctive product packaging is typically used to attract customers and to identify product brands.

• Packaging provides physical protection against mechanical shock, vibration, and extreme temperatures in shipping and storage.

• Different packaging is required for liquids, gases and powders than for solid objects.

• A shipping package provides information about the recipient, tracking information, instructions regarding hazardous materials, and disposal.


4.3.5 Published Standards

SIRIM QAS

standard…??????

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DEPARTMENT OF MATERIAL AND DESIGN ENGINEERINGFACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERINGUNIVERSITI TUN HUSSEIN ONN MALAYSIA

BDA40203 / BDA40804 – ENGINEERING DESIGN

4.3.6 Other Analyses including Experimental Analysis

Such as……………???

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Lecture 5:

Detail Design


5.0 Detail Design

Detail Design in PDP


5.0 Detail Design

Detail Design• Detail design is the phase where all of the details are

brought together, all decisions are finalized, and a decision is made by management to release the design for production.

• Detail design is the lowest level in the hierarchy of design abstraction.

• Detail design is a very specific and concrete activity. • Poor detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept

and lead to manufacturing defects, high costs, and poor reliability in service.


5.1 Final Product Specification

Chief Activities of Detail Design

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Make/Buy Decision

• This type of decision will be made chiefly on the basis of cost and manufacturing capacity, with due consideration given to issues of quality and reliability of delivery of components.

• The decision to manufacture a critical component in-house is based solely on the need to protect trade secrets concerned with a critical manufacturing process.

• An important reason for making this decision early is so you can bring the supplier into the design effort as an extended team member.



Complete the Selection and Sizing of Components

• It is necessary to complete these activities before the design can be complete.

• If the product design is at all complex, it most likely will be necessary to impose a design freeze at some point prior to completion. ▫ Design Freeze: Beyond a certain point in time no changes to

the design will be permitted unless they go through a formal review by a design control board.

• With a design freeze, only those last-minute changes that truly affect performance, safety, or cost are approved.



Complete Engineering Drawings

• A major task in the detail design phase is to complete the engineering drawings.

• Drawings of individual parts are usually called detail drawings.

• Detail drawings show the geometric features, dimensions, and tolerances of the parts.

• Assembly drawings show how the parts are put together to create the product or system.



Complete the Bill of Materials

• The bill of materials (BOM) or parts list is a list of each individual component in the product.

• BOM is used in planning for manufacture and in determining the best estimate product cost.

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Revise the Product Design Specification

• In detail design the PDS should be updated to include all current requirements that the design must meet.

• There is difference between the part specification and the product design specification.

• For individual parts the drawing and the specification are often the same document.

• When a part specification is issued it contains information on:

✓ Technical performance part ✓ Dimensions✓ Test requirements✓ Materials requirements✓ Reliability requirement

✓ Design life✓ Packaging requirement✓ Marking for shipment



Complete Verification Prototype Testing

• Once the design is finalized, a beta-prototype is built and verification tested to ensure that the design meets the PDS and that it is safe and reliable.▫ Beta-Prototype: It is made with the same materials and

manufacturing processes as the product but not necessarily from the actual production line.

• Depending on the complexity of the product, the verification testing may simply be to run the product during an expected duty cycle and under overload conditions, or it may be a series of statistically planned tests.



Final Cost Estimate• The detail drawings allow the determination of final

cost estimates, since knowledge of the material, the dimensions, tolerances, and finish of each part are needed to determine manufacturing cost.

• Cost analysis also needs specific information about the particular machines and process steps that will be used to make each part.

• Note: Cost estimates will have been made at each step of the product design process with successively smaller margins for error.


5.2 Detail Drawings

Engineering Drawings• The information on a detail drawing includes:

▫ Standard view of orthogonal projection

▫ Auxiliary views▫ Dimensions

▫ Tolerances▫ Material specification

▫ Manufacturing details

• Design layouts show the spatial relationships of all components in the assembled product (the system).

• Assembly drawings are created in detail design as tools for passing design intent to the production department.

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5.2 Detail Drawings

Detail Drawing of a Lever


5.2 Detail Drawings

Exploded Assembly Drawing:Gear Reducer


5.3 Product Analytical Simulation by CAE Software

CAE and CAD• Computer-aided engineering (CAE) has had an

important and growing influence on:

▫ reducing the product design cycle time

▫ improving the quality of the product

▫ decreasing manufacturing cost

• Computer-aided design (CAD) has saved countless hours of redrawing details.

• The ability to store standard details in a CAD system for retrieval when needed saves much drafting labor.



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5.4 Bill of Materials (BOM)

Bill of Material (BOM)

ASM Handbook, vol. 20, p. 228, ASM International.

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5.5 Manufacturing Processes

Role of Manufacturing in Design

• Producing the design is a critical link in the chain of events that starts with a creative idea and ends with a successful product in the marketplace.

• There is confusion of terminology concerning the engineering function called manufacturing.

• A serious problem facing manufacturing companies has been the tendency to separate the design and manufacturing functions into different organizational units.

• The need to break down barriers between design and manufacturing is widely recognized today.



Types of Manufacturing Processes

• Primary Processes:▫ Take raw materials and create a shape.

• Secondary Processes:▫ Modify shape by adding features such as keyways,

screw threads, and grooves.

• Finishing Processes:▫ Produce the final appearance and feel of a product by

processes such as coating, painting, or polishing.



Brief Description of the Classes of Manufacturing Processes

• Casting Processes:▫ Molted liquid is poured into a mold and solidified into a shape

defined by the contours of the mold.• Polymer processing(molding):

▫ The wise use of polymers has brought about the development of processes tailored to their high viscosity.

• Deformation Processes:▫ A material, usually metal, is plastically deformed (hot or cold) to

give it improved properties and change its shape.• Power processing:

▫ This rapidly developing manufacturing area involves the consolidation of particles of metal, ceramics, or polymers by pressing and sintering, hot compaction, or plastic deformation.



Brief Description of the Classes of Manufacturing Processes (2)

• Material removal or cutting processes:▫ Material is removed from a workpiece with a hard, sharp tool by a

variety of methods such as turning, milling, etc.• Joining processing:

▫ Included in joining processing are all categories of welding, brazing, soldering, etc.

• Heat treatment and surface treatment:▫ This category includes the improvement of mechanical properties

by thermal heat treatment processes as well as the improvement of surface properties by diffusion processes like carburizing .

• Assembly Processes:▫ A number of parts are brought together and combined into a

subassembly or finished product.

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5.6 Final Design Review

• Many formal meetings or reviews will have preceded the final design review.

• These meetings include:▫ An initial product concept meeting to begin the

establishment of the PDS, ▫ A review at the end of conceptual design to decide

whether to proceed with full-scale product development

▫ A review after embodiment design to decide whether to move into detail design.

• The final design review results in a decision by management on whether the product design is ready for production.



Release Design to Manufacturing• The release of the product design to manufacturing ends

the main activity of the design personnel on that product.• The release may be done unconditionally, or under

pressure to introduce a new product it may be done conditionally.

• The increasing use of the concurrent engineering approach to minimize the product development time blurs the boundary between detail design and manufacturing.

• It is common to release the design to manufacturing in two or three “waves,” with those designs that have the longest lead time for designing and making tooling being released first.



Input Documents• The input for the review consists of documents such

as:▫ PDS▫ QFD analysis▫ Key technical analyses like FEA, CFD▫ FMEAs▫ Quality Plan▫ Testing plan and results of the verification tests▫ Detail and assembly drawings▫ Product specifications▫ Cost projections



Review Meeting Process & Output from Review

• The design review meeting should be formallystructured with a well-planned agenda.

• The final design review is more of an audit incontrast to the earlier reviews which are moremultifunctional problem-solving sessions.

• The output from the design review is a decisionas the whether the product is ready to release tothe manufacturing department.

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Lecture 6:

Prototyping and Case Studies of Product Development


6.1 Product Prototyping

Prototype & Model Testing Throughout the Design Process

• Phase Zero:▫ Product Concept Model

• Conceptual Design:▫ Proof-of Concept Prototype

• Embodiment Design:▫ Alpha-Prototype Testing

• Detail Design:▫ Beta-Prototype Testing

• Manufacturing:▫ Preproduction Prototype Testing



Typical Type of Test and Prototype1. Product concept test – a reduced scale or full scale model of a new

product or “product concept” is fabricated to look like the “finished” product. Usually, only exterior of the product is fabricated and shown, illustrating existing or newly improved features that compose the product concept. Usually are done early in the development cycle, to make sure that the product will have the right look, or appearance, and have the right combination of features.

2. Proof-of-concept tests – built to prove that it will function or perform according to the function concept or the physical principles and abstract embodiment that were selected. Benchtop, pilot-plant, and /or laboratory experiment are performed to prove that the working principle will work in the final product.

3. Virtual prototype tests – prototyping or modeling inside computer memory as a virtual prototype using computer aided design packages. It is often used to develop the form of a part and examine and/or potential interference of parts in an assembly.



Typical Type of Test and Prototype – cont.4. Alpha prototype tests – a reduced scale or full scale part is prototyped

using the same geometric features, materials, and layout as the intended final assembly, but not usually prototyped using the same manufacturing processes that will be used in production line.

5. Beta prototype tests – a full scale, functional part or product is prototyped using materials and manufacturing processes that will be used in production. It can be tested at the company’s laboratories but are often tested by volunteers or potential customers in their home or work environment. Results from this test will be used to make the last remaining changes to the product, and to complete the production planning and initiate the production tooling.

6. Preproduction prototype tests – a full scale or product made and assembled with final materials and production like processes is tested. Thus, the tests are made on “finished” products similar to ones customers purchase. Results are used to make last minute revisions to the production tooling and assembly processes and to make minor design revisions to comply with state and federal codes.

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6.1.1 Process Involved

Rapid Prototyping

• Create a CAD model• Convert the CAD model to the

STL file format• Slice the STL file into thing

layers• Make the prototype• Post processing:

▫ Removing and cleaning any support structures.

R. Noorani, Rapid Prototyping, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2006, p. 37.



Rapid Prototyping by Stereolithography (SL)

J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000.



RP Processes• Stereolithography (SL):

▫ This process uses a UV laser beam to build up layers of solid polymer by scanning on the surface of a bath of photosensitive polymer.

• Selective laser sintering (SLS):▫ This process was developed to use stronger, higher-melting-temperature

materials than polymers in the RP process.

• Laminated Object Modeling (LOM):▫ This process is an older method that continues to have useful applications

because of the simplicity of the equipment that is needed.

• Fused-Deposition Modeling (DFM):▫ This process is an example of several liquid-state deposition processes used

to make prototypes.

• Three-dimensional Printing (3DP):▫ This process is a RP process that is based on the principle of the inkjet

printer.


6.1.2 Prototype Product

Student Made Prototypes

Injection Molded Part

Paper Prototype Made by LOM

Plastic Prototype Made by DFM

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6.2 Testing Requirement and Checklist

Product and Part Testing• Product and part tests can be separated into three major

categories:1. Form test – relate to its overall appearance, including shape

and relative size.Will the part and/or product have an acceptable appearance? Housing appear old fashioned to the customer? Customer be satisfied with the overall size?

2. Fit test – relate to how precisely the parts are fabricated and how well they fit together in the assembly, or how they fit the user.Will the parts fit together and also fit the user, with an acceptable precision? Product have a good ”feel” in the hands of user?

3. Function test – product must function, or perform as expected, last long time, and be easy to maintain.Will the part and/or product performs as required? New product work at extreme temperatures and humidity? Finished product meet industry mandated safety tests?


6.2 Testing Requirement and Checklist

Product Development Tests

• Most of the questions regarding form, fit and function can be

tested at earlier phases in the development cycle, before the final product rolls off the production line.

• For example, we can test appearance of a product by showing customers a reduced-size scale model, made of clay or balsa wood.

• Prototype may be reduced scale, expanded scale, or full scale representing the part.

• Prototypes may be made of materials similar to or exactly like the intended product.

• Effective development team will use the right type of prototype, to test critical aspects at right time, thereby saving the company more time and money.


6.3 Refinement: Building Traditional Prototypes

• Example:

1. Clay models pf new auto-body styles,

2. Wood models of heavy equipment patterns for metal castings.

3. Machine metal airplane wings for function testing in a wind tunnel,

4. Reduced scale balsa wood models of large facilities, to examine equipment layout.

• The choice of materials and fabrication method will largely

depend on:

1. Shape-generating compatibility – can the material be formed into needed geometric features to adequately represent the part?

2. Function testing validity – are the material properties representative or scalable can be validly tested when the part is reduced (or expanded) in size?

3. Fabrication costs – will the prototype costs for materials and labor be acceptable?

4. Fabrication time – how long will it take to fabricate the original and one more duplicates?


6.3 Refinement: Testing Prototypes

Successful companies plan and conduct tests to validate form, fit, and function, to ensure that any design is economically and technically successful.

1. Specific Tests – Prototype evaluations often include specific

tests for mechanical modes of failure, manufacturability,

operation/maintenance, safety, and environmental protection.

2. Test Plans – a description of the type of tests to be performed, the timing when they are to be completed, and the resources

to be expanded.

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6.4 Final Prototype Product

Basic components in a test plan document

1. Objectives – a list of items to be tested and the purposes for which the tests are being conducted. It covers what is being done for whom and why. It should be written with specificity, measurable, realistic, and timely.

2. Workscope – a narrative description of the work tasks to be performed, including the type of tests, test descriptions, experimental setup, experimental controls, design of experiments test matrix, and list of deliverables.

3. Budget – a tally of the resources to be expanded, including items such as number of hours by task, cost per hour, materials to be consumed, equipment rental costs, and total costs.

4. Schedule – a chart that shows when each major task begins and ends, with major milestones indicated.


6.5 Case Study of Product Development

Refer to “CHAPTER 6 - Case Study of Product Development.doc”


Lecture 7:

Sustainability and Environment Consideration in Engineering Design


7.1 Sustainability: Introduction

Sustain: to “maintain", "support", or "endure”. However, since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability.

What sustainability is, what its goals should be, and how these

goals are to be achieved are all open to interpretation.

Sustainability is improving the quality of human life while living

within the carrying capacity of supporting eco-systems.

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7.1 Sustainability

• Sustainability is a term that has come into popular culture as a characteristic of national fiscal policy, personal budgetary policy, and environmental policy.

• A formal definition of sustainable development was established by a report titled “Our Common Future”:

▫ Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.


7.1 Sustainability

WCED Report on Sustainability• Critical objectives for environment and development

policies that follow from the concept of sustainable development include: ▫ Revive growth in an economic sense▫ Change the quality of growth▫ Meet essential needs for jobs, food, energy, water, and

sanitation▫ Ensure a sustainable level of population▫ Conserve and enhance the resource base▫ Reorient technology and manage risk▫ Merge environment and economics in decision making


7.1 Sustainability

Twenty Years After the WCED Report on Sustainability

• Changes in indicators of global sustainability are as follows:

▫ World population growth rate is now 1.2% rather than 1.7%

▫ Malnutrition has increased

▫ HIV/AIDS cases have increased from 10M to 40M

▫ CO2 atmospheric concentration has increased from 325 ppm to 285 ppm at an accelerating rate


7.2 Three Elements of Sustainability

Three elements of sustainability:1. Social - which requires that the cohesion of society and its ability

to work towards common goals be maintained. Individual needs, such as those for health and well-being, nutrition, shelter, education and cultural expression should be met.

2. Economy - which occurs when development, which moves towards social and environmental sustainability, is financially feasible.

3. Environment - which requires that natural capital remains intact. This means that the source and sink functions of the environment should not be degraded. Therefore, the extraction of renewable resources should not exceed the rate at which they are renewed, and the absorptive capacity to the environment to assimilate wastes should not be exceeded. Furthermore, the extraction of non-renewable resources should be minimized and should not exceed agreed minimum strategic levels.

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• Environment✓Ecological Land-Use: Connected Wildlands (Core

Reserves, Wildlife Corridors, Buffer Zones), Productive Rural Areas (Sustainable Agriculture, Sustainable Forestry, Sustainable Fisheries, Ecotourism), Compact Towns And Cities (Human-Scale Neighborhoods, Green Building, Transit Access, Ecological Infrastructure, Urban Growth Boundaries)

✓Ecosystem Services: Watershed Services, Soil Services, Climate Services, Biodiversity

• Social✓Fundamental Needs: Subsistence Rights, Shelter

For All, Health, Access To Knowledge✓Community: Social Equity, Security, Cultural

Diversity, Cultural Preservation, Sense Of Place, Beauty And Play, Just Transitions, Civic Society



• Economic✓Household Economies✓Green Business: Long-Term Profitability,

Community Benefit, Green Procurement, Renewable Energy, Sustainable Materials Cycles, Resource Efficiency, Waste As Resource, Product As Service

✓Local Economies: Value-Added Production, Rural-Urban Linkages, Local Assets

✓Bioregional Economies: Fair Trade, True Cost Pricing, Product Labeling


7.2 Three Elements of

Sustainability:

How Each Element Interact With Each Other

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7.3 Social Element

• Sustainability issues are generally expressed in scientific and environmental terms, as well as in ethical terms of stewardship, but implementing change is a social challenge that entails, among other things, international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism.


7.4 Economy Element

• On one account, sustainability "concerns the specification of a set of actions to be taken by present persons that will not diminish the prospects of future persons to enjoy levels of consumption, wealth, utility, or welfare comparable to those enjoyed by present persons.

• Environmental factor will affect the economical factor. For instance, environmental problem borne natural disaster such as earthquake and tsunami will brought a lot of damage not only to nature but also to properties, and human life as well. This damage and destruction will cause millions of dollar to recover.


7.5 Environmental Element

• Environment Management✓Atmosphere✓ Freshwater and oceans✓ Land use

• Management of human consumption✓Energy✓Water✓ Food✓Materials, toxic substances, waste


7.5 Environmental Element:Environmental Concerns in Product Design

1. Minimizing emissions and waste in the manufacturing process.

2. Looking at all the ways that the product negatively impacts the environment. A polluting product is a defective product.

3. Looking at ways to increase the useful life of the product, thereby prolonging the time when new material and energy resources need to be committed to a replacement product.

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7.5 Environmental Element: Carbon Payback Time (CPBT)

• If one is considering an energy saving measure or a renewable energy source, it is of interest to know, what the CO2 payback period is, not only in terms of dollars, but the CO2 that may have been emitted in creating the “green” measure.

• The energy aspect of the LCA is often expressed in terms of the energy/carbon payback time, the time the system has to operate to produce the amount of energy (or carbon reductions) required for its production.


7.5 Environmental Element: Example of CPBT Calculation

• To give some examples of CO2 payback period, let’s start with the much publicized compact fluorescent lamp (CFL).

• A CFL today sells for around $3. A 15 watt one can replace a 75 wattincandescent. Let’s assume a 5000 hour life. Over that time, the CFL will have saved 60 x 5000 = 300 kWh. Another assumption I make here is that 1 kWh of electricity produces 1 kg of CO2, the Australian average. So what’s the maximum CO2 that would have been produced in making the CFL? Let’s assume electricity is $0.15/kWh(using retail price of the CFL and retail price of electricity). At that price the CO2 cost of the lamp is 20kg CO2 ($3/$0.15) but over its life it will have saved 300 kg so the net benefit is 280 kg. The CO2

payback time is only about 2 weeks running time. The cost of CO2

saving is about $10/tonne.

5000 hours

? hours

300 kg

saved20 kg

produced20/300*5000=333.3 hours

333.3/24 (hours/day) = 13.9 days ≈ 2 weeks

Class activity

• Form into a group project

• Prepare an A4 paper and write down “Group Project Name” and “Project Title”

• Please discuss how will you plan to implement “Sustainability and Environment Consideration”

in your product development.

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Lecture 8:

Economic, Costing and Business Plan

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8.1 Introduction


8.2 Economic Decision Making

Introduction• One cannot escape the fact that economics may play a

role as big as, or bigger than, that of technical considerations in the decision making process of design.

• The major engineering infrastructure that built this nation required a methodology for predicting costs and balancing them against alternative courses of action.

• The methodology for handling this class of problems is known as engineering economy or engineering economic analysis.

• The chief concept in engineering economy is that money has a time value!


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Introduction• An engineering design is not complete until we have

a good idea of the cost required to build the design or manufacture the product.

• Understanding the elements that make up cost is vital because competition between companies and between nations is fiercer than ever.

• Decisions made in the design process commit 70 to 80 percent of the cost of a product.

• It is in the conceptual and embodiment design stages that a majority of the costs are locked into the product.


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Ways of Using Cost Estimates1. To provide information to establish the selling

price of a product or a quotation for a good or service.

2. To determine the most economical method, process, or material for manufacturing a product.

3. To become a basis for a cost-reduction program.4. To determine standards of production performance

that may be used to control costs.5. To provide input concerning the profitability of a

new product.

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

Categories of Costs: Variable and Fixed

• We can divide all costs into two broad categories:

▫ Product Costs (variable cost): are those costs that vary with each unit of product made.

Material cost and labor cost are good examples

▫ Period costs (fixed cost): derive their name from the fact that they occur over a

period of time regardless of the amount (volume) of product that is made or sold.


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Examples of Variable Costs

• Materials

• Direct labor

• Direct production supervision

• Maintenance costs

• Quality-control staff

• Intellectual property licenses

• Packaging and storage costs

• Scrap losses and spoilage


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Examples of Fixed Costs1. Indirect plant cost:

▫ Investment costs:1. Depreciation on capital investment2. Interest on capital investment and inventory

▫ Overhead costs (burden)1. Supervisors not directly associated with a specific product or

process.2. Utilities and telecommunications

2. Management and administrative expenses:▫ Share of cost of corporate executive staff▫ Legal and auditing services

3. Selling expenses:▫ Sales force▫ Delivery and warehouse costs


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Characterization of Costs: Direct and Indirect

• Another way of categorizing costs is by:

▫ Direct Cost: Direct labor, materials, manufacturing is one that can be directly associated with a particular

unit of product that is manufactured.

▫ Indirect Cost: Rent, Utilities, Office

cannot be easily identified with any particular product.

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

G&A Expenses

• Fixed costs such as:▫ marketing and sales costs, ▫ legal expense, ▫ security costs, ▫ Financial staff expense, ▫ administrative

These costs are often lumped into an overall category known as general and administrative expenses (G&A expenses).


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Terminology

• The chief cost elements of direct material, direct labor, and any other direct expenses determine the prime cost.

• Manufacturing costs such as light, power, maintenance, supplies, and factory indirect labor comprise the factory cost.

• The manufacturing cost is made up of the factory cost plus general fixed expenses such as depreciation, engineering, taxes, office staff, and purchasing.

• The total cost is the manufacturing cost plus the sales expense.

• The selling price is established by adding a profit to the total cost.


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Elements of Cost Establishing Selling Price


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Purchase Price

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

Total Cost of Ownership


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Total Manufacturing Cost for n Units


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Components Cost• Component costs can be divided into two categories:

▫ Cost of custom parts:

Made according to the company’s design from semi-finishedmaterials

▫ Cost of standard parts:

that are purchased from suppliers.

• Custom parts are made in the company’s own plants or outsourcedto suppliers.

• Standard parts comprise standard components like bearings,motors, electronic chips, and screws, but they also include OEMsubassemblies like diesel engines for trucks.


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Manufacturing Cost

• The cost for manufacturing a product consists of:

1. The costs of the parts, as defined by the parts drawings and the bill of materials for the product

2. The cost for assembling the parts into the product

3. Overhead costs

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

Overhead Cost


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Methods to Develop Cost Estimates

• The methods to develop cost evaluations fall into three categories:

1. Analogy

2. Parametric and factor methods

3. Methods engineering


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Analogy• In cost estimation by analogy, the future costs of a

project or design are based on past costs of a similar project or design, with due allowance for cost escalation and technical differences.

• The method requires a database of experience or published cost data.

• This method of cost evaluation commonly is used for feasibility studies of chemical plants, power plants and process equipment.

• A concern with determining cost by analogy is to be sure that costs are being evaluated on the same basis.


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Parametric and Factor Methods

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

Detailed Methods Costing• Once the detailed design is completed and the final detailed

drawings of the parts and assemblies have been prepared, it is possible to prepare a cost evaluation to ±5% accuracy.

• This approach is sometimes called methods analysis, process flow method, or the industrial engineering approach.

• At the outset of developing the cost estimate, the following information should be available:

▫ Total quantity of product to be produced▫ Schedule for production▫ Detailed drawings and/or CAD file▫ Bill of Materials (BOM)


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Steps to Determine Cost To Manufacture• Determine the material costs:

▫ Since the cost of material makes up 50 to 60 percent of the cost of many products, this is a good place to start.

• Prepare the operations route sheet:▫ The route sheet is a sequenced list of all operations required

to produce the part.• Determine the time required to carry out each operation:

▫ Whenever a new part is first made on a machine, there must be a setup period during which old tooling is taken out and new tooling is installed and adjusted.

• Convert time to cost:▫ The times for each element in each operation are added to

find the total time to complete each operation of the process. This time is multiplied by labor cost ($/hr).


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Cost Projections For A Consumer Product


8.3 Cost Evaluation

Trade-Off Studies• The four key objectives associated with developing a

new product are:

▫ Bringing the cost of the product under the agreed-upon target cost.

▫ Producing a quality product that exceeds the expectation of the customer.

▫ Conducting an efficient product development process that brings the product to market, on schedule.

▫ Completing the development process within the approved budget for the product.

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8.3 Cost Evaluation

Profit Improvement• Four strategies commonly used to achieve

increased profits are:

▫ Increased prices

▫ Increased sales

▫ Reduced cost of product sold

▫ Productivity improvement


8.4 Business Plan

• What is business plan?

▫ a formal statement of a set of business goals, the reasons why they are believed attainable, and the plan for reaching those goals. It may also contain background information about the organization or team attempting to reach those goals.

▫ A Written Plan Outlining : Your Vision / Objectives

How The Business Is To Be Managed To Achieve These Objectives

• Many franchise business people fail to prepare and implement effective business plans which reflect their personal franchising goal.

• Developing a good business plan will not only help a franchisor and franchisee to avoid pitfalls in their business but can also effectively position it for strong growth.


8.4 Business Plan

• A good business plan provides a strong, clear and practical road map for the success of a business. It is a tool which can be used as a guide to avoid making mistakes in managing the business and can also be used as reference material when there are prospects for expansion of the business.

• A good business plan should contain all the important and relevant information that investors and financial institutions would require to help set up the business.

• The key elements in a good business plan are:

1. Marketing Plan - i.e. an overview of the business, business model, information about customer base and effective marketing strategies and;

2. Management Plan - i.e. information about the key management team, their qualification and experience and an effective management structure. Integral to these is the financial projection which outlays capex, operating expenditure and a meaningful budget for at least five years.


8.4 Business Plan Why need for a Business Plan?

• To help the entrepreneur and/or the management of the business to conduct

research on their business and its prospects in a systematic manner before

starting the business

• To review the business idea/projects objectively for viability of the

business

• To identify weaknesses and challenges in the industry of the proposed

business and prepare the necessary plans and strategies to overcome it

• To provide a logical and practical framework within which the business

can be set up, developed and pursued, based on strategies to be

implemented over a three to five years period

• To serve as a proper reference point and basis for discussion with all

parties connected to the business, such as shareholders, prospective

investors and financial institutions

• To provide a benchmark against which actual performance of the

business can be measured and reviewed

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8.5 Five Essential Elements in Business Plan

5Cs of Credit

1. Character (personality)

2.Capital (fund)

3.Capacity (capability)

4.Conditions (environment)

5. Collateral (security)


8.6 Steps to Create Business Plan

What Should Your Business Plan Include?

1. An Introduction to Your Plan

2. Who You Are and What Your Business Does

3. Industry, Competitors and BusinessStrategy

4. Financials – Past, Present and Future

5. Other Supporting Documents



Introduction to Plan

• Financing Request

▫ Type

▫ Amount

▫ Purpose

▫ Repayment

• Reasons for Future Success

• Contact Details



Who You Are & What Your Business Does• Background & History

• Business & Product▫ A description of your product(s), pictures / samples

• Directors & Management Profile▫ Organisation Chart, Track Record

• Business Cycle▫ Your buyers and sellers

▫ The terms of your business dealings

• Production Process▫ The processes involved in producing your Product(s), Production Capacity,

Volume, etc.

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Industry, Competitors & Business Strategy

• Industry Overview▫ Describe the industry you operate in and how your business

fits in this industry

• Who Your Competitors Are• The Factors That Will Ensure Your Success – SWOT

analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Treats)• What Is Your Business Strategy

▫ Briefly describe your unique value proposition. For example, lower cost hence better value for money, your focus on niche markets allows your expertise to flourish, etc.

• Sales & Marketing Strategies



Financials – Past, Present & Future

• 3 Years’ Historical Audited Accounts

• Latest Management Accounts

• Future Projections – At Least 1 Year

• Bank Statements & Loan Statements

▫ Repayment Record

▫ Cashflow Management



Other Supporting Documents

• Memorandum & Articles (M&A) or Business Registration (Form A & D), Business License & Partnership Agreement

• Registrar of Companies (ROC) Forms▫ Form 9▫ Form 24▫ Form 49▫ Annual Return

• Creditors’ & Debtors’ Details & Ageing• Completed Contracts, Contracts In Hand• The Collateral (Guarantee) Offered


8.7 Examples of Business Plan

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Thank you and Good luck for your project!!!

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