Battle of Mactan

The Battle of Mactan - was fought in the Philippines on April 27, 1521. The warriors of Lapu-Lapu, a native chieftain of Mactan Island, defeated Spanish forces under the command of Ferdinand Magellan, who was killed in the battle.

Battle of Mactan Marks Start of Organized Filipino Resistance Vs. Foreign Aggression 

THE BATTLE OF MACTAN on April 27, 1521 marked the first organized resistance of the Filipinos against foreign invaders. Raha Lapu-Lapu, a chieftain of Mactan Island, defeated Spanish sailors under Portuguese sea captain and explorer Ferdinand Magellan.

After Magellan landed on the island of Homonhon on March 16, 1521, he parleyed with Rajah Calambu of Limasawa, who guided him to Cebu on April 7. Through Magellan’s interpreter, a Malay servant by the name of Enrique, Rajah Humabon of Cebu became an ally. Impressed by Magellan’s artillery (consisting of guns, swords, body armor, 12 cannons, and 50 cross-bows), Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula suggested to Magellan that they go to the nearby island of Mactan and punish Lapu-Lapu.

It is widely believed that Humabon and Lapu-Lapu bore grudges toward each other and were constantly fighting for control of land. Some historians say that Magellan went to Mactan to subdue Datu Lapu-Lapu who refused to pay tribute to the Spanish colonizers.

According to the accounts of Antonio Pigaffeta, Magellan’s voyage chronicler, the Portuguese sea captain deployed 48 armored men, less than half his crew, with swords, axes, shields, cross-bows and guns. Filipino historians note that because of the rocky outcroppings and coral near the beach, he could not land on Mactan. Forced to anchor far from shore, Magellan could not bring his ship’s firepower to bear on Lapu-Lapu’s warriors.

As the crew were retreating, Pigaffeta records that Magellan was surrounded by warriors. His crew had to wade through the surf to make landing, Pigaffeta narrates. Eight crewmen were killed. Pigafetta, the supernumerary on the voyage who later returned to Seville, Spain, records Lapu-Lapu had at least 1,500 native warriors in the battle.

Historians debate the accuracy of this report, of which the tone and exaggeration was questionable. His allies Rajah Humabon and Datu Zula were said not to have been part of the battle at all, and would have watched from a distance. Pigafetta says Magellan was wounded on the leg, while still on the surf, with a poison arrow or lance.

To date there is no official record of what happened, so no one knows the real story of how the firepower of the Spaniards was defeated by the native warriors of Lapu-Lapu.

The important of the Expedition

The most important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it led to active learning through exploration. It was about friendship and working together. It introduced cultural differences. And it was adventurous. But the important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it led to active learning through exploration.

The important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it set the stage for settlement of the West. It proceeded the Louisiana Purchase. It allowed different cultures to meet and get to know each other's ways and customs. And it took white exploreres on a discovery of many new geographic, plant and animal species. But the important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was it set the stage for settlement of the West.

The important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it looked scientifically and critically at an area of land that had not yet been explored. It established relationships with the people that lived in that area. It looked at how those people and their environments were related. And it opened a new chapter in American history. But the most important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it was an expedition and not a conquest like the Spanish did with the Aztecs and various other groups.

The important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it opened the land and discovered new cultures. It was a long, dangerous trip. It led to many discovieres, people, land, plants, animals, waterways, and trade. And it created history. But the important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was it led the way to the West.

The most important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was explorers found a waterway to the Pacific Ocean. It met the Nez Pearce Indians and Sacagawea. It found and identified many species of animals and plants. And it discovered the terrain of the United States out to the west. But the important thing about  The Lewis & Clark Expedition was they found a way to the Pacific Ocean.

The important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was that it opened up the west for a young and growing country. It gathered an immense amount of information about plants and animals. It introduced members to new cultures. And it required leadership and cooperation. But the important thing about The Lewis & Clark Expedition was it opened the west for a young and developing nation.

The expedition's goal as stated by President Jefferson was "to explore the Missouri River, & such principal stream of it as, by its course & communication with the water of the Pacific ocean may offer the most direct & practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce." In addition, the expedition was to learn more about the Northwest's natural resources, inhabitants, and possibilities for settlement.

Lewis' and Clark's journals of the expedition describe the natural resources and native peoples of the West and contain information on many scientific matters. Over the two year journey, the expedition had made more discoveries of landscapes, rivers, native cultures, zoology, and botany of North America than any scientific expedition. Their results/contributions were many and lasting. 

One of the most significant contributions of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was a better perception of the geography of the Northwest and the production of the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark prepared approximately 140 maps. One important result of the Lewis and Clark expedition was that it enabled the United States to lay claim to the Oregon region. This claim helped make possible the great pioneer movement that settled the West in the mid-1800's. 

A second achievement of the expedition was a better understanding of the country's natural resources. During the journey, the expedition documented over 122 species of animals and approximately 178 plants. The expedition even sent a caged prairie dog, which had never been seen before in the East, to President Jefferson as a gift.Another achievement of the Lewis and Clark Expedition was that it established friendly relations with some of the Native American tribes. For the most part, encounters between the three dozen Indian tribes and the expedition were successful. They collected a variety of Indian goods and gathered information on Indian languages and culture.

The Villalobos Expedition

The Expedition of Ruy Lopez de Villalobos -1541-46

The following artifact consists of documents and relations narrating the expedition of Ruy   Lopez   de Villalobos  . The first document is about the contract made by the king with Pedro de Alvarado and Antonio Mendoza involving the division of profits and the various privileges offered to colonists as incentives to settle in the islands. Likewise, Alvarado was awarded numerous privileges and grants as a sponsor of the voyage. A detailed set of instructions to Villalobos follows, which elaborates on his duties and responsibilities. Another document contains the oaths and pledges as well as instructions to officials. Meanwhile, Villalobos is accused of infringing the Portuguese demarcation in the next document. An account of the voyage written by de Santisteban and Alvarado follows describing the islands and the people they encountered. Both narrate the hardships encountered by the Spanish fleet – hunger, disease, and conflict with the natives.

With the success of the Magellan expedition, King Charles planned more expeditions to the East. One of these expeditions was organized by King Charles which is headed by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1542. It had orders to go to the Philippines, colonize the country and convert all of the peoples to Christianity. Villalobos gave the name Felipinas to the Philippines in Honor of King Philip II. Like the former expeditions, the Villalobos expedition failed to accomplish their mission. 

On November 21, 1564, the fifty Spanish expedition to the Philippines sailed from Mexico. Aboard four ships under the command of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi were five Augustinian friars, 380 men and a fair amount of food, ammunition and trinkets. The expedition was not the best nor the worst ever fitted for its destination, which at the start had been guessed as New Guinea.

Whether it was good sailing weather, or the combined forces of the Spanish King's trusted, tactful Legazpi, the conscientious Fray Andres de Urdaneta, ship's chief navigator, the experienced Marshall Martin de Goiti and the courageous, adventurous Captain Juan de Salcedo - this expedition landed in the Philippines, if not with complete security then at least with more than even changes of survival.

Sealed orders which Legazpi opened at mid sea carried King Phillip's instructions to sail to the Philippines and "labor diligently to make and establish sound friendship and peace with the natives - represent to them His Majesty's affection and love, giving them a few presents - and treating them well".

The true intent of the order did not escape Legazpi. He was on a voyage of colonization, a peaceful colonization if possible, but colonization, above all. Urdaneta understood the message, too, and reluctantly did his job. He was willing enough to proceed to the Philippines to spread the word of God, but he was well aware that there were other motives than the planting of the cross.

This was not an undiscovered, isolated region where credulous natives gave friendship in exchange for a looking-glass, or accepted the affection and love of a king several thousand miles away without questioning his motives. More than forty years past, the red-lipped, pink-powdered young wife of Cebu's Rajah Humabon had been baptized and gifted an image of the Child Jesus by Magellan. There had been rejoicing at the conversion, the avowals of friendship, and what appeared to be the easy conquest of the islands. Two weeks later, in the nearby island of Mactan, Magellan's army of Spaniards and assisting Cebuans were felled by Lapulapu and his men. Magellan was killed, and although there is little truth to the story that his Achilles heel had been located in his armor-uncovered knee, his death discovered for the Filipinos the vulnerability of the Spanish.

A few days later, 27 Spaniards were killed by recently friendly Cebuans. The hostility survived the years, nourished by the various rumors of other expeditions attempting to reach Cebu. Legazpi landed in Cebu on February 13, 1565. The gifts of glass, beads and mirrors were received - and cinnamon, wine and gold were given in exchange. This then, in effect, was barter. The Cebuans might have felt freed from the duties of hospitality and made no effort to disguise their hostility.

The Philippines then was made up of many little kingdoms with chieftains who were friendly or hostile to each other, but who recognized each other's independence. Trade and commerce was carried on among themselves and with foreigners. The Chinese, Japanese, Arabs, Siamese, Sumatrans and other neighboring traders had brought to the country their various customs and cultures, without attempting to bring the authority of their kings.

The independence of rule and thinking of the various kingdoms were a help to Legazpi's troops. If they were not wanted in one place, they were still welcome in another. Bohol's chieftain, Sikatuna received them warmly. The policy of attraction - a combination of earnest piety, genteel diplomacy and abundance of beads - worked.

Many years later the painter Juan Luna somberly and stiffly immortalized the blood compact, the casi-casi in which the protagonists Sikatuna and Legazpi drew blood from themselves and with the mixed brew signed the pact of brotherhood. This ritual of minimum bloodshed was certainly preferable to violence and Legazpi filed it away in his mind, to draw on for future use.

With his new ally Legazpi headed back to Cebu, and took the kingdom by force, over the protests of Fray Urdaneta. Tupas, the chieftain of Cebu retreated to the mountain with 2000 warriors, to come down eventually and made the first documented surrender of freedom when he concluded a treaty with Legazpi providing that "they make submission and place themselves under the dominion of the royal Crown of Castilla and of his

Majesty, as his natural vassals, promising to be faithful and loyal to his service, and not to displease him in any way."

There was more than one thing to make Legazpi rejoice. An image of the Holy Child Jesus believed to be the same one Magellan gave Queen Juana was found in one of the unburned houses in Cebu. In what might be precursor to another later even in Philippine history, Legazpi knelt in front of the image, and supplicated "that Thou enlighten and guide me so that all that we do here may be to Thy glory and honor."

To his credit, Legazpi did not make any reference in his prayers to doing good for the people sitting in darkness. Instead he asked that the Lord punish "the offenses committed in these islands against Thy Majesty."

There were a goodly number of these, by then, not the least of which were committed by the Spanish soldiers who had discovered the wines and women of Cebu, and the gold that lay buried in the graveyards. Also, and what might have been an offense in his eyes were the attacks launched by Portuguese soldiers soon after the establishment of the Spanish settlement in Cebu. A fort, a church and houses had been constructed which angered the Portuguese Captain Pereira who claimed the island as rightfully belonging to his King. Legazpi did not argue but stated that what had forced them to the island's shores would necessarily keep them there, until ships came to carry them away. An exchange of letters followed. The union of Spain and Portugal in 1580 resolved this conflict between Spain and Portugal.

But in the meantime, Cebu was no longer safe. Both Portuguese and the Cebuans threatened their security and in 1569 Legazpi decided to move his forces to Panay. Only when reinforcement arrived from Spain did he return to Cebu, now as governor with the new title of Adelantado. A more important message had arrived with reinforcements. Legazpi was ordered to take full possession of the Philippines.

Cebu was organized as a city government with a new governor, and the land divided into encomiendas, large estates which like rich slices of cake were given as rewards to those who had served King and Adelantado bravely and well. Years later, because of the evils and abuses it brought about, the encomienda system would be abolished. The bad taste it had left in the mouth would linger for as long as the abusive habits nourished by their sudden wealth remained.

Legazpi went on to follow orders.

The reception given the Spaniards varied. Tupa was initially hostile. Tondo's Lakadula was friendly, while Soliman was firm. Legazpi's men faced native armies equipped with Panday Pira's artillery, or large supplies of spear and lances and unbending resistance.

The separate kingdoms did not exact alliance from each other, except when they were banded together into a confederation such as that of Sumakwel's Confederation of Madyaas in 18th century Panay. But the barangays were largely independent and although Soliman would seek the advice of his elder relative Lakandula, he was not bound to obey, and did not, when the latter cautioned him to befriend the Spaniards.

Legazpi's voyage of conquest and colonization, riding on a policy of attraction which more than once had to don the accoutrements of war, became a unifying force and marked an epochal change in the government of the territory.

This unification was brought on by more than the fact of administration from the government set up by Spain. The friendliness which even the gentlest chieftains offered changed to disillusionment and wrath with the abuses of debauched soldiers and arrogant officials. With every resistance and native dissatisfaction, as with every conquest, fusion of the nation in physical and spiritual terms took place.

The first expedition to Manila in 1570 was led by Martin de Goiti and Legazpi's 18-year old grandson, Juan de Salcedo. The latter would provide a glamorous, dashing figure to the Legazpi chapter in the Philippines.

Rajah Soliman, chieftain of Manila, and Goiti entered into a blood compact. But that was nullified when Goiti fired a short, ostensibly to recall a boat he had sent off on an errand in the bay. Fighting ensued, Soliman and his men were overpowered.

The young chieftain retreated to the mountains. But Goiti did not underestimate his routed opponent. Salcedo had earlier proceeded to other points having taken on the work of colonization of the entire island of Luzon except for Central Luzon and some regions nearby for which Goiti was responsible. When Soliman's men clashed with the Spaniards, Salcedo was in Balayan, recuperating from a wound received in battle.

Legazpi led the next expedition to Manila, in 1571. As the Spanish ships approached, Soliman set fire to his rebuilt kingdom, retreated inwards to stronger fortifications, and continued to fight. Soliman died in battle, mourned by his men and his uncle who still believed his nephew acted too rashly and would have done better accepting the friendship proffered by the Spaniards.

In June of 1571, Manila was founded and made the administrative center of the Spanish colony. Streets, forts, and a palace was erected. An image of the Blessed Virgin found in Ermita was made the holy patroness as the Nuestra Señora de Guia. A few years later Manila was titled "The Most Noble and Ever Loyal" city. Not long afterward the natives rose in rebellion against Legazpi's successor in Manila, the appointed Governor, Guido de Lavezares. Goiti was dead and only Salcedo's intervention with Rajah Lakandula, dissuaded the latter from doing battle.

All of Luzon except the regions colonized by Goiti were conquered by Salcedo, peacefully, and when necessary, by force. He had an army of 30 to 40 Spaniards, and many natives. It is possible that his dashing, romantic figure, fired their sense of adventure, as they accompanied him while he marched from north to south, east to west, sailed along the coasts of the Philippines, seeking weak entries, its stronger ramparts. In Paracale he found what other Spaniards sought - survivors of past expeditions, and gold, much gold. While founding the city of Vigan he was called to Manila, in 1574, to help Goiti defend the city against Limahong. The Chinese pirate led a fleet of 62 war junks with 2000 soldiers, 2000 seamen, 1500 women, and a good number of artisans and farmers. Limahong was routed in what was a double victory for Salcedo. Not only were the pirates driven away, but done so with the help of the previously hostile natives. Lakandula and other chieftains, most of them on the verge of revolt, had joined forces with Salcedo in defeating the common enemy.

Fray Urdaneta had not lived to know of the founding of Manila. A reluctant colonizer,m he had left on the first ship that returned to Spain, and died shortly after discovering a new route to the Pacific. Legazpi suffered from a fatal heart attack in 1572. In 1574 Goiti was slain in battle with Sioco, Limahong's Japanese lieutenant. Salcedo died in 1576 at the age of 27, in his encomienda in Vigan. Like his grandfather before him, he died without wealth, having paid off Legazpi's debts and then willing everything else he had including his encomiendas to the natives of Vigan.

Within a decade Legazpi had founded cities that to this day stand echoing the names and events that saw their origins. The King's bidding had been fulfilled and from 1580 to 1898 when Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States for $20 million, Spain's sovereignty over the Philippines was recognized by the rest of the world and some Filipinos.

Legazpi had found the Philippines a land of little separate kingdoms. To a large extent this helped in the conquest and colonization of what would otherwise have been much more difficult to subdue as a united force. But even before Legazpi had died the datus who lived, and those who died, had come to realize that a foreign power was placing them under one alien government. Except for the Muslims, the work of Christianization and unification of rule was successfully started.

The First Settlement of Cebu

When Legaspi and his men reached Cebu on April 27, they were met with hostility by the Tupas. Father

Urdaneta tried to assure Chief Tupas that the Spaniards came as friends, not as enemies. Chief Tupas did not

believe him and told the Spaniards to stay away. Under cover of artillery fire, Legaspi then landed his soldiers.

A fierce battle was fought on the shore. Tupas bravely defended his village, but his men lost the battle because

the invaders fought with firearms, while his men had only bows and arrows and spears. With his warriors and

people, he then fled to the hills, leaving his village in flames. The day after the battle, one of Legaspi’s men,

Juan de Camuz, found the image of the Infant Jesus which Magellan had given to Juana, Humabon’s wife,

forty-four years earlier. The image was unburned.

Over the ashes of Tupas’ capital, Legaspi established a place where his men could stay on shore. This

was the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines. Legaspi called it “The City of the Most Holy Name of

Jesus.”

Through a conqueror, Legaspi worked to win the friendship of the Cebuanos whom he had defeated in battle.

A kind and wise colonizer, he offered peace and friendship to Chief Tupas. He invited the Cebuanos to return

and rebuild their homes, and he promised to forgive everyone who had fought him. Won over by Legaspi’s

generosity, Tupas and his men returned to the lowland and lived in peace with the Spaniards.

On June 4, 1565, Tupas and Legaspi signed a peace treaty. This was the first ever Filipino-Spanish treaty.

This treaty provided, among other things, the following;

1. The Filipinos promised to be loyal to the king of Spain and to the Spaniards.

2. The Filipinos pledged to help the Spaniards in any war. In return, the Spaniards pledged to protect the Filipinos

from all their enemies.

3. Any Filipino who committed a crime against the Spaniards was to be turned over to the Spaniards for

punishment. In the same way, any Spaniard who committed a crime against the Filipinos was to be handed

over to the Filipino chief.

4. There was to be a reciprocal trade between the Filipinos and the Spaniards.

5. No armed Filipino was to be allowed to enter the Spanish settlement.

After concluding this treaty, Legaspi exempted the Filipinos from paying tribute to the Spaniards for a year.

Tupas and his men then knelt before Legaspi to show their loyalty to Spain, and Legaspi distributed gifts to the

natives. Thus friendship between the Spaniards under Legaspi and the Filipinos under Tupas was sealed.

There was now complete peace in Cebu. A piece of land donated by Tupas and other Cebuano chieftains was

used as the Spanish settlement in the area. It was in the form of a triangle, one side facing the land and the

two other sides facing the sea. A fort called Fort San Pedro was constructed and wells were dug to provide

water for the settlement.

The first settlements in Panay

Due to the Portuguese threat in Cebu, Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, leader of the Spanish expedition to

the Philippines in 1565, transferred his stronghold to Panay in the latter part of 1569. He believed

that resistance against the Portuguese could be better in Panay than in Cebu. He foresaw that the

enemy could easily block the entrance to the port of Cebu and starve the Spanish soldiers in it. In

Panay, the situation was different. The Spaniards had a better chance of defending themselves or of

fleeing from the enemy. Easy access to the interior part of the island made it a dependable hideout

for the Spaniards in case of an attack. Besides, there was plenty of food in Panay compared to Cebu

where they experienced starvation.

When the Spaniards first arrived in Panay, they were met by the natives with apparent hostility.

With the assistance of the Spanish Augustinian missionaries, F. Martin de Rada and Fr. Juan de

Alva, they explained to the natives that they had come as friends, not as enemies. The Spaniards

were able to befriend the inhabitants who later accepted the presence of the former in their

communities. The Spaniards then established what is claimed as the first Spanish settlement in

Panay--the town of Pan-ay--and the second in the Philippines after San Miguel, Cebu (There are

scholars who believe that Oton or Ogtong might be the first Spanish settlement in Panay).

Nevertheless, the Portuguese still were able to trace the whereabouts of the Spaniards in Panay. In

fact, they were able to demolish with their artillery the garrisons put up by the Spaniards for their

defense along the coast of the island. Pereira, the Portuguese commander, then blockaded the

entrance to the settlement of the Spaniards in an attempt to starve the Spaniards whom they

accused of theft and robbery of that which rightfully belonged to the king of Portugal. The

Portuguese laid siege in Panay for nearly three months. At the end of the period, they lifted the

blockade and left.

After the Portuguese had left, the Spaniards pushed into the interior of the island by following the

course of the Pan-ay River. In this way, they were able to obtain a supply of rice that was sufficient

for their needs. They also reached some unexplored sections of the Capiz area officially recognizing

settlements in Dumarao, Dumalag, Ibahay and Batan (Batang). On its part, Kalibo (now the capital of

the province of Aklan) was established by Fr. Andres de Aguirre, an Augustinian missionary and a

contemporary of Legaspi.

Eventually, Panay was divided into different encomiendas or politico-economic administrative units.

To each one was assigned a Spaniard known as encomendero who was tasked "to protect and

educate the natives under his charge, to safeguard their welfare and happiness, and to aid the

missionaries in the propagation of Christianity" (Zaide, 1950). The seat of the Spanish colonial

government in Panay was in Oton in Iloilo but was later transferred to Arevalo, Iloilo, and

eventually, to the town of Iloilo due to the Moro and Dutch attacks.

The encomiendas were supposed to be provided with facilities necessary for the maintenance of the

general health and welfare of the people. However, in many cases, these encomiendas became as

easy excuse for the encomenderos to enrich themselves at the expense of the people and to abuse

the latter. The encomiendas, in the end became synonymous with the scandalous neglect of the well-

being of the people. In fact, in the final analysis, the encomienda system introduced by the

Spaniards in the Philippines was one of the root causes of various uprisings that culminated in the

armed revolution of 1896.

Discovery of the route

In 1521 Magellan was blown west across the Pacific by the trade winds. The problem was to go east. The first

ship to try this failed. In 1529 Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón also failed. In 1543 Bernardo de la Torre failed. The Manila-

Acapulco galleon trade began when Andrés de Urdaneta, sailing in convoy under Miguel López de Legazpi, discovered a

return route from Cavite City to Mexico in 1565. Attempting to return, the fleet split up, with part of it heading south.

Urdaneta reasoned that the trade winds of the Pacific might move in a gyre as the Atlantic winds did. If in the Atlantic

ships made a wide swing (the "volta") to the west to pick up winds that would bring them back from Madeira, then, he

reasoned, by sailing far to the north before heading east he would pick up westerlies to bring him back to thewest coast of

North America.

Though he sailed to 38 degrees North before turning east, his hunch paid off, and he hit the coast nearCape

Mendocino, California, then followed the coast south to San Blas and later to Acapulco.[2] Most of his crew died on the

long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned.

By the 18th century it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient, but galleon navigators steered well

clear of the forbidding and rugged fogbound California coast; According to historian William Lytle Schurz, "They generally

made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between Point Conception and Cape San Lucas...After all, these

were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were

welcomed".[3]

The first motivation for exploration of Alta California was to scout out possible way-stations for the seaworn Manila

galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in the later 18th century several Manila galleons

put in at Monterey.

Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan , a Portuguese in the service of the Spanish crown, was looking for a westward route to the to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. On March 16, 1521, Magellan's expedition landed on Homonhon island in the Philippines. He was the first European to reach the islands. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly with Magellan and embraced Christianity, but their enemy, Lapu-Lapu was not. Humabon wanted Magellan to kill Lapu-Lapu while Magellan wanted to convert Lapu-Lapu into Christianity. On April 17, 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan and ensuing battle killed Magellan by the natives lead by Lapu-Lapu. Out of the five ships and more than 300 men who left on the Magellan expedition in 1519, only one ship (the Victoria) and 18 men returned to Seville, Spain on September 6, 1522. Nevertheless, the said expedition was considered historic because it marked the first circumnavigation of the globe and proved that the world was round.

Juan Sebastian de Elcano , the master of ship "Concepcion" took over the command of the expedition after the death of Magellan and captained the ship "Victoria" back to Spain. He and his men earned the distinction of being the first to circumnavigate the world in one full journey. After Magellan's death in Cebu, it took 16 more months for Elcano to return to Spain. The Magellan expedition started off through the westward route and returning to Spain by going east; Magellan and Elcano's entire voyage took almost three years to complete.

Spain sends other expedition

After the Spain had celebrated Elcano’s return, King Charles I  decided that Spain should conquer the Philippines. Five subsequent expeditions were then sent to the Islands. These were led by Garcia Jofre Loaisa (1525), Sebastian Cabot (1526), Alvaro de Saavedra (1527), Rudy Lopez de Villalobos (1542) and Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1564). Only the last two actually reached the Philippines; and only Legazpi succeeded in colonizing the Islands.

The Villalobos Expedition

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos  set sail for the Philippines from Navidad, Mexico on November 1, 1542. He followed the route taken by Magellan and reached Mindanao on February 2, 1543. He established a colony in Sarangani but could not stay long because of insufficient food supply. His fleet left the island and landed on Tidore in the Moluccas, where they were captured by the Portuguese.

Villalobos is remembered for naming our country “Islas Filipinas,” in honor of King Charles’ son, Prince Philip, who later became king of Spain.

The Legazpi Expedition

Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to Villalobos had succeeded in taking overthe Philippines, King Charles I stopped sending colonizers to the Islands. However, when Philip II succeeded his father to the throne in 1556, he instructed Luis de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to prepare a new expedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, who would be accompanied by Andres de Urdaneta , a priest who had survived the Loaisa mission.

On February 13, 1565, Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu island. After a short struggle with the natives, he proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There Legaspi made a blood compact with the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of friendship. Legaspi was able to obtain spices and gold in Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna. On April 27, 1565, Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and establish a settlement. On orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from Mexico. They built the the port of Fuerza de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading outpost and stronghold for the region.

Hearing of the riches of Manila , an expedition of 300 men headed by Martin de Goiti  left Cebu for Manila. They found the islands of Panay and Mindoro. Goiti arrived in Manila on May 8, 1570. At first they were welcomed by the natives and formed an alliance with Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but as the locals sensed the true objectives of the Spaniards, a battle between the troops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because the Spaniards are more heavily armed, theSpaniards were able to conquer Manila. Soon after Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi built alliances and made peace with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571, Legaspi ordered the construction of the

walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as the seat of government of the colony and the capital of the islands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin Church in Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de España" (Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II  of Spain.

Founding of Manila

Manila - A HistoryThe City of Manila occupies a unique position in Philippine political geography, for it is both a chartered city, and also it fulfills the functions of a province for the four cities and thirteen municipalities composing its metropolitan area. But then, Manila has always been an exceptional case, defying just about every political formula devised to govern other towns, cities and provinces. It has required special laws and governmental systems to rule it, practically from the beginning of the Spanish rule of the Philippines in the 16th Century up to the present.

Manila City proper is bounded on the north by Navotas and Caloocan City, on the northeast by Quezon City and San Juan del Monte, on the southeast by Mandaluyong and Makati, and on the south by Pasay City. It faces beautiful Manila Bay to the west.

A relatively new development is the incorporation of all the cities and municipalities comprising the Manila metropolitan area into one unit--a "mega-city"--called "Metro Manila." It is governed as one unit by a governor, who coordinates its functions and services through the various city and municipal officials, very much like a provincial governor rules many towns. And yet, the component cities, provinces and municipalities retain their previous jurisdictions. Metro Manila is comprised of the cities of Manila, Quezon City, Caloocan City and Pasay City, and the municipalities of Navotas, Malabon, Valenzuela (in Bulacan province), Marikina, Pasig, Mandaluyong, San Juan del Monte, Makati, Pateros, Taguig (Tagig), Paranaque, Las Pinas and Muntinglupa.

Manila derived its name from two Tagalog words; "may," meaning "there is," and "nilad," the name of a shrub that originally grew abundantly along the shores of the Pasig River and Manila Bay. Long before the Spanish conquest, Manila was settled by Mohammedans, who carried on a thriving trade with Chinese and other Southeast Asian merchants. "Maynilad" was the principal bay settlement of these Tagalogs south of the Pasig River, although it was probably less important commercially than Tondo, the town on the north bank.

Manila was first visited by Spaniards in 1570. Governor-General Legazpi, searching for a suitable place to establish his capital after being compelled to move from Cebu to Panay by Portugese pirates, and hearing of the existence of a prosperous Mohammedan community in Luzon, sent an expedition under Martin de Goiti to discover its location and potentials. De Goiti anchored at Cavite, and tried to establish his authority peaceably by sending a message of friendship to Maynilad. Rajah Soliman, then its ruler, was willing to befriend the Spaniards, but would not submit to Spanish sovereignity peaceably.

Naturally, this was unsatisfactory to the Spanish commander, so after he secured equipment and reinforcements, he attacked Maynilad in June of 1570. He captured it after a stout fight, and having formally taken possession of the city in the name of the King of Spain, he returned to Panay.

The next year, in 1571, the Spaniards returned, this time led by Governor-General Legazpi himself. Seeing them approach, the natives set fire to the town, levelling it to the ground, while the people fled to Tondo and neighboring towns.

After occupying the remains of Maynilad on June 19, 1591, and commencing the construction of a fort there, Legazpi made overtures of friendship to Rajah Lakandula of Tondo, which this time were prudently accepted. Soliman, however, refused to submit to the Spaniards, despite the wise counsel of Lakandula, whose aid Soliman solicited in an effort to expel the invaders. Failing to get Lakandula's support, as well as that of the Pampangans and Pangasinans, Soliman

gathered together a considerable force of Tagalog warriors, and attacked the Spaniards in a decisive battle at the town of Bangcusay. There the Filipinos were defeated, and Soliman himself was killed.

With the destruction of Soliman's army, and the friendly interventions of Rajah Lakandula, the Spaniards were enabled to establish their authority throughout the city and its adjacent settlemnts, and soon several Christian missions were established.

Eventually, Roman Catholic missions, parishes and schools were established by nearly every religious order to come to the Philippines. The first priests were Augustinians and secular priests, followed by Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans and Augustinian Recollects, with many other orders following in later centuries.

The rule of the Spanish conquerers of the "City of Soliman" was full of dangers, since the people were opposed to foreign sovereignty. Consequently, the city was frequently the scene of serious disturbances. The Chinese, angered by the loss of free trade, the commercial restrictions placed by the untrusting Spanish upon them, and the laws forcing them to pay tribute to Spain, made several efforts to destroy the Spaniards.

The first of these Chinese revolts occurred in 1574, when a force of some 3,000 men and 62 Chinese warships under the command of Limahong attacked the city. This attenpt proved fruitless, the Chinese being defeated with heavy losses. As a safeguard against similar uprisings later, the Chinese residents and merchants of Manila were confined to a separate district, called "Parian de Alcaceria."

However, this precaution was not totally effective, for at various times in the following century, the Chinese rose in revolt. In 1602, they set fire to Quiapo and Tondo, and for a time threatened to capture Intramuros. In 1662, they again revolted, while in 1686, a conspiracy led by Tingco plotted to kill all the Spaniards. It is no surprise, then, to learn that at various times during the Spanish era, the Chinese were expelled (or decrees were made to that effect) from Manila and from the entire country. Later reconciliations nearly always permitted the continuation of the Chinese community in the city, however.

In 1595, Manila was decreed to be the capital of the Archipelago, although it had already in fact served that function practically from its founding in 1571. Besides being Spain's pre-eminent city in the Philippines, and dominant over other provincial capitals, it was itself a provincial capital over a province whose territory at one time covered nearly all of Luzon, and included the modern territorial subdivisions of Pampanga, Bulacan, Rizal, Laguna, Batangas, Quezon, Mindoro, Masbate and Marinduque. Later, these subdivisions were themselves made provinces, leaving Manila province with a territory roughly equal to the present City of Manila proper (except Intramuras, the capital site), and the northwestern two-thirds of Rizal province. The boundary of Manila province went from northeast to southwest, including Antipolo, Cainta, Taytay and Taguig, and all of the towns north and west of them, in Manila province; and Angono, Teresa, Morong, and the towns south and east of them, in Laguna province. Early in the province's history, the provincial name was changed fran Manila to "Tondo" province, by which it was known for most of the Spanish era.

In 1762, during the "Seven Years' War," the British occupied Manila, remaining in the city until 1764. The fleeing Spaniards destroyed many of the records, and in the sack of the town by the British, many historical documents of great value were destroyed or stolen from the archives.

In about 1853, four pueblos or towns of Tondo province were joined with the northeastern towns of Laguna province to form the politico-military "Distrito de los Montes de San Mateo," or District of the San Mateo Mountains. Tondo province annexed to this new district the towns of Cainta, Taytay, Antipolo and Boso-boso, while Laguna contributed the towns of Angono, Binangonan, Cardona, Morong, Baras, Tanay, Pililla and Jalajala. But the name of the new district proved unwieldy, too long, and misled many into thinking the town of San Mateo (in Tondo province) was the capital of the San Mateo Mountain District, when in reality the district capital was in Morong. So, in about 1859, following common practice of the day, the district was renamed after its capital; namely, Morong District. At about the same time, Tondo Province was renamed Manila Province.

Being the traditional seat of education and liberal thinking in the Philippines, Manila was a rich field for anti-Spanish propaganda. But outwardly it remained quiet until July 7, 1892, when the secret revolutionary organization devoted to the overthrow of Spanish rule of the country, called the Katipunan, was organized in Manila's suburb, Tondo. Although initial

skirmishes between the Filipinos and Spanish were brief and nearly always lost by the Filipinos, the movement grew until open rebellion broke out in 1896, with the Spaniards losing the Philippines to the combined Filipino-American forces in 1898. But Spain ceded the country only to the Americans, who exerted their control militarily, defeating the Filipinos in the "Mock Battle" of Manila on August 13, 1898. Thereafter, the Americans pursued the retreating Filipino forces province by province, until General Emilio Aguinaldo (then president of the Republic) surrendered in Palanan, Isabela, on March 23, 1901. Manila continued under an American military government until civil government was established for the city on July 31, 1901.

Along with the establishment of the civil government, the Philippine Commission dissolved the former province of Manila, and merged its pueblos with those of the District of Morong, forming the new province of Rizal. Afew weeks later, the Philippine Commission provided for a new charter for the city of Manila, defining its boundaries, and thus annexing some of Rizal Province's towns to the city as districts. These boundaries were slightly revised and redefined on January 29, 1902, when the suburb of Gagalangin was annexed to the city district of Tondo, and the former pueblo of Santa Ana was annexed as a district to Manila City. On July 30 of that year, the city board officially divided the city into 13 political subdivisions named districts, and the boundaries of each were defined. On August 15 of the same year, Pandacan pueblo was annexed as a city district. The boundaries and city districts of Manila City proper have remained essentially unchanged ever since.

With the outbreak of World War II, Manila entered a five-year period of sorrow and destruction. Hoping to minimize the loss of life and property, government officials declared Manila an open city on December 26, 1941. The following New Years' Day, 1942, President Quezon decreed the merger of the towns of Quezon City, Caloocan, San Juan del Monte, Mandaluyong, Makati, Pasay and Paranaque with Manila City to form the town he called "Greater Manila," to sinplify the administration of the metropolitan area during the war. Being practically destroyed in the process, the city was liberated from Japanese control in March of 1945 by the joint Filipino-American forces. Soon thereafter, "Greater Manila" was dissolved, and its towns returned to their pre-war status.

In 1948, Quezon City was declared the national capital of the new Republic of the Philippines, thus robbing Manila City of an honor it had held since 1595. But on May 29, 1976, President Ferdinand Marcos' Decree No 940 returned the national capital to Manila, declaring that "the area prescribed as Metro Manila by P. D. 824" was to be the seat of the national government.

Not even a hundredth part of Manila's rich and lengthy history can be written here. Therefore, the reader is referred to other works for more details.(See the Valuable Printed Sources, and the Selected Bibliography of Chapter 10.)

DialectsIt is probable that nearly every dialect spoken in the Philippines is spoken in Manila, for this cosmopolitan city receives its population from the entire country. Many foreign languages are also spoken, mainly by foreign nationals engaged in the diplomatic corps or business enterprises. But Tagalog is the predominant dialect, spoken by 76.4% of Manila's population, followed by Iloco (4.9%), Samar-Leyte (3.3%), Pampango (3.0%), Bicol (2.8%), Chinese (2.6%), Cebuano (1.9%), Hiligaynon (1.9%), Pangasinan (1.7%), and the remaining 1.5% speak any of the other dialects used in the country. Pilipino can be spoken by 98.0% of the population, English by 66.1%, and Spanish by 8.4%.

ReligionsRoman Catholics predominate, comprising 93.5%, followed by Iglesia ni Cristo (1.9%), Protestants (1.8%), Buddhists (1.1%), Moslems and others comprising the remaining 1.4% of Manila's population.

The Founding of Manila and the Origin of Global Trade, 1571

Global trade emerged with the founding of Manila in 1571, at which time all important populated continents began to exchange products continuously. The silver market was key to this process. China became the dominant buyer because both its fiscal and monetary systems had converted to a silver standard; the value of silver in China surged to double its worth in the rest of the world. Microeconomic analysis leads to startling conclusions. Both Tokugawa Japan and the Spanish empire were financed by mining profits–profits that would not have existed in the absence of end-customer China. Europeans were physically present in early

modern Asia, but the economic impact of China on Western lands was far greater than any European influence on Asia.