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TRANSCRIPT
Basic Wildfire Awareness
ACT Fire & Rescue
Community Fire Units
Learners Guide
CFU Basic Wildfire Awareness Learner’s Guide
Version 1.1 November 2011 ii
Copyright 2011 by ACT Fire & Rescue. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical including photo‐copying and/or microfilm recording or by any information storage and retrieval system (except excerpts thereof for bona fide study purposes in accordance with the Copyright Act) without prior permission in writing from the Superintendent, Firefighter Development.
Published by: ACT Fire & Rescue GPO Box 158 CANBERRA ACT 2601 AUSTRALIA
Telephone: (02) 6207 8381 Facsimile: (02) 6207 9299 Internet: www.firebrigade.act.gov.au
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Contents
Contents iii
Figures viii
INTRODUCTION IX
Acknowledgment ix
Summary of Changes to Learners Guide ix
Overview ix
Who is this Manual for? ix
What is a Wildfire? x
Abbreviations x
Relationship to competency standards xi
Learning outcomes xi
Recognition of prior learning xi
Privacy Statement xii
CHAPTER 1 1
FIRE 1
1 Introduction 1
2 What is combustion? 1
3 What is fire? 1
4 The fire triangle 2
Oxygen 3
Heat 3
Fuel 3
5 The fire tetrahedron 4
6 Heat transfer 5
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Radiation 5
Convection 6
Conduction 7
7 Methods of attacking the fire 8
Cutting off the oxygen supply 8
Reducing the temperature 9
Removing the fuel 9
Combination of methods 10
SUMMARY 11
Self-check questions 12
CHAPTER 2 14
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT WILDFIRE BEHAVIOUR 14
1 Introduction 14
2 Fuel 14
Types of fuel 15
Fuel size and quantity 15
Arrangement of fuel 16
Moisture content 16
Measuring fuel moisture content 17
3 Weather 18
Air temperature 18
Relative humidity 18
Wind speed and direction at the flaming zone 19
Level of atmospheric stability 21
4 Topography 22
Slope 22
Aspect 23
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Wind 24
SUMMARY 25
Self-check questions 26
CHAPTER 3 28
WILDFIRE DEVELOPMENT 28
1 Introduction 28
2 Types of fire 28
Surface fire 28
Ground fire 29
Crown fire 29
3 Spotting 31
4 Parts of a wildfire 33
Head of a fire 34
Flanks or sides 34
Fingers 34
Rear or heel 34
Point of origin 34
SUMMARY 35
Self-check questions 36
CHAPTER 4 38
ON THE FIREGROUND 38
1 Introduction 38
2 Direct attack 39
3 Head attack and flank attack 41
4 Parallel attack 42
5 Indirect attack 44
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6 Mopping up and patrol 46
SUMMARY 47
Self-check questions 48
CHAPTER 5 49
SAFETY ON THE FIREGROUND 49
1 Introduction 49
2 Job safety 49
Chainsaw Operations on the Fireground 50
Driving on or near a Fire ground 50
3 Specific wildfire hazards 51
Heat Stress 51
Smoke 53
Fatigue 54
Electrical Hazards 55
Structural Fire Hazards 55
Dangerous Trees 56
Changes in fire behaviour 56
4 Survival in life-threatening situations 57
5 L.A.C.E.S. 59
6 Communication Arrangements 61
Australasian Inter-agency Incident Management System (AIIMS) 61
Incident Action Plan (IAP) 63
7 Personal Protective Equipment 65
SUMMARY 71
Self-check questions 72
CHAPTER 6 74
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AIRCRAFT AT WILDFIRES 74
1 Introduction 74
2 Safety precautions 75
6 What to do if caught in a firebombing drop zone 75
SUMMARY 77
Self-check questions 78
ANSWERS TO SELF‐CHECK QUESTIONS 79
GLOSSARY 81
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Figures
Figure 1: The fire triangle 2
Figure 2: The fire tetrahedron 5
Figure 3: Radiation 6
Figure 4: Convection 7
Figure 5: Conduction 7
Figure 6: Cutting off the oxygen supply 8
Figure 7: Reducing the temperature 9
Figure 8: Removing the fuel 10
Figure 9 Fire Intensity 19
Figure 10: The effects of wind 20
Figure 11: Effect of uphill slope 22
Figure 12: Lee slope turbulence 24
Figure 13: Types of fire 30
Figure 14: Parts of a wildfire 33
Figure 15: A head attack 41
Figure 16: A flank attack 42
Figure 17: Parallel attack 43
Figure 18: Indirect attack 44
Figure 19: Survival on the fireground 57
Figure 20: Protecting yourself from an approaching fire 58
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Introduction
Acknowledgment ACT Fire & Rescue (ACTF&R) acknowledges the assistance of the Australasian Fire Authorities
Council who provided much of the material used in this publication.
Summary of Changes to Learners Guide Coding – 22023VIC Course in Basic Wildfire Awareness is accredited for the period 1st
January 2010 to 31st December 2014. This replaces the previous course code 21587VIC,
direct credit transfer arrangements exist between the old course and the new course
(Australasian Fire and Emergency Service Authorities Council (AFAC) course accreditation
documentation 271109).
Overview The purpose of this manual is to provide a reference for ACTF&R Community Fire Unit
members in Wildfire Awareness. This course provides national accreditation by delivering
training and information on the risks associated on the incident ground and the precautions
to take.
Who is this Manual for? This manual is prepared for ACTF&R Community Fire Unit members. It covers the
knowledge and techniques used to maintain safety on the fireground. The manual is
designed as a training reference to be used under the guidance of a qualified instructor. The
theory in the manual is to enhance skills that must be taught and supervised by instructors.
This manual is not written as a self‐instructional text. It may not contain all of the
information required by a CFU member, as some of this can only be gained through
experience gained in wildfire operations.
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What is a Wildfire? Throughout this manual, the term wildfire will be used to describe an unplanned fire which
may include grass fires, forest fires and scrub fires. An understanding the principles of fire,
wildfire behaviour, and wildfire fire fighting strategies is essential to maintain the safety of
persons working on the fireground. This manual contains knowledge about:
Combustion:
fire triangle and fire tetrahedron
how fire spreads
how materials burn
methods of heat transfer
Fire Behaviour:
features of a fire
effects of weather
effects of topography
fuel
stages of fire development
spotting
ground, surface and crown fires
wildfire suppression techniques
safety on the fireground
safe work practices
safe work practices around aircraft
Fire Ground Structure
incident management and chain of command
communication arrangements
This manual also contains:
self‐check exercises
a list of words and their meanings
Abbreviations AFFF Aqueous Film Forming Foam, designed for use on Class B fires
BFFF Bush Fire Fighting Foam, designed for use on Class A fires
CO Carbon monoxide
SOPs Standard Operating Procedures
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Relationship to competency standards
The following national competency forms the standard for Basic Wildfire Awareness for ACTF&R CFU members. The manual and course also cover additional material specifically for ACTF&R CFU members to meet agency specific requirements. Assessment is competency based using assessment tools that have been developed against this national competency:
Unit Code: 22023VIC
Basic Wildfire Awareness
Learning outcomes This manual is based on the national competency 22023VIC Basic Wildfire Awareness.
The learning outcomes and assessment criteria can be obtained from the ACTF&R Firefighter
Training and Development Section.
Recognition of prior learning If you wish to gain recognition for completing the training modules covered in this learning manual, it is important that you consider the following questions:
What do I do if I already feel competent in this area?
If you feel that you have completed the appropriate training and experience, and think that you have the required skills and competencies outlined in any of these training modules, see your training officer. You may be granted credit.
To be granted credit, what do I need to do?
* Talk with your training officer to discuss the RPL process and what is required to gauge your competence against the Standards. Your training officer may conduct a pre challenge interview to assist in identifying any shortfalls.
* Produce certificates for relevant courses that you have successfully completed.
* Demonstrate the skills and knowledge that you wish to gain RPL for in a Challenge Test
Should I have completed anything before attempting these training modules?
For the training in Basic Wildfire Awareness there are no pre-requisite units.
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Privacy Statement The ESA has undertaken a registration process with the Accreditation and Registration
Council (ARC) of the Australian Capital Territory. In order to gain registration and maintain
registration, the ESA is audited by the ARC for compliance with the Australian Quality
Training Framework (AQTF) ‐ Standards for RTOs.
In accordance with the Standards for RTOs, ACTF&R, under the ESA RTO, is bound by the
Privacy Act 1988, in particular the following sections:
Part II section 9 and 10.
Part III Division 1 Section 13A. Division2 sections 14, 15 and 16. Division 3 section 16 A to F.
Further information and the entire Act can be accessed at
http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/a/current/p.asp
ACT Fire & Rescue course participants can access their own personal training records.
ACT Fire & Rescue maintains the privacy and confidentiality of all participants and as such,
the personal records of individuals will not be disclosed to a third party without prior written
consent.
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CHAPTER 1
Fire
1 Introduction
This chapter describes briefly the fire triangle and its three components: oxygen, heat and
fuel, and the fourth component which forms the fire tetrahedron the chemical chain
reaction. The chapter also describes how heat is transferred and the methods that can be
used to attack a fire.
2 What is combustion?
Combustion is a process of oxidation. Oxidation is the combination of oxygen with a
substance. At varying temperatures, most substances will combine with oxygen in the air
(oxidise). When a substance is oxidising at such a rate that heat and light are being released,
it is described as being ‘alight’ or ‘on fire’.
3 What is fire?
Fire is a chemical reaction. The most common chemical reaction is the one between oxygen
in the air and flammable vapours released by the fuel. In fire suppression it is important to
know the components that must be present to bring about the chemical reaction of fire.
The components necessary for a fire to burn or continue to burn are illustrated in the fire
triangle as:
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oxygen
heat
fuel
The three components of the fire triangle are shown in Figure 1.
4 The fire triangle
A fire needs the components of fuel, heat and oxygen for its continued existence. Given fuel
and oxygen, a certain amount of energy, as heat, needs to be applied before combustion will
occur. When it does occur, it releases much more energy than has already been applied.
The net result is excess energy which can:
contribute to the heating of air
be radiated from flames or burning fuel
be conducted as heat to other fuel particles
Figure 1: The fire triangle
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Oxygen
This is found in the air we breathe. It is a colourless, odourless gas which makes up about
one fifth of the volume of the atmosphere. Oxygen is necessary for fuel to burn. Heat plus
oxygen causes a chemical reaction to occur in fuel, which produces more heat and gases and
turns the remainder of the fuel into ash. In the process, oxygen is consumed and needs to
be replaced by fresh oxygen moving from elsewhere for the fire to continue burning. This is
why fanning a camp fire makes it burn more intensely.
Heat
Every fuel has a particular temperature at which it begins to burn (its ignition temperature).
Fire will send a certain amount of heat energy into adjacent unburnt fuel. Initially, most of
the heat energy is used to evaporate moisture and other volatile liquids. This is why
flammability is less if fuel moisture content is high. Once the fuel has dried out, it will
quickly reach ignition temperature if the heat is still arriving. When combustion occurs, the
now burning fuel adds to the chain reaction that drives the wildfire. Heat can be transferred
to adjacent fuels by:
radiation
convection
conduction
Each of these methods of heat transfer will be examined later in this chapter.
Fuel
A fuel is anything that will burn under suitable conditions. Fuels can be grouped according
to:
typesome fuels are more flammable than others due to volatile oils or compounds
within them
sizelarge fuel particles take longer to burn than small particles
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quantitymore fuel may mean more heat being generated and faster combustion
arrangementif fuel pieces are densely packed, they may not dry out or oxygen may not
be able to penetrate easily; if widely separated, the heat transfer may not be sufficient to
bring pieces of fuel to ignition temperature.
moisture contentif there is too much moisture, then the fuel may not reach ignition
temperature
5 The fire tetrahedron
In a fire, a fourth component is also present during combustionthe chemical chain
reaction. In the combustion process, a chemical chain reaction occurs between the fuel and
oxygen and is promoted by heat. This reaction is essential to sustaining a fire. If this process
is inhibited or interrupted, the combustion reaction is suppressed and the fire is
extinguished.
Thus the fire tetrahedron (a four‐sided triangular figure) shows that fire requires the
interaction of four separate components:
oxygen
heat
fuel
chemical chain reaction
The relationship between these four components is illustrated through the fire tetrahedron
(see Figure 2.)
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Fuel
Heat Oxygen
Chemicalchain reaction
Chemicalchain reaction
Heat
Fuel
Figure 2: The fire tetrahedron
6 Heat transfer
As already mentioned, a fire's heat can be transferred to adjoining fuel in three
ways. They are radiation, convection and conduction.
Radiation
Any hot object loses heat by giving out infra‐red radiation. This is a form of heat energy
which travels in all directions from its source (the fire) to nearby objects. It is the direct heat
you feel from a fire. Radiant heat does not need a medium to travel through. It can travel
through a vacuum. For example, the sun’s energy travels through space, which is a vacuum,
and warms the earth. When this radiation hits an object, it is absorbed and heats the object.
Burning fuel and flames radiate large amounts of heat. The intensity of radiant heat will
drop very quickly with increasing distance from its source. Radiant heat will directly act upon
fuel immediately around the fire and bring it to a temperature where it may burn (see Figure
3.) The radiant heat comes from the flames and any smouldering fuel. In summary, the
hotter a fire, the greater the amount of radiant heat, and the faster the fire will spread by
radiation.
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Figure 3: Radiation
Convection
Convection is the movement of heat through the heating of air. Air moves upwards when it
is hotter than the surrounding air. As air rises and moves sideways with the wind, it will
carry heat with it, and then gradually lose it to the surrounding air. As a fire gains in
intensity, it will heat more air, which rises faster. Air must move in towards the fire at
ground level to replace it. This is sometimes called indraft wind. This process forms the
convection column of rising hot air above the fire. It also includes ash, embers and the
smoke plume. Volatile components of fuel continue to burn as they rise. This is the main
process occurring in flames (see Figure 4.)
The stronger the convection, the further the volatile components of fuel travel as they burn,
and the longer the flames. The flames from an intense fire burning in heavy ground fuels
may reach and ignite the crowns of trees.
Convection has several important implications for firefighters:
A fire may supply its own oxygen by continually drawing in a supply of fresh air
Very large fires may create strong indraft winds which may, in turn, alter the behaviour of
the fire
The hot air rising from a fire often carries pieces of burning fuel which may then be
carried forward in front of the fire and cause small fires to start well ahead of the main
fire. This is called spotting
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Figure 4: Convection
Conduction
Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through a solid object from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature. Different substances conduct heat at
different rates. For example, metals are more effective conductors of heat than wood.
In wildfires, conduction refers to the movement of heat through the fuel itself (see Figure 5.)
Any large piece of burning fuel will conduct heat, but this is generally a slow and minor
source of heat transfer.
Figure 5: Conduction
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7 Methods of attacking the fire
Understanding the fire triangle now gives you three ways to attack a wildfire. Each method
is designed to break the fire triangle. You can:
cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire
reduce the temperature and cool the fire
remove the fuel from the path of the fire and starve the fire
Cutting off the oxygen supply This may be the quickest and most efficient form of attack with small fires (see Figure 6.)
However, cutting off the oxygen supply of a large fire in the open is usually too difficult.
Firefighters can use the following methods to cut off the oxygen supply to a small fire:
stamping out and beating out the flames along the edge of a control line
shovelling soil onto a fire. In most cases this will help to put the flames out, but embers
may continue to burn slowly
laying foam on burning fuels
Figure 6: Cutting off the oxygen supply
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Reducing the temperature This is one of the most effective ways of stopping a wide range of fires.
When water is added to a fire:
it absorbs a lot of the heat energy, and removes it as the water evaporates
it cools the fuel below its ignition temperature
The main purpose of using water when fighting fires is to cool the fuel to the point where
combustion stops. Water must be directed initially to the base of the flames, where
combustion is occurring (see Figure 7.) Adding water to unburnt fuel increases its moisture
content and makes it harder for it to reach its ignition temperature.
Figure 7: Reducing the temperature
Removing the fuel
Removing the fuel may be an effective way of stopping a fire (see Figure 8.) Additionally, it
may be the best way to prevent large fires from occurring. Dry firefighting is the term used
to describe firefighting techniques that do not involve the use of water.
The following techniques are examples of dry firefighting:
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the use of hand tools to break up fuel and remove it from the heat of a low to moderate
intensity fire
the use of hand tools to remove fuels and create a narrow control line as an edge for
back burning to control a moderate intensity fire
the use of machinery such as bulldozers to make a wide break or to clear a large area to
stop a large fire, or to provide an edge for a large backburn
backburning, that is removing fuels from the path of a wildfire
Figure 8: Removing the fuel
Combination of methods
Although the methods of extinguishing a fire have been dealt with separately in this section,
it should be understood that, in many instances, it is a combination of methods that brings
about extinguishment. For example, the main effect of water is to cool the fire. However,
the production of steam has a minor secondary effect. It helps smother the fire by keeping
out the oxygen. Also, where water is used to extinguish a flame front, a control line bare of
fuels may also be constructed to minimise the possibility of the fire re‐igniting and
spreading.
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SUMMARY
Fire is a chemical reaction.
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas which makes up about one fifth of the volume of the
atmosphere. It is an essential component of combustion.
Combustion is a process of oxidation. At varying temperatures most substances will oxidise
with oxygen in the air. When a substance is oxidising at such a rate that heat and light are
being released, it is described as being ‘alight’ or ‘on fire’.
The fire triangle illustrates the three components necessary for a fire to burn and continue to
burnoxygen, heat and fuel.
The fire tetrahedron (a four‐sided triangular figure) shows that fire requires a chemical chain
reaction to take place. If it is interrupted, the fire will be extinguished.
Fuel is anything that will burn under suitable conditions. Every fuel has a particular
temperature at which it begins to burn. This is its ignition temperature.
Heat is transferred by radiation, convection and conduction.
Radiation is a form of heat energy which travels in all directions from its source.
Convection occurs when heated air is displaced, usually upwards. As it rises, it carries heat
with it and gradually loses it to the surrounding air.
Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through solid objects from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature.
Three methods of attacking the fire are:
cut off the oxygen supply and smother the fire
reduce the temperature and cool the fire
remove the fuel from the path of the fire and starve the fire.
Fire can also be attacked by using a combination of these methods.
Dry firefighting is the term used to describe firefighting techniques that do not involve the use
of water.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. Fire is a chemical reaction.
2. A fire only needs fuel and heat for it to continue to burn.
3. Combustion is a process of oxidation.
4. The fire tetrahedron includes the three components oxygen, heat and fuel, and
a fourth component the chemical chain reaction.
5. Fuel is anything that can burn under the right conditions.
6. Heat transfer occurs only through radiation and convection.
7. Radiant heat needs a medium to travel through.
8. Convection is the transference of heat through the heating of air.
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9. Conduction refers to the transfer of heat through a solid object from a region of
higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
10. Removing the fuel is in fact smothering the fire.
11. Cutting off oxygen to a fire in fact cools the fire.
12. Reducing the heat from a fire in fact cools a fire.
13. Cooling the fuel is the only effective way of stopping a wildfire.
14. Water cools the fuel to the point where combustion stops.
15. Dry firefighting techniques involve the use of water.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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CHAPTER 2
Factors which affect wildfire behaviour
1 Introduction
Fires are dynamic by nature. Their movement and behaviour can be described in terms of
flame height, rate of spread (how quickly the fire is moving through the fuels), spotting
behaviour and overall intensity. Fire behaviour depends on three main factors, namely fuel,
weather and topography.
2 Fuel
Fuel may be rated as one of the most important factors influencing the way fire behaves and
travels. Fuel varies in its:
type
size and quantity
arrangement
moisture content
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Types of fuel
In Australia, common fuel components include:
grass (usually after it is partly or fully cured, that is, dried out after it dies)
litter lying on the ground
small herbs and shrubs
decomposing humus and duff (fine ground litter)
shrubs (heath lands or as an understorey layer)
trees (eucalypts, wattles, she‐oaks, pine trees)
material remaining after logging (including sawdust)
Most of these fuels will ignite and burn readily given the right conditions. They will burn
with different degrees of intensity. Grass fires, for example, may spread more rapidly than a
fire in a tall, dense forest which generally burns slower but more intensely.
Eucalypt fuels, in particular bark, are well known for causing spotting.
Fuel size and quantity
Fuel is normally classified as fine or heavy (coarse). Fine fuels (less than 6mm in diameter)
such as leaves, twigs and grasses burn readily and cause spotting as the burning embers are
carried through the air, starting new fires ahead of the main fire. Coarse or heavy fuels
(greater than 6mm in diameter) such as sticks, branches and logs tend to ignite less readily
and burn more slowly.
It is mainly fine fuels that drive the forward spread of a fire, while the heavy fuels are
consumed in the smouldering zone behind the main fire front. The fine fuel is ignited first,
then this heats the heavy fuel, enabling it to burn. The proportion of fine fuel and heavy fuel
affects the rate of spread and intensity of the fire. The volume of fuel affects fire behaviour.
Generally, the more fine fuel there is, the greater the rate of spread, and the greater the
intensity of the fire.
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Arrangement of fuel
Depending on the size of the individual fuel particles, the way pieces of fuel are arranged in
relation to one another affects how they burn. Well‐separated pieces of fuel are harder to
ignite than more closely grouped collections of the same material. This is because radiant
heat diminishes rapidly the further it travels.
Fuels that are tightly packed together or compacted, such as peat, smoulder slowly because
of the lack of oxygen and generally higher moisture content.
Fine, loosely stacked materials burn quickly and fiercely. A continuous ladder of fine fuel
from the ground surface to the crown of the vegetation encourages crown fire development.
Moisture content
Fire behaviour is affected by how damp fuels are, that is their moisture content. The fuel
moisture content will vary depending on factors such as weather conditions, vegetation
type, the moisture content of the soil and whether the fuel pieces are dead or living
vegetation. Fuel that is dry and fine will burn better than heavy fuels that are wet. Some
grasses for instance, will not burn readily until fully dried out (cured).
All dead fuels take up or give off moisture according to:
the daily temperature and humidity cycles. Dead fine fuels change their moisture
content rapidly in response to these cycles, while heavy fuels vary slowly and rarely reach
extremes of wetness or dryness
the time since last rainfall and the amount of rain received. Over a number of days, the
effects of recent rainfall will disappear. This happens more rapidly in fine fuels than in
heavy fuels
the dryness of the soil. Dry soil will dry out fuels in contact with it, and wet soils will
moisten such fuels
As there is normally more moisture in heavy fuel, it takes more heat to dry the fuel and
cause ignition. For this reason, most heavy fuels burn much slower than finer fuels.
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The dryness (or moisture content) of fuels affects:
ease of ignition
probability of spotting
rate of combustion
rate of fire spread
the amount of heat radiated from the flames
The drier the fuel, the greater are these factors for the type of fuel that is burning.
Measuring fuel moisture content Several techniques can be used to measure the moisture content of fuels. Fuel moisture
content is sometimes estimated by taking into account weather conditions, temperature,
relative humidity and the current seasonal dryness. Visual assessments of grass and crop
lands can also be used. The most common technique used, however, involves drying fuel
samples in an oven and determining the moisture content by measuring the weight
difference before drying and after drying.
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3 Weather
Weather is the second major factor that impacts on the spread of fire. The four key
elements of weather are:
air temperature
relative humidity
wind (speed and direction) at the flaming zone of the fire
atmospheric stability
Air temperature
The sun warms solid objects, such as fuels, and the surface of the land. This has the effect of
raising the temperature of the fuels and the air. A change in temperature, and the resulting
change in relative humidity, will change the fuel moisture content and thus ease of ignition.
Thus higher temperatures normally mean fuel pieces that are warmer, drier and more easily
ignited.
Relative humidity
All air contains a certain amount of water in an invisible gaseous form called water vapour.
Relative humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the air as a percentage of its
water vapour holding capacity at the same temperature. In the absence of rain, the amount
of moisture in dead finer fuels, for example leaves, litter and grass, varies according to the
level of humidity in the air.
On humid days, fine dead fuels absorb moisture from the air and burn more slowly or may
not burn at all. On dry days with low humidity levels, the air will draw moisture out of these
fuels and they will ignite more easily, and burn faster and more fiercely.
The temperature and relative humidity vary throughout the day (see Figure 9.)
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Figure 9 Fire Intensity
Fire intensity increases as the temperature rises and relative humidity falls during the day. It
is reduced as humidity increases and temperature drops at night.
Wind speed and direction at the flaming zone
Wind speed is an important factor in determining the intensity of a fire, the speed at which it
travels and how it is controlled. Wind supplies oxygen for the burning process, removes ash
and smoke from the area and has the effect of increasing the rate of burning. The stronger
the wind, the more oxygen is supplied to the fire and the more smoke is removed.
Wind slants the flames over the fuel ahead of the fire and causes the flames to be closer to
the ground. This increases the heating effect of flame and radiation on the unburnt fuels
ahead. The effect of this is to spread the fire more quickly from one piece of fuel to another.
Wind also bends the convection column through taller vegetation ahead of the fire, causing
it to dry out rapidly. This may allow the subsequent ignition of this vegetation.
The wind may also lift burning materials, such as bark and other embers, and carry them
ahead of the main fire to start new fires. These are called spot fires (see Figure 10.)
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Figure 10: The effects of wind
Wind direction refers to the direction the wind is coming from. For example, a north wind
describes a wind originating from the north of where you are standing and travelling in a
southerly direction. Sudden changes in wind direction can cause shifts in the fire front.
These shifts can be particularly dangerous if they occur unexpectedly. Firefighters require
information regarding any potential changes in wind direction to help them attack a fire and
to ensure crew safety in the event of the fire changing direction.
Each locality has its characteristic winds. Some of these bring the hot, dry conditions that
cause problems for firefighters. Other local winds may be relied upon to bring cooler
conditions. Generally, winds that blow from the centre of the continent are hotter and drier
than those which blow from the sea. A knowledge of local wind patterns is helpful to
firefighters.
WARNING
A dangerous aspect of wind change is that it can alter the direction of the fire without
warning. This can cause long and relatively quiet fire flanks to suddenly become active fire
fronts.
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Level of atmospheric stability
Atmospheric stability refers to the vertical movement of air masses which occurs when hot
air rises and is replaced by cooler air. Atmospheric stability is important because vertical air
motion can affect local wind patterns. Atmospheric stability also determines, to a large
extent, cloud development and in particular the possibility of thunderstorm development.
In stable atmospheric conditions:
stratus type clouds (the clouds are in layers) are present
smoke columns drift apart after limited rise
the vertical movement of air is limited
there are fog layers
the winds are generally light and predictable
Fire behaviour will be predictable in these circumstances.
In unstable atmospheric conditions, fire behaviour is erratic. Convection columns will
develop rapidly and intense spotting may occur with little warning. In turn, the airflow into
the fire at low levels is increased, and this has a marked effect on fire intensity.
In unstable atmospheric conditions:
cumulus (cotton wool) type clouds show noticeable vertical growth
smoke columns can rise to great heights
winds are gusty and unpredictable
lightning strikes may occur from thunderstorms
dust whirls (willy willies) may occur
Fire behaviour can be unpredictable under these conditions.
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4 Topography
Topography describes the lay of the land, that is the shape of the terrain. The topography
will affect the direction and speed at which a fire will travel. The effects can be quite
complex as the topography will at the same time modify the local wind speed and direction.
Slope
If a fire is travelling upslope, there will be a shorter distance for radiant heat to travel from
the flames to unburnt fuel. Upslope fuels will be preheated to their ignition temperature
more quickly. Slope can then affect the speed of a fire (see Figure 11). A rule of thumb that
may be used is, for every 10 degrees of upslope, double the rate of spread. For downslope,
while fire spread may be slower, consider it at the same rate of spread as on flat ground.
Figure 11: Effect of uphill slope
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Aspect
Aspect is the direction that a feature or slope faces. This will influence the amount of solar
radiation that is received. Therefore, northerly and westerly aspects will be warmer and
drier than southerly and easterly aspects. This will also influence the nature of the
vegetation growing on different aspects. For example, northern and western aspects will
generally have drier and more flammable vegetation than southern and eastern aspects
where vegetation will tend to be lush and less flammable.
Therefore, fires on northern and western aspects will generally burn more fiercely than fires
on southern and eastern aspects.
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Wind
The way that wind interacts with terrain can be quite complex. Exposed faces of hills and
ridges will have increased windspeeds, while their leeside may be almost calm. Under some
circumstances, the leeside can have dangerous turbulent winds blowing in the reverse
direction (see Figure 12.) Valleys may have similar conditions.
Figure 12: Lee slope turbulence
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SUMMARY
The three factors that affect fire behaviour are:
fuel
weather
topography.
Fuel varies according to its:
type
size and quantity
arrangement
moisture content.
Fine fuels burn readily given the right conditions. Coarse or heavy fuels tend to ignite less
readily and burn more slowly. Most fuels are made up of both fine and heavy fuels.
The arrangement of fuels affects how they burn.
Fire behaviour is affected by how damp fuels are, that is, their moisture content.
The four key elements of weather that impact on fire behaviour are:
air temperature
relative humidity
wind speed and direction at the flaming zone
atmospheric stability.
Topography is the lay of the land, that is, the shape of the terrain. It affects the way in which a
fire will travel.
Slope can affect the speed of a fire. A rule of thumb that may be used is, for every 10 degrees
of upslope, double the rate of spread.
Aspect influences how dry fuels are and how rapidly fires burn.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. Fire behaviour depends on fuel, weather and topography.
2. Fuel is a key factor in determining fire behaviour and travel.
3. Well‐separated fuels are harder to ignite than closely grouped collections of
fuel.
4. Fine, loosely stacked fuels burn slowly.
5. Fire behaviour is affected by the moisture content in fuel.
6. Dead fuels are unable to take up or give off moisture.
7. The dryness of fuel affects ease of ignition, probability of spotting, rate of
combustion and fire spread, and the amount of heat radiated from the flames.
8. The key elements of weather are air temperature, relative humidity, wind
(speed and direction) and atmospheric stability.
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9. Humidity refers to the water vapour contained in the air.
10. Wind speed has no effect on the intensity of a fire and the speed at which it
travels.
11. Atmospheric stability affects vertical air motion and this affects local wind
patterns.
12. Topography refers to the lay of the land.
13. Fires travel faster downslope than upslope.
14. Southerly and easterly aspects are warmer and drier than northerly and
westerly aspects.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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CHAPTER 3
Wildfire development
1 Introduction
Wildfires can be generally described in terms of the fuel in which they are burning. This
chapter examines briefly the characteristics of the different types of fire, and defines
important parts of a wildfire’s perimeter (see Figure 13.)
2 Types of fire
Surface fire
This type of fire travels just above ground surface in vegetation such as grass, low shrubs and
forest litter.
Characteristics:
by far the most common type of fire
burns in fuels lying on the ground
consumes only litter and low vegetation, such as grass
does not extend into the crowns of trees
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Ground fire
This type of fire burns the organic material in the soil layer, as happens in a peat fire, and
often also the surface litter and small vegetation.
Characteristics:
occur only in a few parts of Australia
smoulder with no flame and little smoke. This can be a problem because they can burn
unnoticed and may later ignite surface fires
Crown fire
This is a fire which burns in the crowns of trees ahead of, and above, an intense surface fire
in the undergrowth. Radiant heat and direct flame contact resulting from the surface fire
ignites the tree tops. Strong winds carry the fire along the upper storey vegetation.
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Characteristics:
It is a fast‐travelling fire that is most destructive and usually consuming all in its path
Crown fires are followed shortly afterwards by an intense surface fire
Often crown fires are accompanied by short or long distance spotting. For example,
spotting distances of up to 25 kilometres have been recorded
Falling material from a crown fire can start further surface fires below
Crown fires are exposed to higher wind speeds in the open air and because of this can
move faster than surface fires
Ground fire Surface fire Crown fire
Figure 13: Types of fire
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3 Spotting
A spot fire is a new fire which has been ignited ahead of a main fire by embers or a burning
object often called a fire brand. This occurs when hot, convected air from a fire lifts the
embers and drops them in front of the main fire.
Factors that impact on spot fires are:
atmospheric instability, which determines how vigorous the convection column is and
how easily it can carry embers aloft
fuel moisture content
breaks in a forest canopy which cause downdrafts
the nature of the fuels being burnteucalypt stringy bark is most prone to causing mass
spotting. Stringy bark eucalypts are commonly associated with mass, short‐ distance
spotting (up to one or two kilometres), whereas candle barked eucalypts may be
associated with very long‐distance spotting
Some problems arising from spot fires are:
the effective rate of spread of a main fire front may accelerate rapidly if spot fires start
ahead of it
in a wind of varying direction, the spread of spot fires will be unpredictable
turbulence on lee slopes and elsewhere may drive spot fires back towards the main front
and may cut off firefighters
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WARNING
If fire brands start to fall in the area around you and many spot fires begin to occur in the
area, the situation is critical. You must evacuate from the area immediately. Do not attempt
to suppress multiple spot fires unless you have sufficient resources and a large, safe refuge is
available.
Did you know?
Forest wildfires usually start between 1300 hours and 1500 hours, the driest time of the day.
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4 Parts of a wildfire The shape of a wildfire may be defined by its perimeter the edge of the burnt area. Within
this there may be burning areas, smouldering areas and blackened areas, as well as pockets
of unburnt fuel. There will also be a point of origin that may or may not be identifiable
without detailed investigation. Components of the perimeter as illustrated in Figure 14
include:
the head
the flanks or sides
the fingers
rear or heel (or sometimes referred to as the back)
spot fires ahead of the main fire
Figure 14: Parts of a wildfire
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Head of a fire
The head of a fire is where the fire is making its greatest progress (usually downwind or
upslope) measured by its forward rate of spread. The head is also called the fire front.
Flames are tallest and intensity of the fire is greatest at this point. The head of the fire is
influenced by wind direction, fuel factors and topography and will change accordingly.
Flanks or sides
Both sides of the fire between the head and the rear are called the flanks. They are roughly
parallel to the main direction of spread. The intensity of the fire at the flanks is less than at
the head. Often they are described by their geographic location (for example, the eastern
flank of a fire) or by their orientation as viewed from the rear of the fire (for example, the
left or right flank of a fire).
Fingers These are long and narrow slivers of the advancing fire which extend beyond the head or
flanks, and are caused by varying wind direction or variations in fuel.
Rear or heel This is the section of the perimeter opposite to, and usually upwind, or downslope from, the
head of a fire. It is the least intense part of the fire’s perimeter, with the lowest flames and
slowest rate of spread. It may be described as the back of the fire.
Point of origin This is the area where the fire started. The likely point of origin should, if possible, be left
undisturbed for later fire cause investigation.
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SUMMARY
Fires are described in terms of the fuels in which they are burning.
A surface fire burns in surface vegetation such as grass, scrub and forest litter.
A ground fire burns the organic material in the soil layer, as in a peat fire, and often also the
surface litter and small vegetation.
A crown fire burns in the crowns of trees ahead of and above an intense fire in the
undergrowth.
A spot fire is a new fire which has been ignited ahead of a main fire by embers or a burning
object often called a fire brand. These fires sometimes occur many kilometres ahead of the
main fire.
The perimeter is the entire outer boundary of a wildfire.
A wildfire is defined by its perimeter:
the head
the flanks or sides
the fingers
rear or heel (or sometimes referred to as the back)
point of origin.
The head is the part of a fire where the rate of spread, flame height and intensity are greatest,
usually when burning downwind or upslope.
The flanks or sides are the sides of a wildfire between the head and the rear.
The fingers are slivers of the advancing wildfire which extend beyond the head or flanks.
The rear or heel is the section of the perimeter opposite to, and usually upwind or downslope
from, the head of the fire.
The point of origin is where the fire started.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. A surface fire burns the organic material in the soil layer.
2. A ground fire burns in surface vegetation.
3. A ground fire smoulders with no flame and little smoke.
4. A crown fire burns in the crowns of trees ahead of a fire in the undergrowth.
5. Spotting occurs when hot, convective air from a fire lifts the embers and carries
them in front of the main fire.
6. The shape of a wildfire may be defined by its perimeter.
7. The head of a fire is influenced only by wind direction and fuel.
8. The intensity of a fire is greatest at its flanks.
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9. The fingers usually extend beyond the heads or flanks.
10. The point of origin is where the fire started.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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Chapter 4
On the Fireground
1 Introduction
In Chapters 2 and 3 you were introduced to the basic principles of fire behaviour and how
fire spread can alter dramatically depending on changes in fuel, weather and topography. In
this chapter, the techniques involved in suppressing a wildfire are briefly covered. These fall
broadly into two categories:
offensive strategies where the fire can safely and effectively be attacked or extinguished
defensive strategies where the fire is too remote or too intense to be safely or effectively
attacked or extinguished.
Offensive strategies usually include:
Direct Attack
Parallel Attack
Indirect Attack
This chapter also covers mopping‐up operations and the roles of Emergency Services
personnel on the fireground.
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2 Direct attack
A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity wildfires that can be easily and safely reached
by firefighters. Firefighters work directly on the edge of the fire (see Figure 16.) This edge
then becomes the established control line. In bushland settings, firefighters, using handtools
or mechanical equipment such as bulldozers can clear a strip of exposed earth (called a
mineral earth control line) along the fire’s perimeter. Be careful not to drag burning
material across the control line. You may need to push fuel into the fire in some
circumstances. Firefighters may also use water, foam and fire retardants to extinguish a fire.
In grassland situations, water is commonly used to extinguish the burning edge of the fire. A
mineral earth control line may not be required.
To make a direct attack you can use:
water contained in knapsacks or tankers, or in hoselines from a static water source
bull dozers and other earth moving equipment
handtools such as axes, rakehoes (McLeod tools) and chainsaws
The advantages of a direct attack are:
less area is burnt
the fuel is removed from the immediate path of the fire, allowing the earliest possible
control
parts of the fire edge that may have gone out may be quickly incorporated into the fire
line
The disadvantages of a direct attack are:
firefighters working at the fire’s edge can be exposed to heat and smoke
an irregular control line has to be constructed in a short time (if the fire’s perimeter is
irregular)
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fences and natural barriers may present obstacles
patrol of the constructed control line can be difficult
Warning
Community Fire Units never undertake direct attack of fires, but they do protect
properties in the direct path of a fire.
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3 Head attack and flank attack
A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of the fire (see Figure 15.) This type
of attack is used only for low intensity wildfires where you can get close enough to attack
the burning edge and where you can be sure that the fire will not flare up unexpectedly.
Figure 15: A head attack
By contrast, a flank attack involves approaching the fire from the flanks and working directly
on them if possible (see Figure 16.) A version of flank attack is to work from the rear
progressively towards the head of the fire in an attempt to “pinch” it out. This technique is
used when it is impractical or unsafe to approach the head of a fire front on.
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Figure 16: A flank attack
Warning
Community Fire Units do not undertake a flank attack on a fire, but protect properties on
the flanks or in the way of the head of fires.
4 Parallel attack
This technique is used for low to medium intensity fires. It involves the construction of a
control line parallel to the fire, or just a short distance away from the fire’s edge (see Figure
17.) The distance back from the fire will depend on:
the intensity of the fire
the type of fuel
weather conditions
topography.
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In general, control lines are constructed as close as possible to the flanks of the fire and
irregularities in the fire’s perimeter can be by‐passed using this technique. You can use a
range of equipment to construct control lines, for example handtools, ploughs, bulldozers
and chain saws. The fuel between the main fire and the control line can be burnt out by
other firefighters as the work on the control line proceeds. If this is not possible, you must
patrol the control line to ensure that it is not crossed when the main fire reaches it.
Figure 17: Parallel attack
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5 Indirect attack
This technique is used for intense and inaccessible wildfires. The indirect method requires
the use of either a natural fire barrier or the construction of a control line some distance
from the fire’s existing perimeter. The fuel between the control line and the main fire is
backburned. By backburning some distance from the wildfire’s existing perimeter, the fire is
robbed of fuel. This technique is generally used when firefighting at close range is not
possible, either because of the terrain, or because the fire is too intense (see Figure 18.)
Figure 18: Indirect attack
The advantages of an indirect attack are:
can be used to control a more intense wildfire
it reduces the exposure of firefighters to the effects of wildfire
it allows choice of better locations for control lines
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it allows more time for control line construction
The disadvantages of an indirect attack are:
the size of the fire is increased
the increased size gives a greater area to be controlled and patrolled and there is a
greater chance of the fire breaking through the control lines
the fuel between the fire and the control line may have to be backburned. The two fires
joining may result in intense fire activity at the junction zone (where the fires meet) and
an increased chance of spotting
Note
Indirect attack of a fire includes cleaning up your property prior to the summer
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6 Mopping up and patrol
Mopping‐up (or blacking‐out) operations involve making sure that a contained or checked
fire does not restart. When the perimeter of a wildfire is extinguished, a strip inside the
perimeter must be blacked out to extinguish all smouldering material. The width of this strip
will vary. Your Incident Controller or crew leader will tell you how far inside the control line
this work should be taken. The depth will depend on:
the size of the wildfire it may be possible to mop‐up the entire area of small fires
nature of the fuels lots of heavy, smouldering fuels inside the mopped‐up perimeter
increase the risk of re‐ignition. The mopped‐up margin may need to be deeper
terrain or topography control lines on slopes with burnt ground above have a risk of smouldering material tumbling down across the line. Mopping up must be extended
further upslope to reduce this risk
weather conditions the likelihood of severe weather in the near future may make a
deeper mopped‐up zone desirable
A mopping‐up operation involves locating and extinguishing any smouldering fuel above or
below ground. This is done manually with hand tools, or by wetting the fuel, or both. You
should:
extinguish any smouldering and hot materials
place any smouldering fuel found outside the control line into the burnt out area
break up fuel concentrations to release the heat
turn smouldering logs into a position where they will not roll into an unburnt area
dig out and extinguish burning roots and stump holes
extinguish any fresh outbreaks
The felling of burning trees, which could fall into unburnt areas or provide wind blown
embers, should only be conducted by suitably trained personnel.
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SUMMARY
Direct attack is when firefighters work directly on the edge of the wildfire and this edge then
becomes the established control line.
Parallel attack involves the construction of a control line parallel to the fire, or just a short
distance away from the fire’s edge.
An indirect attack requires the use of a control line some distance from the wildfire. The fuel
between the control line and the main fire is usually backburned or allowed to be burnt by the
fire itself.
A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of the wildfire, whereas, a flank attack
involves approaching the wildfire from the flanks and then pinching out the head.
Mopping‐up operations involve making sure that a contained or checked fire does not restart.
When firefighting, stay in contact with other people either by sight or radio.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. A direct attack is used mainly on low intensity wildfires.
2. A parallel attack is used for low to medium intensity wildfires.
3. An indirect attack is used for intense and inaccessible wildfires.
4. A head attack involves directly knocking down the head of a fire.
5. The methods used for fighting a wildfire depend on factors such as the rate of
spread, wildfire intensity, spotting, fuel and available resources.
6. Mopping‐up operations involve only locating and extinguishing smouldering
fuel above ground.
7. When fire spread has been checked by the construction of a control line, the
perimeter of a fire must be monitored by patrolling firefighters.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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Chapter 5
Safety on the fireground
1 Introduction
Working on the fireground requires that you are conscious of safe work practices and
potential hazards at all times. This chapter discusses these issues under the three headings:
Job Safety
Specific Wildfire Hazards
Survival in Life‐Threatening Situations
2 Job safety
Any work undertaken on the fireground can be dangerous, particularly when you are:
using equipment with cutting edges, for example axes, rakehoes and chain saws
operating vehicles on steep tracks and trails, or away from formed roads or trails
working near heavy equipment such as bulldozers
When you are working in such situations, you must observe normal safe work practices to
minimise risk of injury to yourself and others. You should:
keep a safe distance from other firefighters using handtools
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carry tools and equipment in the correct way.
never get on or off moving vehicles
step down, not jump from equipment or vehicles
never ride on bulldozers or other equipment not designed for carrying people
not work immediately in front of or behind a bulldozer, but rather to the side
be alert to rolling and falling materials
Chainsaw Operations on the Fireground Identify where the operator is, and ensure you know what the operator intends to
do.
Ensure that you maintain an appropriate distance from the operator, keeping in
mind that you could be standing in the operators escape route.
If the operator is felling a tree, identify where the tree is intended to be fallen. Be
mindful that even a very experienced operator’s tree may not fall where intended.
Identify the planned area for the tree falling, plan your escape route and be ready to
move away if needed
Driving on or near a Fire ground If driving on or near a fire ensure that all lights are on, this increases your vehicles visibility.
Most fire grounds will have dust and smoke in the air, this can decrease visibility to nothing
in seconds. If you have a need to stop park your vehicle to one side of the trail, this allows
other vehicles to pass. Ideally try to park on the same side other vehicles around you have
parked on. Parking off to the side also reduces the risk of a vehicle collision in an emergency
evacuation as drivers know that vehicle will be on one side of the road.
If you park near a fire, get out and have a quick look around at the trees near your vehicle,
check to make sure the trees look safe. Once on the fire ground look around constantly to
make sure your situation awareness is not lost. Look out for changes in wind direction, fire
behaviour these may indicate that it is time for you to leave for a safer location.
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3 Specific wildfire hazards
Hazards which may be encountered on the fireground include:
heat stress
smoke
fatigue
electrical hazards
structural fire hazards
dangerous trees
changes in fire behaviour
Heat Stress Personnel working on the fireground may experience some form of heat stress as a result of:
radiant heat from the flames
high temperatures normally experienced under summer conditions
high body temperature caused by strenuous work
Heat stress can lead to heat exhaustion and, ultimately, to heat stroke which can be a life‐
threatening condition.
The symptoms of heat exhaustion are:
cramps
clammy skin
feeling faint
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light headedness
dizziness
headaches
nausea
The symptoms of heat stroke (a medical emergency) are:
dry, hot skin
disorientation, mental confusion
staggering and loss of co‐ordination
collapse
convulsions
loss of consciousness
Where heat exhaustion or heat stroke is evident, you should follow these guidelines:
remove the affected person from further exposure to heat sources
loosen the person’s clothing to allow for the evaporation of perspiration
provide an adequate intake of fluids (small sips of water or weak cordial) at regular
intervals
WARNING
When heat stroke is suspected, you must act quickly. This can be a life‐threatening
condition. Seek medical assistance or report immediately to your Incident Controller or
team leader.
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How to avoid heat stress
You can minimise heat stress by:
wearing the correct protective clothing in accordance with the relevant agency
guidelines.
drinking lots of water
sharing heavy work loads
walking and not running
working at a comfortable distance from the fire
taking breaks when appropriate
avoiding unnecessary exposure to radiant heat
Smoke
Smoke is an ever‐present irritant at fires, but prolonged exposure to heavy smoke can be a
hazard to personnel on the fireground. Smoke irritates eyes and lungs. In addition, heavy
smoke contains carbon monoxide (CO) which is poisonous. Too much smoke and CO can:
reduce your performance on the fireground
bring on fatigue more quickly
Minimise the effects of smoke by:
avoiding unnecessary exposure to it
using smoke masks and goggles, where provided, or if necessary, handkerchiefs or other
cloth to cover your mouth and nose
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NOTE
In situations where there is heavy smoke, be aware that fresh air pockets may be found near
the ground.
Fatigue
Firefighting can involve strenuous work for extended periods of time. Excessive fatigue will
impair your performance and potentially put your life and that of others at risk. To avoid
this:
pace yourself (that is, conserve energy)
make the maximum use of your rest breaks
ensure that you get adequate meals and maintain your fluid intake
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Electrical Hazards
Emergency responders attend a variety of incidents in which electricity may be involved.
The main types of incidents are:
Downed electrical wires. These may occur as a result of events such as traffic accidents,
storms, or wildfires
Pole top fires. These are fires involving electricity poles. They may be the result of birds
or animals causing an arc; broken insulators; conductors becoming dislodged; or dust or
salt building up on insulators and acting as a conductor in misty or light rain conditions. In
situations where there is a pole fire, untrained emergency personnel must not make any
attempt to extinguish the fire until the electricity has been switched‐off. In these
situations, they should stand clear and wait till assistance arrives.
To avoid exposure to an electric shock, you should remain at least eight metres away and
where possible keep your feet together. This distance may need to be greater if the ground
is contaminated by conducting agents such as water.
REMEMBER – Always assume downed power lines are “Live”
Structural Fire Hazards Community Fire Unit members must NOT enter a building involved in fire under any
circumstances. The toxic smoke and fumes emitted from burning buildings can be fatal. You
must remain upwind at a safe distance from building fires at all times.
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Dangerous Trees Danger may come from the tree itself, the tree’s immediate surroundings, or the prevailing
weather conditions.
What makes a tree potentially hazardous?
Affected by fire
Heavy decay
Dead or partially dead
Very brittle or have hollow trunks
Crown overhanging roads at an angle
Signs of fracture in trunk or branches
Broken limbs hanging in the crown
Excessive lean
Tree is hung up or has a hanging tree resting on it
Root ball exposed
Burning internally
Safety Zones
Once a potentially hazardous tree has been identified by Pink Tape:
A clear working area of two times the height and up to five times the height on the
downhill side of steep slopes of potentially hazardous trees will be maintained.
Changes in fire behaviour As previously discussed Chapter 2; fuel, weather and topography can all affect fire
behaviour. Changes in fire behaviour can present significant risks. Some indicators of a
potential blow up situation are:
Spot fires forming ahead of the main fire
Increasing fire intensity
High levels of fuel
Rapid change in weather conditions
Convergence
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Convergence is when two or more fire fronts join or meet up. The area where fire fronts
converge is referred to as the convergence zone, within which there is increased flame
height and fire intensity.
Fire convergence may eliminate escape routes.
4 Survival in life‐threatening situations
When working on the fireground, you must avoid putting yourself at risk unnecessarily.
Conditions on the fireground can alter quickly and can lead to significant changes in the
overall fire situation. If you find yourself in a position where fire is threatening your
immediate location, and escape is not possible, you must protect yourself from radiant heat.
You can:
Shelter in a property identified as being safe and prepared
shelter in a vehicle make sure that it is not adjacent to heavy fuels, wind up all
windows, close vents and turn on headlights. When sheltering in a vehicle the vehicle
may catch on fire, if you attempt to extinguish the fire do so as safely as possible. If fire is
too large then stand back at a safe distance from the vehicle and report your location and
condition immediately (see Figure 19)
shelter in refuges such as caves and hollows, running streams or other large bodies of
water
dig or scrape out a refuge (the deeper, the better) and lay face down (see Figure 20)
shield yourself with whatever is available, such as woollen blankets or heavy coats
Figure 19: Survival on the fireground
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WARNING
Remain calm and do not run blindly from the fire. Do not run uphill away from a fire unless
you know a safe refuge is nearby. Do not attempt to run through flames unless you can see
clearly behind them.
Always have a plan for where you will shelter.
Figure 20: Protecting yourself from an approaching fire
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5 L.A.C.E.S.
Remember the memory jogger LACES when on the fireground.
Lookout A lookout must be assigned to a safe vantage point with
communications to all crew members to specifically watch for
hazards.
Awareness Monitor and lookout for changes in fuel condition, weather
and topography that affect fire behaviour. Crew condition,
work progress and other nearby crews and equipment must
also be monitored. Safety gear is compulsory.
Communication Maintain lines of communication and report any problems.
Fire fighters maintain communications with all crew members
and command. Any communication problems and black spot
problems are reported. Ensure your instructions are clear.
Escape Routes Check for at least two escape routes and advise crew of these.
Develop and communicate the decision trigger to activate an
escape.
Safety Zones Identify and work from an anchor point when possible. Select
or construct a large enough area for anticipated conditions.
Park your vehicle in a safe spot.
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Also watchout when…
1. Building a control line downhill towards a fire
2. On a slope ‐ rolling material can ignite fuel below you
3. The wind changes speed or direction
4. The weather gets hotter or drier
5. There are unburnt fuels between you and the fire
6. Terrain or vegetation impedes travel or visibility
7. In country you have not seen in daylight
8. Unfamiliar with weather and local fire behaviour
9. Frequent spot fires occur over your control line
10. You cannot see the main fire or communicate with anyone who can
11. Unclear instructions or tasks are given
12. You feel exhausted or want to take a nap near the fire
13. Attacking a fire or constructing a fire‐control line without a safe anchorpoint
14. Working alone with no communications link to crew members or supervisor
15. You are not fully informed about strategy, tactics and hazards
16. Safety zones and escape routes have not been identified
17. The potential of the fire has not been assessed
18. Water levels are getting low
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6 Communication Arrangements
Australasian Inter‐agency Incident Management
System (AIIMS)
Structure
AIIMS provides a management structure whereby the Incident Controller holds overall
responsibility for managing all activities to control the incident. The Incident Controller is
also responsible for managing the Incident Management Team.
To manage an incident, the Incident Controller will establish a management structure
designed to deliver the key functions of control, planning, operations, logistics and public
information.
The way in which these functions are managed will depend on the size and complexity of the
incident. At a small incident, or during the early phases of what may become a large or
complex incident, the Incident Controller may effectively manage all functions. As the
incident develops in size or complexity, the Incident Controller may choose to delegate
responsibility for managing these functions to other people. The management structure
might eventually expand to have separate people and teams managing the delivery of each
of the planning, operations and logistics functions
The responsibilities of the Incident Controller are the same whether the consequences of the
incident are of a minor or major nature. However, incident control becomes more of a
managerial role as the structure expands and the functions of planning, operations, logistics
and public information are delegated.
Delegation of the Incident Controller's responsibilities to persons performing subordinate
functions depends upon the type of incident, location, resources required, control,
difficulties and assets at risk. Once the Incident Controller appoints a delegate to one of the
functional positions, an Incident Management Team results. At all times, however, the
Incident Controller retains the overall responsibility for management of the incident and for
appointment and supervision of the Incident Management Team.
A major benefit of AIIMS is that the management structure can grow as the incident
develops. The Incident Controller develops a structure to match the incident by delegating
responsibilities. To initiate this development, the Incident Controller needs to recognise the
early warning signs of being unable to respond to requests effectively.
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Incident Management Team
Where all functions have been delegated, an Incident Management Team comprises the
Incident Controller, the Operations Officer, Planning Officer, Logistics Officer and Public
Information Officer. The Incident Management Team should meet as necessary, as
determined by the Incident Controller, to assist the Incident Controller to ensure that
control of the incident is being:
properly planned
adequately resourced within the constraints of the agencies
suitably implemented
provides for the safety and welfare of people involved in controlling the incident
minimises impacts on the community and the environment and
is effective and efficient.
Classification of Incident
As incidents grow in size and/or complexity management becomes more demanding and the
Incident Controller needs to consider the delegation of responsibility. In smaller incidents,
the Incident Controller may have the capacity to undertake more than one role and delegate
others. As an incident develops, the Incident Controller may elect to delegate additional
functions to enable them to devote more attention to the control function.
Level 1 Incident
A Level 1 incident is characterised by being able to be resolved through the use of local or
initial response resources only. In a Level 1 incident the major function is operations, which
is to resolve the incident. Control of the incident is limited to the immediate area, and,
therefore, the operations function can usually be carried out by the Incident Controller.
Being relatively minor, the other functions of planning and logistics will, generally, be
undertaken concurrently by the Incident Controller.
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Level 2 Incident
Level 2 incidents are more complex either in size, resources or risk. They are characterised
by the need for:
deployment of resources beyond initial response:
OR
sectorisation of the incident
OR
the establishment of functional sections due to the levels of complexity
OR
a combination of the above.
Level 3 Incident
Level 3 incidents are characterised by degrees of complexity that may require the
establishment of Divisions for effective management of the situation. These incidents will,
usually, involve delegation of all functions.
Incident Action Plan (IAP) The strategic goals, tactical objectives, and support requirements for the incident. All
incidents require an action plan. For simple incidents (Level I) the action plan is not usually in
written form. Large or complex incidents (Level II or III) will require that the action plan be
documented in writing.
SMEACS
SMEACS is a common format used for Incident Action Plans and Incident briefings. Pro
forma’s utilizing this format are available from the relevant agencies.
Before entering afire ground personnel must receive a briefing. Briefings usually commence
with an introduction of the personnel conducting the briefing and an explanation of the
purpose of the briefing. The SMEACS format covers the following points:
Situation – this is an overview of the incident
Mission – this covers the incident objectives
Execution ‐ this covers sectorisation, strategies and tactics
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Administration – this covers administration and logistics
Command and Communication – this covers the Incident Management structure and
the communications plan
Safety – this covers weather, known and anticipated hazards, situations to be aware
of, safety equipment including PPE and welfare issues (hydration, first aid)
Individual sectors or units may have their own IAP’s but these must align to the overall
objective/s.
It is vital for effectiveness and safety that there is a single overarching Incident Action Plan
and that a single chain of command is established with a supporting communications plan.
All personnel must be working to the same objective and maintain two‐way communication
within a command structure which ensures maintenance of effective and pure
communications and decision‐making.
At a minimum; non‐fire personnel entering a fire ground must receive a safety and
communications briefing. Ensure that you are aware of:
The chain of command and communications plan
How to make a call and activate the duress alarm on the radio system
Escape routes
The evacuation decision trigger and the emergency warning protocols (could be a
radio message such as ‘red, red, red’ or a blast of a horn) and action to be taken on
hearing these. If emergency warning protocols are activated – take action
immediately.
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7 Personal Protective Equipment Your personal protection at an incident is of paramount importance. An emergency worker
injured or becoming ill whilst working on the incident ground is a potential liability. Injured
or unwell emergency workers may place themselves and other crew members in danger.
The design and fabrics used in protective clothing are particularly important because
unsuitable clothing can create a heat stress problem. The seriousness of the problem can
range from discomfort to impaired performance, illness, collapse and even death. Protective
clothing can also restrict you in the performance of your task by adding weight and limiting
movement.
The purpose of this document is to provide information on the Selection Care and Use of
Personal Protective Clothing (PPE) for use by members of the ACTF&R Community Fire Units
(CFU).
All PPE worn by ACT firefighters including CFU members is manufactured in accordance with
the most appropriate Australian or International Standard.
It is important to remember that along with your training, your PPE is the first line of
defence to prevent serious injury or even death. All PPE must be kept clean and well
maintained at all times if it is going to provide you with the protection it is designed for.
The following information will assist you with understanding the many facets of your PPE:
Selection
Composition and compliance
When to wear your PPE
How it should be worn
Maintenance
Repairs or replacement
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The function of PPE is to protect the firefighter whilst enabling them to achieve their
objectives. In addition, in emergency situations where it is impossible to achieve the
objectives, the PPE should safeguard the firefighter allowing him or her to escape to a place
of safety.
The PPE is manufactured to specific standards that provide levels of performance
requirements for all firefighters. This enables the above mentioned criteria to be met with
the levels selected being based on a risk assessment.
Bushfire Helmet
The Tuffmaster bushfire helmet is manufactured in compliance with AS/NZS 1801 Type 3
Occupational Protective Helmets For Bushfire.
The helmet has an adjustable harness, neck protector and chinstrap.
The helmet is designed to absorb the energy of a blow by partial destruction or damage to
the shell and harness; the helmet is also designed to provide protection from radiant heat
from a bushfire environment.
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Bushfire Goggles
The Uvex bushfire goggles are manufactured in compliance with AS/NZS 1337 1992 and
AS/NZS 1338 1992.
These goggles are designed specifically for bushfire fighting.
Bushfire Coat and Trousers
The bushfire coat and trousers are manufactured in compliance with AS 4824 Protective
Clothing Used For Wildland Firefighting.
The garments are made of a Proban or simular treated cotton and with the flame retardancy
of the fabric complying with the requirements of EN 531 Para 6.2.2 after 50 washes at75° C
(ISO10528).
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Bushfire Gloves
The Firepro Wildfire Gloves are manufactured in compliance with AS 2161.6 Protective
Gloves For Firefighting.
The gloves have a high wear leather outer shell and a fire resistant proban double ribbed
cuff designed specifically for bushfire fighting.
Bushfire Boots
The Taipan bushfire boot is manufactured in compliance with AS/NZS 4821 2002
Protective Footwear For Firefighting.
The boot is a fully lined leather boot incorporating a toecap; it has a high resistance to heat
and has non‐ flammable laces.
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Bushfire Disposable Face Masks
The Tornado P1 mask is manufactured in compliance with AS/NZS 1716.
The mask has an exhalation valve and is classified as “P1 nuisance level odour removal”.
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Members of the CFU MUST wear protective clothing and other items of PPE when carrying
out bushfire fighting activities. If you have not been issued with CFU PPE, you can still
protect yourself by wearing the following appropriate clothing which includes long pants,
long sleeve shirts, sturdy boots and gloves. A photo of typical clothing is shown below:
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SUMMARY
To minimise injury to yourself and others, you should observe safe work practices at all times.
This includes operating equipment and vehicles correctly and taking care when working near
heavy machinery.
Hazards encountered on a fireground vary but some of the more common ones include heat
stress, smoke and fatigue.
Heat stress can occur as a result of radiant heat, high temperatures and strenuous activity.
The symptoms of heat exhaustion include cramps, clammy skin, headaches and nausea.
Heat stroke is a serious condition that requires medical attention.
Heat stress can be avoided by wearing the correct clothing and by an adequate intake of
fluids.
The effects of smoke can be minimised by wearing masks and goggles, and by reducing the
amount of unnecessary exposure.
Fatigue can be minimised by pacing activities, taking rest breaks, eating correctly and
maintaining fluid intake.
If faced with a life‐threatening situation, protect yourself from radiant heat.
Remember the memory jogger L.A.C.E.S when on the fireground. Lookout, awareness,
communications, escape routes and safety zones.
The Australasian Inter‐agency Incident Management System (AIIMS) provides a structure for
managing all activities to control the incident.
Before entering a fireground personnel must receive a briefing.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. When working near heavy equipment, you should stay to the side, not behind
or in front.
2. You should never get on or off moving equipment.
3. Heat stress can lead to heat exhaustion if not checked.
4. Symptoms of heat stroke include dry, hot skin, disorientation, staggering and
loss of co‐ordination.
5. If heat stroke or exhaustion is evident, you should simply remove the person
from further exposure to heat and wait till the person feels better.
6. Heat stress can be avoided simply by drinking lots of fluids.
7. Exposure to excessive smoke brings on fatigue more quickly.
8. In situations where there is heavy smoke, fresh air pockets can be found near
the ground.
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9. Adequate food and fluid intake help to minimise fatigue.
10. You should never attempt to out run a fire or to run through flames unless you
can see clearly behind them.
11. Lines of communication must be maintained at all times and any problems
reported.
12. One escape route must be available
13. AIIMS is a management structure which can grow as the incident develops.
14. Where all functions have been delegated the Incident Management Team
comprises the Incident Controller and the Logistics Officer.
15. Non‐fire personnel entering a fireground must receive a safety and
communications briefing.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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Chapter 6
Aircraft at wildfires
1 Introduction
This chapter covers the various uses of aircraft at a wildfire, the safety precautions you
should take when working in and around aircraft, and what to do in an inflight emergency
situations and if you are caught in a firebombing zone.
A range of aircraft is used in wildfire suppression activities. The uses of aircraft at an
incident can vary widely. The main uses are:
fireground command and control
detecting fires
applying water or aerial retardants (that is, firebombing)
igniting backburns
transporting crews and equipment
observing and mapping fires using infra‐red equipment and other technology
fire bomber co‐ordination
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2 Safety precautions
When working in and around aircraft, there are general safety principles that apply. You
should observe these precautions at all times:
always follow the directions given by the pilot, flight crew or aircraft co‐ordinator
wear correct eye, ear and head protection when working on or near an airstrip or
helipad. Do not wear loose head gear, for example, a baseball cap
stand clear of landing and take off areas and do not smoke within 30 metres of an
aircraft or refuelling equipment
be aware of propellers and rotors, particularly when engines are idling, during warm up
and brief stops. Never lean on them as this may cause the engine to turn over and cause
injury
do not handle moving parts such as flaps, aerials and airspeed sensing tubes as these can
be easily damaged
when boarding or leaving aircraft, be careful to avoid using panel areas marked “No
Step”
assist with loading equipment or materials only under the supervision and guidance of
the pilot, as the pilot is responsible for the correct weight and balance of the aircraft
6 What to do if caught in a firebombing drop
zone
Firebombing is a term used to describe the dropping of water, foam or retardants in wildfire
suppression activities. Firebombing activities are usually carried out by helicopters or fixed‐
wing, agricultural type aircraft.
If caught in a firebombing zone:
move away from the fire line
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do not run or panic
watch out for dead or suspended branches
place hand tools well clear of you
hold helmet on or protect head with arms
watch your footing
wash with cold water if hit with foam or retardant
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SUMMARY
Aircraft are used for the following purposes:
fireground command and control
detecting fires
applying aerial retardants
igniting backburns
transporting crews and equipment
observing and mapping fires using infra‐red equipment and other technology
aircraft management, for example, bomber co‐ordination and drop procedures.
Safety principles when working around aircraft require firefighters to:
wear the correct personal protective clothing and equipment
follow instructions given by the pilot and flight crew.
Do not:
smoke
handle (or mishandle) aircraft equipment.
Do:
approach, board and disembark from the aircraft in the correct manner
carry equipment in the correct manner to avoid personal injuries or damaging
the aircraft.
While travelling in aircraft, firefighters must follow the instructions given by the pilot and
flight crew.
In an emergency situation, follow the appropriate procedures for bracing yourself.
In a firebombing drop zone, foams and retardants are used for suppression activities. If in a
firebombing zone, follow correct procedures. If splashed with retardant, wash exposed areas
with cold water as soon as possible.
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Self‐check questions
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false: T F
1. Aircraft are used for detecting fires, transporting crews and equipment, and for
igniting backburns.
2. If caught in a firebombing zone, move away from the fire line.
Check the answers section at the back of this manual to see how you
went.
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Answers to self‐check questions
Chapter 1 Fire
1. T 5. T 9. T 13. F
2. F 6. F 10. F 14. T
3. T 7. F 11. F 15 F
4. T 8. T 12 T
Chapter 2 Factors which affect wildfire behaviour
1. T 5. T 9. T 13. F
2. T 6. F 10. F 14. F
3. T 7. T 11. T
4. F 8. T 12. T
Chapter 3 Wildfire development
1. F 4. T 7. F 10. T
2. F 5. T 8. F
3. T 6. T 9. T
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Chapter 4 On the fireground
1. T 3. T 5. T 7. T
2. T 4. T 6. F
Chapter 5 Safety on the fireground
1. T 5. F 9. T 13. T
2. T 6. F 10.. T 14. F
3. T 7. T 11. T 15. T
4. T 8. T 12. F
Chapter 6 Aircraft at wildfires
1. T
2. T
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Glossary Adaptor
A fitting used to couple different sized hoses, hoses of the same size with different threads,
or different types of couplings, or to connect the male to male, or female to female parts of
the same type of coupling.
AFAC
The Australasian Fire Authorities Council is the national body representing urban, rural and
land management agencies within Australia and New Zealand with the responsibility for the
protection of life and property from fire and other emergencies.
Appliance
A firefighting vehicle, usually equipped with a pump and water supply.
Backburning
A fire ignited along the inner edge of a control line to consume the fuel in the path of a
wildfire.
Blackout
Complete extinguishment of all burning material in a given area (see mop‐up)
Branch
An attachment fitted to the end of a hose to speed up the water to form an effective jet or
spray pattern.
Breeching
A device to divide one hose line into two or collect two hose lines into one.
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Bushfire
A general term used to describe a fire in vegetation.
Chemical chain reaction
This is the fourth dimension of the fire tetrahedron. (see Fire tetrahedron).
Combustion
Rapid chemical combination accompanied by heat and usually light. It is the process of
burning.
Competency
Skills and knowledge and their application within an occupation to the standard of
performance required in the workplace.
Contained
A fire is contained when its spread has been halted, but it may still be burning freely within
the perimeter or control lines.
Control line (fire line)
A natural or constructed barrier, or treated fire edge, used in fire suppression and prescribed
burning to limit the spread of fire.
Controlled
The time at which the complete perimeter of the fire is secured and no breakaway is
expected.
Crew
The basic unit of a fire suppression force, normally consisting of 5‐10 personnel.
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Crown fire
A fire which burns in the crowns of trees ahead of and above an intense fire in the
undergrowth. A fast‐travelling fire that is most destructive and usually consuming all
available fuel in its path.
Defensive strategy
A firefighting strategy used in wildfire situations where the fire is too remote or too intense
to be safely or effectively attacked or extinguished.
Delivery hose
Hose made in various diameters of fabric construction and used to transport water under
pressure. Delivery hose may or may not be internally lined with rubber or plastic.
Direct attack
A method of wildfire attack where wet or dry firefighting techniques are used. It involves
suppression action right on the fire edge which becomes the control line.
Draughting
Relates to static water supplies, and is the action of removing the air from the suction hose
and pump casing to create a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure then forces water up the hose
and into the pump to replace the vacuum, enabling the pump to deliver water.
Driptorch
A canister of flammable fuel fitted with a wand, a burner and a fuel flow control device. It is
used for lighting fires for prescribed burning and backburning.
Dry firefighting
The suppression of a fire without the use of water. This is normally achieved by removing
the fuel, by the use of hand tools or machinery.
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Energy
Source of power which may be released in forms such as heat, light and movement.
Fingers
Narrow slivers of the advancing wildfire which extend beyond the head or flanks.
Fire danger
Summation of all factors determining whether fires will start, spread and do damage and
whether and to what extent they can be controlled.
Fire tetrahedron
An instructional aid in which the sides of the tetrahedron (comprising four triangular shaped
figures) are used to represent the four components of the combustion and flame production
process fuel, heat, oxygen and the chemical chain reaction.
Fire triangle
A figure illustrating the three components necessary for a fire to burn and continue to burn
oxygen, heat and fuel.
Firebombing
A technique of suppressing a wildfire by dropping water, foam or retardants on it from an
aircraft.
Fixed‐wing aircraft
A heavier than air aircraft which obtains lift for flight by forward motion of wings through
the air.
Flank attack
Obtaining control of a fire by attacking its sides (flanks).
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Flanks
Those parts of a fire’s perimeter that are roughly parallel to the main direction of spread.
Foam
Foam is the aerated solution created by forcing air into a water solution containing a foam
concentrate.
Foam ‐ Class A
A firefighting agent produced by adding Class A concentrate to water and passing it through
a foam or spray nozzle. Class A foam is more effective and more persistent than plain water.
Forest fire
A fire burning mainly in forest and / or woodland.
Fuel
Any material such as grass, leaf litter and live vegetation which can be ignited and sustains a
fire. Fuels can be categorised as fine or heavy and are usually measured in tonnes per
hectare.
Ground fire
A fire burning in thick layers of humus and vegetation, found in forest or swampy ground or
peat.
Head attack
Directly knocking down the head of a fire. Recommended only for low intensity fires where
firefighters can be sure that the fire will not flare up unexpectedly.
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Head of the fire
The part of the fire where the rate of spread, flame height and intensity are greatest, usually
when burning downwind or upslope.
Heavy fuels
Dead woody material, greater than 6mm in diameter, in contact with the soil surface (fallen
trees and branches).
Heel, rear or back
The section of the perimeter opposite to and generally upwind (or downslope), from the
head of the fire.
Hot Spot
A particularly active part of the fire (usually on an edge). It is usually associated with heavy
fuel.
Ignition
The process for starting combustion.
Indirect attack
The use of backburning as a method of suppression to confine the fire within a defined area
bounded by existing or prepared control lines. Control lines may be a considerable distance
ahead of the fire.
Industry and specified standards
Competency standards which have been developed specifically for an industry.
Initial Attack
The first suppression work on a fire.
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Knock down
The rapid application and concentration of water or foam, intended to reduce fire intensity
prior to manual follow‐up action.
Mineral earth
A term used to describe the ideal condition of a constructed firebreak, being completely free
of any vegetation or other combustible material.
Mop up (see blackout)
To make a controlled fire safe, by extinguishing or removing burning material along or near
the control line, felling stags, trenching logs to prevent rolling and the like.
Nozzle
A fitting that is used with a branch to control the size, pattern and/or velocity of water or
extinguishing medium being discharged. A separate nozzle may be fitted to the end of a
branch, or the branch and nozzle may be a combined unit.
Offensive strategy
A firefighting strategy used in wildfire situations where the fire can safely and effectively be
attacked or extinguished.
One‐lick method
A method for a team of firefighters to construct a firebreak in which each firefighter in line
removes part of the vegetation as they move along, so that all of it has been removed once
the team has passed along.
Oxygen
Colourless, odourless gas, making up about one fifth of the volume of the atmosphere. It is
the supporter of combustion in the air.
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Parallel attack
A method of suppression in which a fire line is constructed approximately parallel to and just
far enough from the fire edge to enable firefighters and equipment to work effectively. The
line may be shortened by cutting across unburnt fingers. The intervening strip of unburnt
fuel is normally burnt out as the control line proceeds
Patrol
1. To travel over a given route to prevent, detect and suppress a fire.
2. To go back and forth vigilantly over a length of control line during and/or after
construction, to prevent breakaways, to control spot fires, and extinguish overlooked
hot spots.
3. A person or group of persons who carry out patrol activities.
Perimeter
The entire outer boundary of a fire area. From the point of view of attack, it is important to
know which part of the perimeter is burning rapidly and which is burning slowly.
Point of origin
The location at which the fire started.
Portable dam
A temporary water storage used in conjunction with power pumps and hose lines.
Primer
A device used to remove air from a pump casing and suction hose line so that atmospheric
pressure can force water, from a dam, pond, creek or river, up the hose into the pump.
Pulaski tool
A hand tool used for wildfire fighting consisting of a combination of a hoe and an axe.
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Pumper
A firefighting vehicle equipped with large capacity pump, water tank and hose. Generally
intended to be operated when stationary, from reticulated or static water supplies.
Quickfill pump
High volume pump.
Rakehoe/McLeod tool
A hand tool used for wildfire fighting, consisting of a combination of a heavy rake and hoe.
Rate of spread
The speed of expansion of the perimeter of a fire. Forward rate of spread relates to the
movement of the head fire.
Rear / heel / back
The section of the perimeter opposite to and usually upwind or downslope from the head of
the fire.
Relative humidity
The amount of water vapour in a given volume of air, expressed as a percentage of the
maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that temperature.
Relief crew
Replacement personnel for those whose period at the fire has reached an end.
Rotary wing aircraft
Aircraft which obtain lift for flight by the rotation of rotors through the air. Helicopters are
an example.
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Scrub fire
A fire burning in land of low economic value from a forestry point of view.
Spot fires
Isolated fires started ahead of the main fire by sparks, embers or other ignited material,
sometimes to a distance of several kilometres.
Spotting
The ignition of spot fires from sparks or embers.
Standard operating procedures
A set of organisational directives that establish a standard course of action on the fireground
to increase the effectiveness of the firefighting team. They are written, official, applied to all
situations, enforced and integrated into the agency’s management of incidents.
Step‐up method
A method used by a team of firefighters to construct a firebreak in which each firefighter
completely constructs a section of the firebreak after which the entire team "steps up" to
the next section.
Suction hose
Hoses, made in various diameters, of reinforced rubber or plastic, used to draft water out of
ponds, dams, creeks, tanks or rivers.
Staging area
A location close to the incident where personnel and equipment are available.
Strike Team
A set of resources of the same type that have an established minimum number of personnel.
Strike teams always have a leader (usually in a separate vehicle), and have a common
CFU Basic Wildfire Awareness Learner’s Guide
Version 1.1 November 2011 91
communications system. Strike teams are usually made up of five resources of the same
type such as vehicles, crews and earth moving machinery.
Surface fire
A fire which travels just above ground surface in grass, low shrubs, leaves and forest litter.
Tanker
A mobile rural firefighting vehicle equipped with water tank, pump and hoses.
Taskforce
A combination of resources that can be assembled for a specific purpose. Task forces usually
have a leader (usually in a separate vehicle), and have a common communication system.
Task forces are established to meet tactical needs and may be demobilised as single
resources.
Tongue
Long narrow fingers of advancing fire which extend beyond the head or flanks.
Topography
The surface features of a particular area or region. It may include mountains, rivers,
populated areas, roads and railways and fuel types.
Under control
When complete perimeter is safe and no breakaway is expected.
Wetting agent
A chemical added in low concentration to water. It is used in firefighting to break down the
surface tension of the water and improve its penetration into fuels.
Wildfire
An unplanned fire. A generic term which includes grass fires, forest fires and scrub fires.