Basic Facts to Deeper Understanding: Bridging the Gap for Middle Elementary Students

Review of the Literature

Jacquelyn SeirerCI 840

Wichita State UniversitySpring 2012

As students reach the middle elementary grades, they have become increasingly proficient at the building blocks of reading and math, namely decoding text and basic math facts. Middle elementary students then must face the challenge of using their basic skills in reading and math for more complex problem solving and acquisition of information. Challenges arise when students in the middle elementary grades lack proficiency in basic math facts or lack fluency in reading. Those students then struggle to apply their skills toward more advanced problem solving or deeper level understanding of text. Educators must work to find ways to help students who are less proficient at basic skills in the middle elementary grades.

For teachers of the middle elementary grades, the question then arises: “How can teachers help students bridge the gap between knowledge of basic facts and deeper understanding?” The following will investigate current understanding of basic skills in reading and math for middle elementary students. One strategy for increasing proficiency, peer tutoring, will be examined with a brief study of its effectiveness in a fourth grade classroom.

Reading Fluency

Oral reading fluency is of the utmost importance to middle elementary students in order for them to pursue deep, meaningful understanding of text. Research has shown that oral reading rate is a strong indicator of overall reading achievement, and that improving reading rate can have a great impact on increasing overall reading scores (Cates & Rhymer, 2006). Oral reading fluency can be accurately measured by calculating a student’s number of words read correct per minute (WCPM), and this is a valid measure of reading ability (Hale et al., 2007). Oral reading fluency can be improved by targeting sight words, repeated readings, and a variety of group and choral reading activities. One method to improve reading fluency is repeated reading. “Repeated reading consistently improved students’ fluency on reread passages,” (Therrien, Wickstrom, & Jones, 2006, p. 90). This method of rereading passages to build fluency and confidence can be helpful for struggling readers, as they build confidence and make gains in the area of oral reading fluency.

Fluency cannot be treated, however, as though it is nothing more than reading a desired

number of words per minute. Rasinski (2004) cautions against treating fluency as only reading rate. There are actually three levels of fluency, including word decoding, automatic processing, and prosodic reading. For readers to be successful, they must be able to decode quickly and automatically, but also pay attention to the expression and rate with which they read. In middle elementary grades, students must hear models of fluent reading and be coached in ways to improve their expressiveness while reading aloud. Students also need the opportunity to practice their own fluency. Middle elementary students can improve all three levels of fluency by participating in repeated readings and reading aloud from poems, reader’s theater, and plays. Explicit Timing in Reading

Oral reading fluency is, therefore, a worthwhile target for readers at all levels. One method used to increase oral reading rate is to target the skill of sight word reading. Cates and Rhymer (2006) studied the effects of timing on students’ rate of reading Dolch sight word phrases. In their study, participants were asked to read Dolch sight word phrases and were timed for three minute intervals. Participants were timed covertly and then explicitly timed. The researchers found an increase in the number of Dolch sight word phrases read correctly in a three-minute span when participants knew they were being timed. The researchers found that “By simply telling students that their academic performance will be timed students have demonstrated increased response rates” (Cates & Rhymer, 2006, p. 149). Perhaps, then, increasing response rates in oral reading tasks will increase a student’s’ reading fluency.

Reading ComprehensionReading well in the elementary grades can not be isolated to simply reading fluently. In

order to be successful in upper elementary academic tasks, readers must comprehend what they are reading. Although it is critical to address problems in reading fluently, increasing WCPM does not necessarily improve comprehension. In fact, reading aloud requires the reader to divide cognitive resources between comprehension and oral production (Hale et al., 2007). In middle elementary grades, many readers are ready to do the majority of their reading silently. In Hale’s research, reading comprehension was measured after both reading aloud and reading silently. The researchers found that for struggling readers, comprehension was positively affected by oral reading, but for advanced readers there was no effect on comprehension after oral reading. Average readers actually faced a negative impact on comprehension after reading aloud.

Therrien, Wickstrom, and Jones (2006) studied the effects of question generation on reading comprehension. Their research combined the areas of reading fluency and reading comprehension. Participants in their study were asked to read a passage orally and reread until a WCPM target was met. Once the passage was read at the targeted rate, participants were then asked to generate questions over what they had read, using generic question stems. Readers then answered their own questions orally. This combined approach targeted both fluency and comprehension, and increases were made in both areas. The researchers indicate that the combined approach intervention “has the potential to increase students’ overall reading achievement.” (Therrien, Wickstrom, & Jones, 2006, p. 95). Reading Relates to Math

Reading well is critical to academic success, but students must also engage in mathematical problem solving and computation. Rutherford-Becker and Vanderwood (2009) studied how literacy and mathematics are related in curriculum-based measurements. The researchers compared students’ scores on measures of oral reading fluency, comprehension, mathematical computation, and applied mathematics. They found that reading comprehension was a better indicator of performance on applied mathematics than was oral reading fluency. Performance on math computation was also an indicator of performance on applied mathematics. Their findings indicate that improving student performance on reading comprehension tasks could result in improved applied math skills. They also find that addressing deficiencies in math computation can have a positive effect on applied math skills. Similarities can be drawn between reading and math, in that reading instruction should focus on both fluency and comprehension, and math instruction should address not only computation but also applied problem solving. Explicit Timing in Math

Explicit timing can be effective for math instruction, as well as for reading instruction. Codding, et al., state that explicit timing “is an effective procedure for increasing rates of responding without decreasing accuracy” (p. 605). The researchers caution, however, that an explicit timing intervention for math computation should be used only when students are able to be accurate in their computation. They found, when comparing students of varying ability levels, that when students are learning a new computation skill, their focus should be on building understanding and error-proof practice. The research shows that explicit timing on

math computation shows the greatest impact on students who perform computation accurately but not fluently (Codding et al., 2007). Increasing performance on computation fluency also has a positive effect on students’ abilities to perform applied math problems. Applied Math Problems

Students need to be successful in both math computation and solving math problems. One barrier to successful math problem solving, as noted earlier, may be problems with reading comprehension, including the reading and comprehension of instructions or information for applied math problems. Another barrier to successful math problem solving may be motivation for students to perform well on such tasks. Bates and Wiest (2004) studied the impact that personalization of math word problems could have on student achievement in applied math. These researchers found that in upper and middle elementary grades, personalization of word problems by using the students’ names or including topics of interest to the students can be an effective way to increase student performance on applied word problems. They noted that even changing word problems to include the word “you” has been shown to increase motivation and performance on word problems. The researchers assert that poor performance on word problems by fourth graders may be attributed to a lack of experience with word problems, irrelevance to the students’ lives, or a lack of motivation to perform well on word problems.

An elementary school in Atlanta, Georgia, tried a three-part approach to increasing their students’ math scores, particularly in the area of problem solving. Bogan (1997) describes the school’s approach, which used adult volunteer tutors, cross-age tutoring, and peer tutoring with students who were at-risk for deficiencies in math achievement. The at-risk students were paired with tutors and given instruction in math problem solving. After tutoring, math achievement scores increased, as did student motivation in regards to mathematical problem solving. Peer Tutoring and Motivation

Motivation is an important factor to consider when contemplating methods to use to increase achievement, whether in reading or in math. Students who struggle with basic math facts or who simply aren’t fluent readers are likely not highly motivated to engage in those activities which are difficult for them. Furthermore, as noted earlier, deficiencies in mathematical computation or in reading fluency generally result in difficulties with reading comprehension and applied math problem solving. Students who are struggling in these areas are also likely to suffer from poor motivation to perform at those more difficult tasks. In several studies, peer tutoring has been shown as an effective way to increase motivation in academic tasks.

Paquette (2008) examined the effects of cross-age tutoring on students’ attitudes toward writing. The researchers used a pre- and post-test, as well as interviews, to assess students’ attitudes toward writing and their perceptions of their own writing ability before and after the tutoring experience. Second graders were paired with fourth graders and given specific writing tasks. After the tutoring, the students’ perceptions of themselves as writers had increased, and the students reported that they enjoyed the tutoring experience. This study indicates positive

effects of tutoring in the area of writing.

It has been shown that the positive effects of tutoring are not limited to a specific academic area. Allen (2011) finds tutoring to be an effective, low-cost method to increase motivation and performance across all academic areas and in any grade level. Several types of tutoring can be used, including cross-age tutoring, peer tutoring, and reciprocal tutoring. Training is important to the success of any tutoring program, including formal tutoring programs such as PALS (Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies), and constant monitoring and feedback is crucial to ongoing success. Successes in tutoring programs are not limited to academic achievement, however. Students who participate in tutoring programs report increased motivation and positive attitude toward school.

Tutoring helps all students who are involved, including those who are the tutees and those who are the tutors. Students who receive tutoring experience increases in academic understanding and a higher level of motivation to perform well when participating in a tutoring program (Gartner & Riessman, 1994). Student tutors can benefit from a tutoring experience, as well. These students, while tutoring their peers (or in a cross-age experience), gain a deeper level of understanding and have a richer learning experience. Reciprocal tutoring, where students switch roles from tutor and tutee, enable all students to gain from experiencing both roles. Essential to any successful tutoring program, however, is teacher support to provide adequate training, feedback, and supervision to tutoring partnerships. Peer Tutoring and Math

Topping, et al. (2003) studied the effects of peer tutoring on math achievement. Like other tutoring experiences, the researchers found that students’ attitudes and motivation toward math problem solving was increased with the peer tutoring experience. The researchers noted an increase for both the tutors and the tutees in the areas of self-esteem, self-assessment of learning, and the use of mathematical vocabulary following the peer tutoring experience. Increasing students’ self-esteem and motivation toward math can help them to see a connection between math concepts and their use in the students’ lives. As noted earlier, a positive attitude toward math problems can have a positive effect on student performance in mathematical skills.

With this correlation in mind, a short study was conducted in a fourth-grade classroom to examine the effects of peer tutoring on students’ performance on long division exercises, and the effects of peer tutoring on students’ self-assessment of abilities on long division.

Methodology

ParticipantsThe participants for this study are 22 fourth-grade students. They range in age from

nine years old to eleven years old. There are 11 males and 11 females in the class. Four students receive special education services for learning disabilities in reading through thirty minutes of pull-out instruction daily. One student receives special education services for emotional/behavior disorder and has paraeducator support throughout the school day. One student receives special education services for extended learning through sixty minutes of pull-

out instruction per week. No students are eligible for ELL services.

Peer Tutoring InterventionStudents were paired according to pre-test data to work on long division problems.

Students who scored well on the pretest were matched with students who scored lower, with considerations being made by the teacher as far as behaviors, leadership qualities, and which students work well together. Tutors were given instructions on how to help their partners if they were having difficulty solving a problem, and the steps for solving long-division problems were reviewed with the entire class. Tutors were given prompts to use with their partners for each step. Expectations for tutoring behaviors were given, including using encouragement, talking quietly with a partner, and focusing on the assigned problems.

Assessments. A pre-and post-test were given for long division problems (see Appendix A and B). Pre- and post-test contained six division computation problems, ranging from one-digit answers with no remainders (least complex), to three-digit answers with zeroes in the answers and remainders (most complex). The pre- and post-test also included two word problems that required division to solve. Additionally, students were asked to rank their ability in division according to four choices (see Appendix A and B). The pretest was given on a Friday, and the posttest was given on the following Friday. The pretest and posttest were not identical but contained the same types of problems with the same degree of complexity.

Procedures. The students were paired into tutoring partnerships by the teacher and

assigned partners and an area in the classroom to work on the Monday following the pretest. Each day for five days, partners met and worked together through two to four division problems. Before each tutoring session, steps of division and prompts for tutors were reviewed, as well as a review of classroom expectations during tutoring sessions. During tutoring sessions, the teacher circulated among groups to monitor discussions and help partnerships stay on task. Each tutoring session lasted approximately fifteen minutes and took place during regular math instruction (see Appendix C).

Results

Twenty two students participated in peer tutoring for division problems. The students were given a pretest and a posttest of division problems. Figure 1 shows the results of the division pretest and posttest.

Figure 1. Pretest and posttest scores for 22 fourth grade students participating in peer tutoring for division problem solving.

Pretest scores ranged from 0 to 8. One student scored a perfect score on the pretest. Mean score for the pretest was 4.9. Tutors’ (students 1 through 11) scores ranged from 3 to 8. One tutor had a perfect score on the pretest. The mean score for the tutors on the pretest was 5.6. Tutees’ (students 12 through 22) scores ranged from 0 to 6. No tutees scored perfect scores on the pretest. The mean score for tutees on the pretest was 4.1.

Posttest scores ranged from 3 to 8 when considering the entire class. Two students in

the class scored perfect scores on the posttest. The overall mean score for the posttest was 5.4, for a gain of 0.5 from pretest to posttest. Tutors’ posttest scores ranged from 5 to 8. Two tutors had perfect scores on the posttest. The mean posttest score for tutors was 6.3, showing a gain of 0.7 from pretest to posttest. Tutees’ posttest scores ranged from 3 to 6. No tutees showed perfect scores on the posttest. The mean score for tutees on the posttest was 4.6, showing a gain of 0.5 from pretest to posttest.

Figure 2 shows students’ self-assessment of division learning before and after the peer tutoring experience.

Figure 2. Student self-assessment of division learning before and after peer tutoring experience.

Students were asked to rate their own assessment of their division learning both before and after the peer tutoring experience. They could choose one of four options:

1. I completely understand division.2. I understand the steps for division, but I don’t know the facts.3. I know division facts, but I don’t understand the steps for division.4. I don’t understand division at all.

Before tutoring, 12 students chose option 1, indicating that they understood division.

After tutoring, 16 students responded that they understood division. Before tutoring, four students indicated that they didn’t understand division at all, as compared to only one student responding that way after tutoring. This student self-assessment shows an increase in positive attitude toward division following peer tutoring. Discussion

According to pretest and posttest data, peer tutoring seems to have had a positive effect on students’ achievement with division problems. Both tutors and tutees showed an increase in scores from pretest to posttest. Additionally, student self-assessment improved, with more students indicating that they understood division after peer tutoring, and fewer indicating that they didn’t understand division.

This study was limited due to a small number of students available for peer tutoring

and a short amount of time to practice the strategy. Additionally, data was collected only

through pretest and posttest and self-assessment activities. More data could be gained from interviews with students or an examination of problem solving strategies used by peer tutoring partnerships. Future research could examine the effect of a longer-lasting peer tutoring program, or a peer tutoring program that involved more students. Future research could also focus on the effects of peer tutoring in other subject areas or different types of math problems.

The research data generated by this fourth grade classroom correlates with what is

found in the literature: peer tutoring is an effective way to increase academic achievement and positive student attitude.

References

Allen, R. (2011, April). Increase student engagement and achievement with peer tutors. Education Update, 53(4). Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ publications/newsletters/education-update/apr11/vol53/num04/ Increase-Student-Engagement-and-Achievement-with-Peer-Tutors.aspx Bates, E. T., & Wiest, L. R. (2004). Impact of personalization of mathematical word problems on student performance. The Mathematics Educator, 14(2), 17-26. Bogan, E. (1997, April). Three equations for an equitable math program. Educational Leadership, 54(7), 46-47. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ publications/educational-leadership/apr97/vol54/num07/ Three-Equations-for-an-Equitable-Math-Program.aspx Cates, G. L., & Rhymer, K. N. (2006, Fall). Effects of explicit timing on elementary students' oral reading rates of word phrases. Reading Improvement, 43(3), 148-156. Codding, R. S., Shiyko, M., Russo, M., Birch, S., Fanning, E., & Jaspen, D. (2007, December). Comparing mathematics interventions: Does initial level of fluency predict intervention effectiveness? Journal of School Psychology, 45(6), 603-617. Gartner, A. J., & Riessman, F. (1994, November). Tutoring helps those who give, those who receive. Educational Leadership, 52(3), 58-60. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov94/vol52/num03/ Tutoring-Helps-Those-Who-Give,-Those-Who-Receive.aspx Hale, A. D., Skinner, C. H., Williams, J., Hawkins, R., Neddenriep, C. E., & Dizer, J. (2007). Comparing comprehension following silent and aloud reading across elementary and secondary students: Implication for curriculum-based measurement. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(1), 9-23. Paquette, K. R. (2008, Winter). Study of elementary students' attitudes about writing after a cross-age tutoring experience. Reading Improvement, 45(4), 181-191. Rasinski, T. (2004, March). Creating fluent readers. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 46-51. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/ educational-leadership/mar04/vol61/num06/Creating-Fluent-Readers.aspx Rutherford-Becker, K. J., & Vanderwood, M. L. (2009). Evaluation of the relationship between literacy and mathematical skills as assessed by curriculum-based measures. The California School Psychologist, 14, 23-34. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ878358.pdf Therrien, W. J., Wickstrom, K., & Jones, K. (2006, May). Effect of a combined repeated reading and question generation intervention on reading

achievement. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 21(2), 89-97. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.proxy.wichita.edu/doi/10.1111/ j.1540-5826.2006.00209.x/pdf Topping, K. J., Campbell, J., Douglas, W., & Smith, A. (2003, Winter). Cross-age peer tutoring in mathematics with seven- and 11-year olds: Influence on mathematical vocabulary, strategic dialogue and self-concept. Educational Research, 45(3), 287-308. Retrieved from http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org.proxy.wichita.edu/WebZ/ FTFETCH?sessionid=fsapp4-55686-h0pna0ea-mr1jvq:entitypagenum=8:0:rule=100:ftsourc e=multi:fetchtype=fulltext:dbname=ECO_FT:recno=1:resultset=3:ftformat=PDF:format= BI:isbillable=TRUE:numrecs=1:isdirectarticle=FALSE:entityemailfullrecno=1:entitye mailfullresultset=3:entityemailftfrom=ECO_FT:

Appendix APretest for Division Problems

Solve. 1. 56/8 2. 49/6 3. 161/7 4. 358/6 5. 903/3 6. 512/5 7. My husband earns $130 for working two softball games. How much does he earn for each game? 8. Where the Red Fern Grows has 22 chapters. If I read 3 chapters each day, how many days will it take to read the whole book? On the back of your quiz, answer the following question: How well do you think you know how to do long division?

1. I completely understand division.2. I understand the steps, but I don’t know my facts.3. I know my division facts, but I don’t understand the steps.4. I don’t understand division at all.

Appendix BPosttest for Division Problems

1. 35/7 2. 43/6 3. 128/4 4. 198/8 5. 624/6 6. 411/2 7. I made 46 cookies. I wanted to put them in groups of 2. How many groups can I make? 8. 55 fourth graders went bowling. If 4 students can bowl on a lane, how many lanes will they need? On the back of your quiz, answer the following question: How well do you think you know how to do long division?

5. I completely understand division.6. I understand the steps, but I don’t know my facts.7. I know my division facts, but I don’t understand the steps.8. I don’t understand division at all.

Appendix CLesson Plan for Peer Tutoring for Division

Day 1:Give pretest to students. After scoring, pair students into peer tutoring partnerships. Day 2:Announce partnerships for peer tutoring. Review the steps for long division with entire class. With tutors only, discuss prompts to use to help the tutees if they get stuck on a step. Discuss helping tutees without giving them answers. With entire class, discuss expectations of peer tutoring experience, including appropriate behaviors and what to do if you need help. Give two division problems for partnerships to work on together. After time to work, check the problems with the class to provide immediate feedback. Days 3, 4, and 5: Review steps for division and peer tutoring behavioral expectations. With tutors, review prompts. Give four division problems for partnerships to work on together. After time to work, check the problems with the class to provide immediate feedback. Day 6: Give posttest to students.

Math Word Problems/ Applied MathFluency/Oral Reading rateMotivation/Attitude Toward LearningReading ComprehensionTutoring, Peer Tutoring, Reciprocal TutoringExplicit Instruction, Explicit Timing Codding, R. S., Shiyko, M., Russo, M., Birch, S., Fanning, E., & Jaspen, D. (2007, December). Comparing mathematics interventions: Does initial level of fluency predict intervention effectiveness? Journal of School Psychology, 45(6), 603-617. In this article, researchers examined the use of two types on interventions on math computation fluency. One intervention was a copy, cover, compare method, where students copied a problem, covered what they had copied, worked it again, and then compared the two. The other intervention was an explicit timing intervention where students were timed for one minute and scored on correct responses on written computation exercises. The researchers found that explicit timing worked well to increase computational fluency for students who were already able to complete computation problems accurately.Key Points:

● Students need to be at an accurate level for explicit timing to work effectively in math instruction.

● Improving computation achievement will have a positive effect on applied math achievement.

● Explicit timing increases number of responses without having a negative effect on accuracy.

Bates, E. T., & Wiest, L. R. (2004). Impact of personalization of mathematical word problems on student performance. The Mathematics Educator, 14(2), 17-26. This research study focused on personalizing word problems according to students' interests and using their names in the word problems. The authors cited several existing studies that show increased achievement on word problems when personalization was used. The authors note that poor performance on word problems could be attributed to the students' limited experience with word problems, their lack of motivation to complete word problems, and irrelevance of the problems to the students' lives. In this research study, however, personalizing word problems for the 4th grade participants had no significant impact on their success with the word problems. The authors noted that the study had a small participant size and that only two assessments were used to determine impact on

achievement. Key points:

● Personalization of word problems has been shown to be effective in improving student performance in upper elementary and middle grades.

● Personalization of word problems has been shown to be effective in two step story problems.

● Using “you” in word problems has been shown to increase motivation and performance on word problems.

● Authors of this study indicated that further research could show whether instruction with personalized math problems would increase performance on assessments.

Hale, A. D., Skinner, C. H., Williams, J., Hawkins, R., Neddenriep, C. E., & Dizer, J. (2007). Comparing comprehension following silent and aloud reading across elementary and secondary students: Implication for curriculum-based measurement. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(1), 9-23. This research study was conducted to consider the implications on reading comprehension when students read aloud compared to reading silently. The authors cited previous research that indicated that comprehension was positively impacted by reading aloud. They also cited research that indicated that comprehension is not positively affected by reading aloud. Other studies cited indicated that reading aloud can have a positive impact on comprehension for poor readers, but a negative effect on comprehension for average readers, and that reading aloud has no effect on strong readers. The study was conducted by having students read three passages aloud and three passages silently, followed by the students answering comprehension questions for each passage. The students who participated were in fourth and fifth grade and in high school. The study showed that reading aloud had a positive effect on comprehension. The researchers noted that there was no way to ensure that students did in fact read the entire passage when reading silently. The researchers also discussed students were assisted in oral reading when they came to a word that they didn't know, which could have positively impacted their comprehension.Keywords: Reading comprehension, silent reading, oral reading, words correct per minute, curriculum-based measurement Key points:

● Words read correct per minute (WCPM) is a valid measure of reading ability, although it does not address comprehension.

● Reading aloud requires the reader to divide their attention between comprehension and oral production.

● In this study, oral reading was shown to have a positive effect on reading comprehension.

● Further research could be done to indicate whether students read the entire passage during silent reading (the study mentioned goggles to track eye movements).

Feng, S., & Powers, K. (2005, Summer). The short- and long-term effect of explicit grammar instruction on fifth graders' writing. Reading Improvement, 42(2), 67-72. This research study focused on the effects of explicit grammar instruction in fifth graders' writing. The authors cited research that shows that grammar instruction is best done within writing instruction rather than as isolated skills. The researchers worked with a group of fifth graders throughout the school year, collecting three different writing samples. After an initial writing sample, the researchers examined the students' writing and grouped their errors into three categories: sentence structure, mechanics, and usage. The students were then instructed in the areas in which they made mistakes, with both whole-class and small group mini lessons. The researchers then collected two more writing samples. One sample was taken a week later to investigate the short-term effects of explicit instruction, and the final sample was taken at the end of the school year to investigate the long-term effects of explicit instruction. The study indicated that explicit instruction had a positive effect on the students' writing in both the short-term and long-term samples.Key points:

● It is necessary to examine students’ writing to determine what type of errors they are making to guide instruction on grammar skills.

● Mini-lessons and whole group instruction on specific skills using writing samples can help students to use those skills correctly when writing.

● Peer editing may not be effective because students are not aware of mistakes in grammar or how to correct them. Instead, conferencing with the teacher will help students to identify and correct mistakes in their own writing.

Cates, G. L., & Rhymer, K. N. (2006, Fall). Effects of explicit timing on elementary students' oral reading rates of word phrases. Reading Improvement, 43(3), 148-156. This study examined the use of explicit timing for students who had been referred to the school psychologist for reading difficulties. The authors cited several studies that indicated that explicit timing can be an effective method of improving student performance in math and writing. The authors suggested that very little research has been done on the use of explicit timing in reading skills. For this study the researchers

worked with four students in second and third grades who had been recommended to their school psychologist for reading difficulties. The students were given three minutes to accurately read Dolch sight word phrases. In the first attempt, the students were covertly timed for three minutes. In the second attempt, the students were explicitly timed for three minutes. Both sessions were then repeated. Examination of the data suggests that explicitly timing the students increased their number of accurate responses with the Dolch sight word phrases. The authors mentioned that further research could be done to examine the effects of explicit timing on other reading passages. They also noted that increased correct responses could not indicate whether or not the students were able to comprehend what they had read.Key points:

● There is extensive research on the use of explicit timing in other subject areas, but not much research on using explicit timing in reading.

● Increasing accurate responses within a certain amount of time does not necessarily result in increased comprehension.

● This research could also be used to examine the use of explicit timing in students who are identified with reading difficulties.

Paquette, K. R. (2008, Winter). Study of elementary students' attitudes about writing after a cross-age tutoring experience. Reading Improvement, 45(4), 181-191. This research article discussed a study of second- and fourth-graders who participated in a cross-age tutoring experience for writing. The researchers used a pretest and post-test to measure students' attitudes toward writing before and after the tutoring experience, as well as interviews following the tutoring experience. The author cited research that indicated benefits from cross-age tutoring for both the tutor and the tutee. The author also cited research regarding the effects of self-perception as it pertains to students' writing abilities. In this study, second- and fourth-graders were participants in a cross-age tutoring program specific to writing skills. Pre- and post-test data indicate that the students' attitudes toward writing did not improve following the tutoring experience. Interviews with the students, however, indicated that both the second-graders and the fourth-graders considered themselves to be better writers after the tutoring experience and that they enjoyed the tutoring experience and would be willing to participate in cross-age tutoring again. The author suggests that the students may have been tired of writing by the end of the study, therefore ranking the post-test with lower marks than they did on the pretest.Key Points:

● Students’ perceptions of their writing ability are very important and could indicate later writing performance.

● Students are usually very motivated and engaged by writing at an early age, but lack motivation by the middle elementary grades.

● Cross-age tutoring has been shown to be beneficial for both the tutor and the tutee in various age groups and subject areas.

Topping, K. J., Campbell, J., Douglas, W., & Smith, A. (2003, Winter). Cross-age peer tutoring in mathematics with seven- and 11-year olds: Influence on mathematical vocabulary, strategic dialogue and self-concept. Educational Research, 45(3), 287-308. Retrieved from http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org.proxy.wichita.edu/WebZ/ FTFETCH?sessionid=fsapp4-55686-h0pna0ea-mr1jvq:entitypagenum=8:0:rule=100:ftsourc e=multi:fetchtype=fulltext:dbname=ECO_FT:recno=1:resultset=3:ftformat=PDF:format= BI:isbillable=TRUE:numrecs=1:isdirectarticle=FALSE:entityemailfullrecno=1:entitye mailfullresultset=3:entityemailftfrom=ECO_FT: In this study, researchers paired seven- and eleven-year-olds in a rural school for the purpose of peer tutoring with mathematical games. The researchers took data before the pairing relative to students' self-esteem, self-assessment of learning, and use of mathematical vocabulary. After participating in math games with their paired tutor/tutee twice a week for five weeks, the researchers again took data related to self-esteem, self-assessment of learning, and use of mathematical vocabulary. They found gains in all areas for both tutors and tutees. The researchers noted several studies indicating the peer tutoring and reciprocal peer tutoring provide increased motivation and higher measures of self-esteem. The researchers indicate that increasing positive affect toward mathematics is likely to increase mathematical achievement.Key Points:

● It is important to help students foster a positive attitude and affect toward mathematical learning and to help them see the connections between math and real life.

● Cross-age and peer tutoring has been found to be beneficial for both tutor and tutee.● Cross-age and peer tutoring requires student training.

Therrien, W. J., Wickstrom, K., & Jones, K. (2006, May). Effect of a combined repeated reading and question generation intervention on reading achievement. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 21(2), 89-97. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.proxy.wichita.edu/doi/10.1111/ j.1540-5826.2006.00209.x/pdf

This study was done with students in fourth through eighth grade who were identified as having a learning disability in reading or at-risk for reading deficiencies. The researchers used a read-adapt and answer-comprehend intervention program, where students were asked to reread a passage until the student reached a target or words read correctly per minute. After reading, the students were asked to adapt generic question stems to fit the passage that they had read and orally answer the generated questions. The data collected from the study indicated that the students' fluency scores increased (words read correct per minute). The students also had an increase of comprehension questions answered correctly following the intervention. The researchers point out that increases in both fluency and comprehension increased the students' overall reading achievement scores.Key Points:

● Rereading has been shown to increase fluency.● Question generation has been shown to increase reading comprehension.● As a student is able to read fluently, more cognitive resources can be devoted toward

comprehension.

Rutherford-Becker, K. J., & Vanderwood, M. L. (2009). Evaluation of the relationship between literacy and mathematical skills as assessed by curriculum-based measures. The California School Psychologist, 14, 23-34. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ878358.pdf This study examined the relationship between literacy and mathematics skills as assessed by curriculum-based measures. The researchers studied student performance on four different curriculum-based measures to find relationships and whether performance on literacy would predict performance on mathematics. Students were assessed using the AIMSweb curriculum based measure of oral reading fluency and the Maze as an assessment of comprehension. They were also assessed on math computation and applied mathematics. The researchers found that performance on the reading comprehension assessment was a greater indicator of performance on applied math than was performance on the oral reading fluency. Performance on the math computation assessment was a greater indicator of performance on the applied mathematical assessment. The researchers indicated that student performance in reading comprehension does affect the ability of students to perform applied math problems.Key Points:

● Students who experience difficulty with reading comprehension may also experience difficulty with applied mathematics, which require reading comprehension to process the math problems.

● Interventions in reading comprehension may also increase students’ performance in applied math concepts.

● Proficiency in math computation is a good predictor of proficiency in applied math.● Oral reading fluency does not accurately predict performance in applied math.

ASCD Articles Rasinski, T. (2004, March). Creating fluent readers. Educational Leadership, 61(6), 46-51. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/ educational-leadership/mar04/vol61/num06/Creating-Fluent-Readers.aspx This article described three levels of fluency needed for students to be successful, fluent readers. The author mentioned that fluency is composed of accuracy of word decoding, automatic processing, and prosodic reading. The author cautioned against teachers treating fluency as nothing more than word rate, encouraging students to read faster without regard to text meaning and expression. The author suggested teaching fluency by modeling fluent, expressive reading, coaching students in improving their fluency and expression, and offering opportunities for repeated readings and reading aloud from poems, reader's theater, and plays. Fluent reading will be more automatic for students with practice and attention to word decoding strategies.Key Words: fluency, prosodic reading, repeated readings, expressive reading Allen, R. (2011, April). Increase student engagement and achievement with peer tutors. Education Update, 53(4). Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ publications/newsletters/education-update/apr11/vol53/num04/ Increase-Student-Engagement-and-Achievement-with-Peer-Tutors.aspx This article presents peer tutoring as an effective, low-cost method to improve student achievement in any academic area and across any grade level. The article describes cross-age tutoring, cross-ability tutoring, and reciprocal tutoring. The author suggests that any peer tutoring program will not be successful without appropriate tutor training. The author proposes that tutors should also be asked regularly for feedback, monitored routinely, and retrained as necessary. The author also suggests that peer tutoring can have non-academic benefits, such as improved school atmosphere, reduced behavior problems, and increased student motivation. The author described peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) as a formal program for peer tutoring in reading and math.Key words: peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring, reciprocal tutoring, peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS), cross-ability tutoring

Bogan, E. (1997, April). Three equations for an equitable math program. Educational Leadership, 54(7), 46-47. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/ publications/educational-leadership/apr97/vol54/num07/ Three-Equations-for-an-Equitable-Math-Program.aspx In this article, the author describes a three-part approach used by an elementary school in Atlanta, Georgia. The school was experiencing low math scores for at-risk students. The school adopted a tutoring system to address the issue of improving math scores. The school began a program where community adult tutors were trained and assigned students to work with. The school also used cross-age tutors, where 7th graders assisted 3rd graders with math problems. Additionally, the school used peer tutors within classrooms, particularly with special needs students. The author reflects on the tutoring experience as a positive one. She noted that achievement scores improved, as did motivation of at-risk students.Key words: community adult tutors, cross-age tutors, peer tutors Gartner, A. J., & Riessman, F. (1994, November). Tutoring helps those who give, those who receive. Educational Leadership, 52(3), 58-60. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/nov94/vol52/num03/ Tutoring-Helps-Those-Who-Give,-Those-Who-Receive.aspx This article discusses the advantages of tutoring for those who are the tutors and those who receive the tutoring. The authors present several examples of tutors who deepened their understanding and gained a richer learning experience through tutoring others. Tutees also gained higher scores in the areas in which they were tutored and had improvements in motivation, attendance, and attitude towards learning and receiving help. The authors described a reciprocal tutoring approach where one half of a class was instructed in how to tutor a subject one day, and the other half was instructed the next day. The authors also discussed how teacher support is critical for a successful tutoring experience.Key words: reciprocal tutoring, tutoring, motivation