baseline assessement of cowpea breeding and seed - icrisat

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Baseline assessment of cowpea breeding and seed delivery efforts to enhance poverty impacts in sub-Saharan Africa

O. Coulibaly, A. D. Alene, T. Abdoulaye, C. Chianu V. Manyong, C. Aitchedji, D.. Fatokun, A

Kamara, B. Ousmane; H. Tefera, S. Boahen, in collaboration with NARS from Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, Malawi, Kenya and Mozambique

Geographic Location(s) of project: Nigeria:- Kano, Kadawa; Borno

Mali:- Segou; Niger:- Maradi. Tanzania:- Ilonga, Hombolo, Ismani; Mozambique - Ruace, Nampula, Sussundegga; Malawi Kenya

(a) Activities: Proposed activities of Objective 1

(i) Baseline studies and situation and outlook analysis for targeted legumes

(ii) Monitoring and evaluation including surveys to monitor adoption,

(iii) Targeting innovations for up-scaling and for reaching vulnerable

groups

(iv) Capacity building for NARS partners

(v) Coordination Reviews and field works carried-out in year 1 and year 2

1. Situation and outlook analysis 2. Gaps analysis and PVS surveys 3. Seed systems and seed value chain review 4. Baseline study surveys 5. Backstopping to NARS partners 6. Adoption study Instruments 7. Ex post impact assessment 8. Monitoring and Evaluation framework

Activity 1: Baseline studies and situation and outlook analysis for targeted legumes

Milestones Periods Outputs

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Validated Database 1. Data collection/ validation for situation and outlook analysis; regional situation and outlook reports for targeted legumes in targeted regions

September 2008- March 2009 - Outlook Report

2. Qualitative and quantitative methods for impact monitoring

September 2008 – October 2009

Methods: GIS, participatory methods, tools and indicators

3. Baseline database for the project’s monitoring and evaluation established including format and project indicators

September 2008 - October 2009

Baseline database Monitoring framework Projects’ indicators

4. Survey data at household and community level in target areas for all target crops

September2008-Avril 2009

5. Reports based on preliminary analysis of survey data for initial feedback to breeders and project partners

September 2008-August 2009

Database updated Reports and Feedback to breeders and partners

- Activity 2: Monitoring and evaluation including surveys to monitor adoption

Milestones: Periods Output

1. Ex-post impact assessment framework designed with proper counterfactuals

Sept 2008- December 2009

Impact assessment framework developed and tested

2. Periodic M&E updates tracking progress and achievement of specific objectives

Sept 2008- August 2009 Semi-annual M&E reports

- Activity 3: Targeting innovations for up-scaling and for reaching vulnerable

groups Milestones: Periods Output

1. Provide data useful for promotion materials to be produced under OBJ 7 Seed systems

Sept. 2008- Sept. 2009

Seed systems and baseline survey reports

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Table 1. Level of Achievement of key activities

Activities carried-out Target countries Partners Level of achievement

Indicators of achievement

Nigeria, Mali and Niger (WCA);

IITA, IER, INRAN, PROSAB

Surveys and databases

Reports GAPS ANALYSIS

Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique (ESA)

IITA Surveys and databases

Reports




Reports PARTICIPATORY VARIETAL SELECTION (PVS) SURVEY Kenya, Malawi,

Tanzania, and Mozambique (ESA)


Reports




Reports SEED VALUE CHAIN REVIEW



Reports




Data analysis (on-going)

BASELINE STUDY



Reports



Instruments developed

Adoption study Questionnaires

ADOPTION STUDY


IITA Instruments developed

Adoption study Questionnaires




Report M & E UPDATES


IITA Report

EX –POST IMPACT ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK



Impact assessment Courses, Methodology, Questionnaires

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IITA Impact assessment Courses, Methodology, Questionnaires



Surveys Enumerators trained Reports

BACKSTOPPING of NARS


IITA Surveys Enumerators trained Reports

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I. WEST AFRICA

1.1. Gaps analysis and PVS surveys Cowpea Research – Crop Improvement Research on cowpea has received high priority attention at IITA in the last three decades primarily because cowpea is a crop grown mainly by subsistence farmers in the dry parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for over 70% of cowpea produced and consumed worldwide. Cowpea grains are a relatively cheap source of dietary proteins. Genetic improvement of cowpea at IITA has led to the development of several breeding lines that are adapted to sole cropping. These lines are high yielding. However, most farmers grow cowpea in the same field as cereals such as sorghum, maize, and millets, and this practice put pressure on breeders to develop cowpea varieties that will perform well when intercropped with cereals in the field. The focus of cowpea breeding at IITA therefore changed to selecting lines adapted to intercropping. Apart from breeding for adaptation to mono or intercrop conditions, breeders are also mindful of the need to incorporate genes for resistance to pests and diseases that limit cowpea productivity in SSA. In the recent years efforts have been focused on selecting lines with multiple resistances to the various pests and diseases. Now there are cowpea lines with combined resistance to aphids, flower thrips, Striga gesnerioides, Alectra root knot nematodes and some viruses. In addition, efforts have also been made to select cowpea with consumers- preferred traits such as seed coat colour (brown or white), rough seed coat texture and large seed size. Cowpea improvement activities at IITA will continue with the same level of commitment and will be of mutual benefit to the activities under this project. In order to facilitate progress under this project, efforts will be made to assess the gaps in collaboration between scientists, extension agents and farmers. Goal of GAP Analysis Strengthen capacity of national agricultural research systems scientists, extension agents and farmers to develop and evaluate improved cowpea varieties Objectives of study The main objective is to assess the gaps collaborating scientists, extension agents and farmers’ skills related to cowpea production and utilization in West Africa, mainly in Mali, Niger and Nigeria. Specifically, the study aims to:

- Review information on gaps between scientists, extension agents and farmers’ skills related to cowpea research, innovation, production and utilization

- Identify and analyze key constraints, solutions and challenges in cowpea innovation system (technology generation, dissemination, and utilization).

- identify lessons and gaps in the existing in collaborating scientists, extension agents and farmers’ skills related to cowpea production and utilization

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Surveys and sampling The socio-economic surveys related to TL II objective 1 activities in Mali, Niger and Nigeria were carried-out by teams of enumerators was put together in collaboration with national agricultural research partners from IER (Mali), INRAN (Niger), KNARDA (Nigeria) with a strong backstopping from IITA (Cotonou, Kano, Ibadan and PROSAB/Borno). The activities were carried-out in 2 phases: Training of enumerators in survey instruments and surveys implementation in the target cowpea regions in the 3 countries. Training includes GAP analysis, PVS and baseline surveys instruments. An average of 10 enumerators was selected and trained in each country. For the Gap analysis between research, extension and farmers, 3 target groups have been selected: (1) Scientists working on cowpea and soybean at local and national levels; (2) Extension agents in charge of cowpea and/or soybean-based technologies diffusion and related institutional arrangements like farmer field schools, farm demonstrations and open field days; seed specialists (foundation seeds, certified seeds and seed multiplication and regulations); (3) Key informant farmers knowledgeable on cowpea and/or soybean best bet production, protection, processing and marketing techniques. With the assistance of the local collaborators, a key informant farmer per village who was interviewed on the gaps analysis questionnaire. For the same questionnaires, scientists working on cowpea in IER (Station of Cinzana) and extension agents (public, private, NGOs) in the region of Segou Mali were identified and interviewed. KEY RESULTS FROM REVEWS AND SURVEYS Production and utilization constraints Major problems of cowpea production Small holders and medium scale farmers are facing five factors that constitute the mayor constraint on cropping, storage and consumption of cowpea. They are the following: 1. Abiotic: erratic rainfall, high soil temperatures, low soil fertility and degraded fragile soils; 2. Biotic: insect pests, parasitic weed, diseases induced by fungi, viruses and nematodes; 3. Socio-economic: farmers’ access to inputs is limited through both low purchasing power and poor input market. Seed of improved varieties is not widely available. The difficulty is linked to the high value of cowpea green pods for family consumption and sale. Farmers are reluctant to leave any improved variety mature for seed. 4. Socio-cultural: low acceptability of cowpea as well as low adoption of some improved post-harvest technologies. Change in taste and urbanization, which has favored the imported food at the expense of domestic food 5. Policies: poor policies for fair access to input and product markets and little investment in research mainly in post-harvest and food processing and quality. Among biotic factors, field insects cause the most important losses; sometime cowpea field yield is reduced to zero. But yield losses in the field are only half the problem. Once the crops has been harvested, the grains continue to be damaged by weevils (bruchids). (A BIOTECH, 2000) In general, all technical innovations in the post-harvest area pose socio-cultural or socio-economic constraints. The most common are:

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Low profit margin; Additional workload; Contradict traditional practices. (Bell,. and Muck, 2000).

Proposed improvements Considering that constraints on cowpea development occur in three broad areas, namely, biotic, abiotic and socio-economics, PRONAF funded by IFAD has proposed an interesting program with main research areas that involve:

Participatory methods, introducing and disseminating among farmers technologies such as improved cowpea varieties which show greater resistance to diseases, insects, drought, heat and parasitic weed and adaptable to poor fertility soils;

Development and disseminating to farmers integrated production packages, including IPM technologies developed by IITA and NARES.

Seed multiplication and the diffusion of improved cowpeas. There is the need therefore for an effective seed multiplication and distribution systems for affordable access of farmers to seeds from improved varieties.

Achieving greater impact of cowpea technologies requires improved varieties for both grains and fodder mainly in drylands.

Gaps identified (Scientists, extension agents and key informants farmers)

- Misinformation or lack of information on improved technologies of cowpea Some farmers are misinformed or have no information about improved varieties and other improved technologies and practices. Framers who work directly with research institutes and extension agents have the good information on technologies and have access to improved varieties seeds through participation to on-farm trials and farm visits. The relevant information sharing from trained farmers to other farmers is very limited by many factors or barriers including educational, cultural, socio-economical, policies, and institutional (e.g. farmers’ level of education, number and type of training participating, regular contact with extension agents and/or scientists)

- Government non intervention or intervention limited (research and extension services)

The government doesn’t get actively involved in cowpea development as a key value chain commodity. Subsidies are limited or non available. There is a need for a thorough monitoring and evaluation of mechanism for research and extension services. Farmers have limited resources and need strong support to tackle the main constraints such as access to quality seeds and other inputs including access to credit for equipment. Also effective access to marketing devices and reliable product markets is key to cowpea promotion as a valuable commodity chain for food security and poverty reduction. The contribution of cowpea research and development projects plus farmers’ cooperatives were reflected in an increased average yield from 300 kg to 1500 kg (FAOSTAT, 2006).

- Marketing and constraints to production There has been very few market opportunities for cowpea in Mali contrary to Niger and Nigeria. Constraints as perceived by the end users are not well known and should be considered in research efforts.

- Linkage

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Key stakeholders in cowpea production and innovation have been working without strong linkages. Where linkages exist, there are fragile and weak.

- Research - Farmers Dichotomy Many laudable and sound scientific outputs have been developed by research in cowpea innovation system with outstanding achievement in breeding cowpea for pests and diseases resistance and advances in cowpea genetics. Research agendas are set without farmer’s objectives, constraints and resource endowments leading to quite a significant non adoption of some technical good technologies.

- Project sustainability Cowpea innovations have been developed through strong national research systems and projects in Mali, Niger and Nigeria. This ad-hoc nature of projects has affected the sustainability of such projects. Farmers awareness of an innovation spread, dissemination and adoption of technology, post harvest utilisation of cowpea, need to developed more by projects.

- Funding Another major gap is the funding of cowpea innovation system in Mali, Niger and Nigeria. Funding is mainly provided by international donors with low commitment of local policy makers who should provide further funding. This situation has been largely responsible for the imbalance (lower funding share) of funds to cowpea research and development versus other crops. The international donors focused more on breeding and genetic diversity whereas the government agencies responsible for dissemination of research results lack the required funds and support. Assessing opportunities and threats on cowpea in West Africa Cowpea production in West Africa takes place in an ever-changing environment and so does agricultural research. On one hand, many opportunities are arising from economic growth and increasing trade relationships. Income drives the demand for high-quality cowpea grains and processed products. On the other hand, pests, diseases, drought and market access and price fluctuations are likely threats to food security and enhanced livelihoods. As a research institute operating in this dynamic environment, national research and IITA will need to update their research priorities, based on regular assessment of the opportunities and threats. This will require ex ante impact assessment research aimed at identifying and quantifying the opportunities and threats, such as high value crops, market opportunities, national policies deregulation, and climate change. SEED SYSTEMS AND SEED VALUE CHAIN Seed system in Mali Promoting Seed Sub-Sector Reform in Mali In Mali, grain markets have been liberalized with some success, but the liberalization of seed markets for sorghum, millet and cowpea has been more difficult, as reported in two recent IFPRI discussion papers. Despite continuous progress by scientists in breeding well-adapted, high-yielding commercial seed varieties, only an estimated 10 percent of Mali's millet and cowpea area and less than 20 percent of its sorghum area has been planted with certified seeds. Many smallholders have limited or no access to certified

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seed and because they have also been long accustomed to generating their own seed or supplying each other with seed according to clan or ethno-linguistic group. Traditionally, these informal seed systems work quite well, but researchers were surprised to discover that in areas subject to harsh agro-climatic conditions, successive crop failures have caused village seed systems to break down, and local grain markets have become important sources of seed. This finding led IFPRI researchers to examine seed transactions in a dozen weekly markets in the Sahelian region of Mali. They found that no certified seed is available in these markets, but that grain suitable for seed is being sold primarily by female vendors who are also farmers. Because vendors bring unmixed seed directly from their granaries, the purchasers know the provenance and can depend on its quality, which is especially important in harsh environments where the range of adaptability is very limited. Cowpea Seed Value Chains in Mali This paper reviews the structure and performance of the cowpea seed sub-sector in Mali. Seed election and management of these crops is embedded in local cultures, and most producers of these crops are subsistence oriented. Despite seed sector reform, no certified seed of these crops is sold in local markets and farmers prefer to rely on themselves or each other for seeds. The dominant source of certified seed is the national seed service. Certified seed is multiplied by contracted farmers and seed producer groups, and supplied to farmers through farmers’ associations, development organizations, and extension services. The informal sector supplies farmers with non-certified seeds directly and indirectly through village grain markets. There is no consensus about whether it is lack of effective demand or supply that constrains farmer use of certified seed, but researchers generally conclude that the process of certifying seed is too lengthy, some mechanism must be established for production and trade of locally-adapted landraces, and Mali’s highly structured farmers’ associations could play an even stronger role in testing and promoting demand for certified seed. Recommendations have included the use of small packs and seed auctions where market infrastructure is sparse, and in more commercialized areas, involvement of agro-input dealers, shopkeepers and traders. Still, estimated adoption rates for cowpea seed (under 20 percent of crop area) could be as high as can be expected in this challenging natural environment and institutional context. Seed system in Nigeria IITA is currently leading three major projects on cereal and legumes in Northern Nigeria: i) The Legumes for Livelihood Project. ii) The Sudan Savannah taskforce of the Kano-Katsina-Maradi pilot learning site iii) Promoting Sustainable Agriculture in Borno State. Since all three include a seed

systems component, IITA commissioned this seed system study to cover areas of all three projects.

TL II is focusing on 3 states (Borno, Kano and Kaduna) and 2 crops cowpea and soybeans. In Kano and Katsina States, Availability of quality seed of the major cereal and legume crops has been identified as one of the constraints to adoption of new varieties.. Knowledge of the current seed systems in the project area is an initial necessary step to address the seed availability problem.

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In Borno State, prior to PROSAB an CIDA funded initiative, the only improved seeds available to farmers were maize hybrids which are not resilient to the constraints in these drought-prone areas. To mitigate drought and Striga impact, IITA introduced a number of improved crop varieties in Borno, Kano and Katsina including maize, sorghum, rice, cowpeas, soybeans and groundnuts. To ensure ongoing availability of improved seeds, PROSAB selected and trained seed producers and assisted them in establishing community-based seed multiplication schemes in 30 communities in southern Borno covering three agro-ecological zones 1 . There are prospects that some of these seed producers will develop self-sustaining rural enterprises with capacity to meet the demand for improved varieties seeds for farmers within and around the communities. However, access to quality, affordable, and sustainable improved seeds remains a concern. Although some information has been gathered by PROSAB on the community-based seed systems established in Borno, no comprehensive information is available on the sustainability of the different seed systems in project areas of the other States. This study was commissioned to contribute to filling this gap through identifying and analysing seed production, delivery and access by farmers in Borno, Kano, Katsina, and Kaduna States. It includes the major cereals (sorghum, maize and rice) and legume crops (soybeans, cowpea and groundnuts) grown in the region. Description of the seed systems and key actors involved More than 70% of the population of the Northern Nigeria region depend on agriculture for household their food security, livelihoods and incomes. Most States including Borno, Kaduna, Kano, and Katsina are actively working to develop agriculture as a means of improving food security and reducing poverty. The four states lie within four agro-ecological zones, the Sahel, Sudan Savanna, Northern Guinea Savanna and Southern Guinea Savanna. The main crops grown in these zones are shown in table 1. table 1. Three seed supply systems exist alongside each other.

i) A traditional and informal system operating at village and community level based on the use of retained seed, exchange or purchase from other farmers, and sometimes purchase at village markets. This system aims at ensuring low cost seed and easy access to farmers and is often most important in more remote areas.

ii) A formal seed supply system involving seed production and supply mechanisms that are ruled by defined methodologies and backed by national legislation (the 1993 Seed Act now about to be replaced by a new Seed Act) as well as international standardization of methodologies. These involve cash transactions and provision of uniform seed quantities. Participants in the formal seed system include public, private and NGO agencies as well as a growing number of farmers.

iii) A slowly emerging integrated seed supply system has been set up to improve local seed supply using technologies and improvements from the formal sector and using informal channels regarded as “improved” community seed systems.

The availability of quality seed by farmers is seen as a catalyst for increasing productivity, as well crop diversification and adding value through agro-processing.

1 The Sudan Savannah, Northern Guinea Savanna and Southern Guinea Savanna

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Ensuring access to seed to farmers is the culmination of a lengthy process in which many stakeholders participate. This process can be divided into three stages:

Development of improved crop varieties through a research process that culminates in approval of the new varieties by the “National Crop Release Committee”.

Production of breeders, foundation and then certified seed for planting often for commercial scale but also for food security. Certified seed is processed through cleaning, grading, often being dressed with pesticides and packaged into pack sizes that vary from 2 kg to 25 kg.

Marketing and distribution to farmers The primary objective of the seed industry is to provide high quality seed to farmers in a way that gives an appropriate return on investment to all participants in the seed chain including farmers, seed producers and distributors. The three stages are highly interdependent and the effectiveness of the activities performed in one stage depends on the activities performed in others. Both public and private sector organizations are active in at all stages, from research to seed distribution. Formal and informal seed systems co-exist alongside each other. The formal system consists of public sector research institutions, public and private agencies producing and marketing seed as well as organisations responsible for seed certification and quality control, while the informal system consists of large numbers of farmers producing both traditional and modern varieties, marketing their own production and often undertaking their own seed selection processes. Most Government and donor-supported seed systems have been part of the formal system, but some changes are taking place to integrate the formal and informal seed sectors. Seed system in NIGER Organization of Formal Seed Supply Systems Seed systems in Niger vary substantially in their institutional and legal aspects and in their operational procedures. In Niger, plant breeding and breeder seed production are undertaken by the national agricultural research system, Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques du Niger (INRAN). Breeder seed are bulked into foundation seed by the SPC of Lossa. Foundation seed are multiplied further into registered or commercial seed by four other seed multiplication centers through contract farmers. Seed is distributed through a few sales points located in the capital cities of departments, research centers, and seed production units, and to a lesser extent, NGOs. Seed quality control activities for breeder seed and basic seed are performed by the SPC of Lossa and for other seed classes by the other SPCs. Seed processing, storage, and control are undertaken by the SPCs in their laboratories and processing units. Overall, the mode of seed provision is dominated by the public sector and has remained so since 1975 when the first seed project (the Niger Cereal Project, PCN) was launched. The only major change in the system occurred in 1989 when seed production planning, distribution, and price-setting decisions were decentralized at the departmental level. Currently, almost all activities are still performed by government agencies. In Niger, variety evaluation and release are the responsibility of INRAN. However, these tasks are not systematically conducted due to lack of funds. There are seed laws, policies, and a national seed committee with regard to strategic seed reserves in case of severe

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droughts. But these institutions are not operational and the laws are not implemented and enforced. Since 1997, an emerging private sector has been involved in the production of seed but private companies are not interested in producing seed of low commercial value such as pearl millet. More recently, in 1999, a professional union of private seed producers (the Association des producteurs prives des semences du Niger, APPSN) was created with a total of 30 members with the main objective of revitalizing seed production by undertaking most of the seed activities in Niger. The Niger seed system is evolving slowly from being largely state-controlled toward commercialization. At this stage, the broad majority of smallholder farmers typically remain outside the formal seed sector, still relying upon themselves or their neighbors or village markets for much of their seed requirements (Jaffee and Srivastava 1992). Formal Seed Sector Efficiency The primary and most important function pursued by the Niger seed system is a national development function. Supplying seed in an economically efficient way has always been given a low priority. During the period of involvement of seed projects, the average cost of production of registered improved pearl millet seed was estimated to be 1720 F CFA kg', whereas it was sold to contract farmers at 100 F CFA kg ' (Rachmeler 1991). In 1996, after the period of involvement of seed projects ended following the decentralization of seed multiplication centers, SPCs still operated with huge losses. The average cost of producing seed in the SPCs in Niger was estimated to vary from 880 F CFA kg"' to 1633 F CFA kg ' with negative profit margins ranging from 755 F CFA kg ' to 1383 F CFA kg '. For a dollar invested in producing seed, to breakeven, SPCs would have to subsidize about 86% of the total production cost. The SPCs have been and are still operating with huge losses. With the current production scheme and the poor economic efficiency record, it is unlikely that the SPCs will ever be sustainable (Ndjeunga 1998b). Variety Development and Availability Although the Niger seed system offers a large range of improved pearl millet varieties, only a few of these are found at the village level. Household survey results indicate that farmers grow up to 33 different pearl millet varieties of which only three are improved (HKP, CIVT and P3Kollo). Similarly, only one improved groundnut variety, 55-437, is being grown of the 10 found at the village level. Overall, the uptake of new varieties is higher in Senegal than in Niger. Seed Multiplication Despite the large investments in seed multiplication and distribution projects in Niger, the formal system has consistently supplied only a negligible share of the total seed requirement. The informal seed sector is the main seed provider in both countries. Farmers' own stocks are the primary source of seed. Only if this source is insufficient will farmers look to others such as family and friends, local village markets, or the formal seed sector. In 1997, for example, 89% of the rural households in Niger and 58% of them in Senegal drew pearl millet seed from their own stocks (Table 6). Local village markets are the second most important source of seed contributing 39% of the total pearl millet seed

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sown in Senegal in 1997 and 9% in Niger. This compared to 5% and 2% contributed by formal seed sources in Senegal and Niger respectively. Similarly, village markets remain the main source of groundnut seed. In Senegal, 38% of the total groundnut seed sown was bought from the local village markets in 1997; and only 14% in Niger. Overall, the informal seed sector still remains the main seed supplier in both countries. But the relative magnitude of this sector varies with the commercial value of the crop. While the informal seed sector provides the entire groundnut seed sown by farmers in Niger, about 25% of the seed sown by farmers in Senegal is purchased from the formal market. Groundnut holds a higher commercial value for rural households in Senegal than in Niger as it is a cash crop with well-organized input and output markets. Seed Distribution In the formal seed sector, most of the seed produced is actually sold in Senegal compared to less than 30% of the pearl millet seed in Niger (except in years following droughts). This difference can be attributed to the degree of development of the seed distribution network. In Niger, there are only 20 formal distribution outlets located in the headquarters of seed production units, research station or the regional directorate of agriculture. To reach one of these, a farmer travels an average of 62 km. For such distances, transaction costs are likely to be high, therefore discouraging farmers from purchasing seed, and thus limiting access to seed of improved varieties.

1.2. Baseline studies

1.2.1. Background The most economically-important indigenous African grain legume is cowpea, Vigna unguiculata. Related to common bean and chickpeas, this crop is produced by millions of small-holder farmers on about 8 million hectares in West and Central Africa (Langyintuo et al, 2003). Cowpea grain is one of the few products that can profitably be exported by farmers in this driest and most resource-poor area of Africa. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) has the potential to contribute to food security and to poverty reduction in West Africa. The demand for cowpea in this region is increasing because of high population growth, mainly from the urban areas, and also because of poverty and the demand for low cost food. Moreover, cowpea has a potential for higher production if technical and socioeconomic constraints are addressed. The high protein content of cowpea and its use as a staple in the diets of Sahelian and coastal populations make it also a high potential crop for food security in these regions. Cowpea forage contributes significantly to animal feed mainly during the dry season when the demand for feed reaches peaks. The largest producer and consumer of cowpea in West Africa (and in the world) is Nigeria where a dense population and oil revenue create an enormous effective demand for cowpea. Niger is the largest cowpea exporter in West Africa (and in the world) with an estimated 215,000 MT exported annually, mainly to Nigeria. Substantial amounts of cowpea also come to Nigeria from other neighboring countries, especially Cameroon and Chad. A large portion of cowpea from Burkina Faso and Mali are sold into Cote d’Ivoire, and also Nigeria. Despite this importance of cowpea

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in food security, trade and therefore poverty reduction, many constraints are facing the increase in cowpea production, storage and marketing, which need attention from research and development. The present study is part of the activities undertaken under ‘The Legumes for Livelihood Project’. The Legumes for Livelihood Project which is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gate foundation managed by ICRISAT is aimed at increasing the production and productivity of five grain legumes, i.e. beans, chickpeas, cowpeas, groundnuts and pigeon peas in a number of SSA countries. In Mali and Niger, IITA is focusing on one legume, cowpea and in Nigeria on two legumes, cowpea and soybean. The project proposes to develop, test and promote improved crop varieties and associated crop management practices which can enhance legume productivity and production in drought-prone areas. A major thrust of “The Legumes for Livelihood project” is to develop and operationalize sustainable seed production and delivery systems for improved crop varieties and enhancing access to improved seeds by farmers, especially the resource-poor. In pursuance of the goals of the project, a baseline survey has been carried out in the project area. The major baseline indicators or criteria designed for measuring and monitoring farmers’ economic status and progress include the following: Agricultural production characteristics, such as the distribution of farm size and the number of farm plots owned, important crops grown, quality of dwellings, access to agriculture support services such as extension and credit services, the use of improved technologies, household food security and important coping mechanisms against food shortage. Other important baseline criteria designed for monitoring farmers’ economic status are livelihood diversification indices, such as households’ engagements in non - farm activities and enterprises.

1.2.2. Aggregate Production The World cowpea production was estimated at 3,319,375 MT and 75% of that production (Figure 1) is from Africa (FAOSTAT, 2000). West Africa is the key cowpea producing zone and mainly in the dry savannah and semi-arid agro-ecological zones. The principal cowpea producing countries are Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Ghana, Mali and Burkina-Faso (FAOSTAT, 2000). Figure 1: Share of Africa in World Cowpea Production

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World Cowpea Production

Africa75%

North America1%

Asia2%

Europe1%

South America21%

Source: Adapted from FAOSTAT (200) Figure 2: Share of Cowpea Production in West and Central Africa

Among these countries, Nigeria and Niger are heading with a production of 2,099,000 and 641,000 MT, in 1999 respectively (FAOSTAT, 2000).

1.2.3. Cropping systems and adoption of related improved technologies

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In West Africa, cowpea is grown mostly in subsistence farming systems and on small scale in the lowland dry Savanna and Sahelian regions. Traditionally, cowpea is grown in association or relay cropping with cereals such as sorghum, millet and maize mainly in the Sahelian regions (PEDUNE Mali, 1999; PEDUNE Burkina, 1999). However cowpea cropping systems are moving toward monocropping as its economic importance is increasing. For example, cowpea monocrop has taken off in Central Mali thanks to an integrated rural development project which supplied improved seeds, fertilizers and pesticides in credit (Coulibaly, 1987). Cowpea monocrop is frequent in cotton producing zones and in inland valleys and Lake Chad basin in Cameroon (PEDUNE Cameroon, 1999). The increase in cowpea production will be linked to the use of improved technologies including high yielding varieties, improved crop protection and production practices, a key issue behind the wide use of the improved cowpea technologies is their profitability. The profitability of the cowpea cropping systems depends mainly on the types of varieties used (local or improved), the cropping practices and management (use of chemicals including fertilizers and pesticides), and the access to input and output markets. In this section, we reviewed the financial profitability of cowpea production systems with improved production and protection technologies in Benin (Aitchedji, 2001). The study has been carried-out in Southern Benin on 35 farms with different combinations of improved technologies including improved variety, neem extract used as insecticide, chemical insecticide, plastic bagging after a solar drying (Table A1 in annex). The study used a Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) developed by Monke and Pearson (1989) to assess the financial profitability of the improved cowpea technologies. The results showed that only improved cowpea technologies are profitable even under tight credit constraints compared to local technologies mainly local cultivars and storage techniques.

1.2.4. Cowpea trade in West Africa During the last twenty years the Bean/Cowpea Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP), international and national research institutions have made substantial contributions to cowpea production and protection technology. Beside new varieties, the research has developed improved methods for controlling pests in the field and in storage. These technologies could dramatically increase cowpea production and grain quality in West Africa. The question now is who would buy those cowpeas? At what price? And what kind of cowpea would consumers prefer? Cowpea markets in West Africa are part of an ancient trade that links the humid coastal agroecological zones with the semi-arid interior. This ancient trade is built on comparative advantage in food production of each zone. In the humid coastal areas, it is relatively easy to produce carbohydrates (e.g. cassava, maize, rice), but because of pests and diseases it is difficult to produce animal or vegetable protein. Lack of rainfall limits grain production in the interior, but it also creates good conditions for livestock, cowpeas and groundnuts.

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In the traditional cowpea growing countries of the Sudano-Sahelian zone, there is a well developed network of village buyers who assemble small quantities from farmers into 100 kg bags and merchants who transport and store the bags. These trade linkages can be illustrated (Figure 1) with Ghana. Ghana is a major producer of cowpea, but in addition it imports about 10,000 MT annually (Langyintuo, 1999). About 30% of the Ghanaian imports come from Burkina Faso and the rest from Niger. Langyintuo (1999) found that in Accra, the large, rough coated ‘Nigerien’ cowpea (cowpea from Niger) sells for a premium, but they need to be marketed quickly because they do not store well in the humid coastal climate. The traders interviewed indicated that there is an active trade between Benin, Niger, Togo, Nigeria and Gabon. They noted that cowpeas are imported from Niger, Togo, and Nigeria and later exported to Gabon and Togo. Specifically, they said between 40 and 60 traders send cowpeas totaling about 50,000 MT to Gabon and about half that quantity to Togo each year. Yet there were no cowpea trade statistics at the national level because the government of Benin considers cowpea trade a minor commercial activity. The traders consider it a favorable condition for their activities because they do not pay any tax on cowpea unlike maize exporters who pay 100 FCFA on each bag exported as fiscal exit tax (taxe de sortie) (Langyintuo, 2000). Togo is very active in cowpea trade. Togolese traders frequently export cowpeas to Gabon and sometimes to Congo. Traders from these countries also purchase cowpeas directly from Togo. Exports to Ghana and Benin are mainly by Ghanaian and Beninois traders, respectively. It was estimated that on a given market day, one could count between 20 and 40 Ghanaian traders who purchase between 10 and 20 bags of cowpea each. Most of the traders from Ghana come from Akakyi, Agbozome and Aflao in Volta region and Accra in Greater Accra region. Gabonese and Beninois traders in the Akodesewa market of number up to 20each. All Togolese traders exporting grain out of the country are expected to indicate the quantity being exported on their travel document (laissez passez) which are later compiled for statistical purposes. Non-Togolese traders, on the other hand, are not obliged to do so. Consequently, the government does not keep track of grains shipped out of or into thre country. In Ghana, on the other hand, the Ghana Plant Protection and Regulatory Service (PPRS) of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) subjects grains imported or exported to phytosanitary inspection. As a routine, the quantities of grains per trader are recorded thus providing an opportunity for the tracking of grain movement in and out of the country. An available export data shows that between 1990 and 1998, Gabon was the only country importing cowpea from Togo annually (Table 5). Imports averaged 12.25 MT. Exports to Gabon increased dramatically from 20.18 MT in 1997 to 46.53 MT in 1998. Togo also imports cowpeas from Senegal, Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Benin. In 1998 for instance, Togo imported 101.830 MT of cowpeas, 55% from Benin, 34% from Burkina Faso, 10% from Ghana and 1% from Niger (Langyintuo, 2000).

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1.2.5. Consumer preferences

Knowledge of consumer preferences is essential to developing cowpea markets. Breeders need to know what characteristics consumers want. Integrated pest management specialists need an estimate of the consumer level cost of grain damage. The Bean/Cowpea CRSP cowpea price and quality study was launched in Maroua, Cameroon in September, 1996, and later extended to four markets in northern Cameroon, three markets in Nigeria, two markets in Niger, three markets in northern Ghana, three markets in Mali and six markets in Senegal using a common data collection protocol. Every month CRSP researchers and technicians buy five samples per market from randomly selected sellers. They note the gender and other seller characteristics. In the laboratory, they record the 100 grain weight, average length and width of grains, number of bruchid holes per 100 grains, color and texture of the test, and eye color. The data is analyzed using a hedonic pricing regression model. Initial results from the hedonic pricing analysis indicate that consumers in almost all areas prefer larger grain size (Langyintuo et al., 2000; Faye et al., 2000). Consumers are more sensitive to bruchid damage than hypothesized. It was thought that West African consumers would tolerate a certain level of damage, but the data indicates that cowpea prices are discounted from the first appearance of damage. Women in Cameroon appear to sell a higher price than male vendors, probably because women sell in small quantities for immediate consumption. In Senegal consumers appear to pay a premium of 20 FCFA/kg for the traditional black speckled varieties.

1.2.6. Factors behind the growing demand for cowpea

A key factor in explaining the growing demand for cowpea is the urbanization. Cowpea is a low cost nutritious food that does not require refrigeration. It fits the condition of the urban poor. Cowpea is one of the most important staple grain legumes in Africa. Cowpea represents a major protein source for the lowest income consumers and in some regions it provides more than half of the protein in the human diet, as well as other essential nutrients. It greatly improves an otherwise unstable, unbalanced diet. The seeds are used in many different dishes and the tender green leaves are cooked as spinach or used in vegetable mixtures. Fresh green pods are also used as a vegetable. Another increasing demand source for cowpea is the livestock feed. As urbanization increases, the demand for animal proteins will be important. Dried leaves and stems of cowpea are used as fodder in the drier Sudan savanna regions. As insufficient forage is available for the increasing livestock populations in many Sahelian regions (the main agroecology for cowpea), overgrazing of rangelands is increasing and therefore the demand for cowpea forage will rise as livestock exports increase. Cowpea forage is fed to livestock during the dry season, The demand for cowpea hay is particularly important in semi-arid West Africa where the peak is around the Muslim holiday Tabaski with sales of sheep. ICRISAT estimated that cowpea hay constitutes 25-50% of crop sales in some semi-arid and arid zones in West Africa (Tarawali et al., 1997). To meet the increasing need for

19

fodder dual purpose cowpea varieties and corresponding management practices will need to be developed and extended to arid and semi-arid regions.

Rising opportunity cost of women’s time in urban areas is another major area for the growing demand for cowpea. The availability of higher quality and low cost processed cowpea would increase the demand for cowpea through the substitutability between cowpea and part of the grains in the urban diets. With the increasing opportunity cost of women time mainly in urban areas, the demand for cowpea-based weaning food and baby formula, and cowpea flour may become very important. Women are increasingly employed outside the home and have less time to prepare traditional cowpea dishes. Cowpea processing is still at an experimental level in most of the West African countries.

1.2.7. Economic impact assessment of cowpea technologies Impact assessment studies in Mali showed that cowpea production and protection research has reached large number of people and is generating a substantial economic benefit. In Senegal over 80% of stored cowpea are stored with the CRSP drum storage technology (Faye and Lowenberg-DeBoer, 1999). In northern Cameroon about 23% of cowpea area is planted to Vya, BR1 and BR2, varieties that the CRSP helped develop and popularize (Diaz-Hermelo and Lowenberg-DeBoer, 1999). About 10% of cowpea in northern Cameroon are stored with storage technologies developed by the IRAD/Purdue CRSP team. The CRSP storage technologies developed in Cameroon are now being extended in Nigeria, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Senegal, Chad, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its geographical range is wide, from Warm Temperature Thorn to Moist through Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life Zones. Cowpea cannot be grown for grain as far north as soybean because it is more sensitive to frost. (Duke, cited by UC SAREP). It grows best in hot areas and can produce a yield of one ton seed and five tons hay per hectare with as little as 300 mm of rainfall. Long taproot and mechanisms such as turning the leaves upwards to prevent them to become too hot and closing the stomata, give to cowpea an excellent drought tolerance. (Van Rij, N., 1999) Cowpea is considered more tolerant to drought than soybean or mung bean because of its tendency to form a deep taproot. It has a competitive niche in sandy soils, does not tolerate excessively wet conditions, and should not be grown on poorly drained soils. One of the most remarkable things about cowpea is that it thrives in dry environments; available cultivars produce a crop with as little as 300 mm of rainfall. This makes it the crop of choice for the Sahelian zone and the dry savannahs, though cultivars that flourish in the moist savannahs are available as well. (Bean/Cowpea CRSP West Africa Mission). Varieties of cowpea are said to be tolerant of Aluminium and to be adapted of poor soil if Ph is between 5.5 and 6.5. On the whole, it is less tolerant of alkaline and salinity condition, but intolerant of excess amount of Boron. (Duke cited by UC SAREP). Cowpea crop often responds favourably to added Phosphorus, although there was non-

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significant increase in cowpea grain yield up to Nitrogen application rate of 30 kg/ha (Agbenin et al, cited by UC SAREP).

1.2.8. Economic and Social impact of cowpea Cowpea is the most economically important indigenous african legume crop. (Langyntuo, A.S., et al., 2003). Cowpeas are of vital importance to the livelihood of several millions of people in West and Central Africa. Rural families that make up the larger part of the population of these regions derive from its production, food, animal feed, alongside cash income. Food habits in West and Central Africa are mainly based on tuber crops (cassava, yam) and cereal (maize, rice, millet). Although they have a high nutritional value, grain legumes are a minor component of food diet. That is the reason why tentative efforts have been made to introduce soybean in african food habits and farmer activities, but with little success because of its undesirable taste and cooking difficulty. Unlike soybean, cowpea is appreciated and different traditional African meals and seasonings are prepared from cowpea, among them homemade weaning foods. (Lambeth, C., 2002) Cowpea is a most versatile African crop: it feeds people, their livestock and the next crop. In the Americas, also known as "black-eyed peas", cowpea is a high protein food, and very popular in West Africa. The plant itself can be dried and stored until needed as fodder for livestock. As a nitrogen-fixing legume, cowpea improves soil fertility, and consequently helps to increase the yields of cereal crops when grown in rotation. Cowpea is referred to as the "hungry-season crop" given that it is the first crop to be harvested before the cereal crops are ready. It is a crop that offers farmers great flexibility. They can choose to apply more inputs and pick more beans, or - if cash and inputs are scarce - they can pick fewer beans and allow the plant to produce more foliage. This means more fodder for livestock, so that lower bean yields are balanced by more livestock feed, which in turn translates into more meat and milk. This flexibility in use that makes cowpea an excellent crop under the challenging climatic conditions faced by African farmers. (Okike, I., 2000). According to Blade et al cited by Aveling, T., 1999, ninety-eight percent of cowpea grown in Africa has been intercropped for a long time with other crops. It can be also intercropped with large taller plant such as maize particularly in rainfall areas because of the exceptional shade tolerance. (Johnson cited by Aveling, T., 1999). Traditionally in West Africa, cowpea is grown on small farms, often intercropped with cereals such as millet and sorghum. The cowpea and cereal are usually planted in alternating rows, although recent research at IITA has shown that planting four rows of cowpea to two rows of cereal is more productive. The cereal is planted first, followed by the cowpea. The fast growth and spreading habit of traditional cowpea varieties suppress weeds, and soil nitrogen is increased which improves cereal growth. The two crops are harvested at different times, distributing available labour force.

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Fig.3. Intercropping of sorghum with traditionally cowpea Figs. 3 and 4 show the differences between traditional and improved cowpea varieties intercropped with sorghum.

Fig.4. Intercropping of sorghum an IITA-improved cowpea variety Cowpea also contributes to the sustainability of cropping systems and soil fertility improvement on marginal lands through nitrogen fixation, provision of ground cover and plant residues, which minimize erosion and subsequent land deterioration. The deep root systems of cowpea help to stabilize soil, and the ground cover it provides preserves moisture; these traits are particularly important in the drier regions where moisture is always needed, soil is fragile and subject to erosion. (Bean/Cowpea CRSP West Africa Mission). In Nigeria the major constraints to the adoption of dry season dual-purpose cowpea include insect attack both in the field and in storage, insufficient water, nematodes, lack of land, and lack of seed. The magnitude of these problems also varies with location. (Inaizumi, H., et al, 1999). Fig. 5 shows a dual-purpose cowpea variety.

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Fig.5. IITA improved dual-purpose cowpea: grain and fodder Cowpea is a crop well suited to Niger's climate and soils and well adapted to Niger's generally extensive agriculture. Strangely, cowpea is hardly consumed at all by Niger's population. The comparative cost of protein in selected food items in Nigeria reveals that soybean is the cheapest protein source compared with other protein-rich foods such as beef. Compared with other sources of plant protein, cowpea is - after soybean - more nutritious and the crop has a wider ecological adaptation. (Osho, S.M and Dashiell, K., 1997). Production costs for cowpea vary depending on the technology used in particular varieties, fertilizer, tillage and pest management. Bean/Cowpea CRSP studies and other sources have established that labour often accounts for over 70 percent of the total cost of production. (Langyintuo, A.S., et al., 2003). In Africa, cowpea production appears generally profitable, but return varies widely from place to place.

1.2.9. West Africa Trade

In Africa, information on cowpea marketing and trade is lacking and data on cowpea production economics scattered, because marketing research has focused on export crops such as cocoa, coffee, cotton, groundnut and to a lesser extent cereals. (Van der Laan cited by Langyintou, A.S., et al., 2003)

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Table 2. Supply and demand for cowpeas in selected countries of West Africa (1990-1999)1

Countries Harvested

area (x 1000 ha)

Average yield

(t ha-1 )

Production (x 1000 t)

(dry grain)

Consumption Kg per capita

per year

Demand2

(x 1000 t) Surplus/deficit3

(x 1000 t)

Nigeria 3 425 0.494 1 691 18 2 160 -469 Niger 3 268 0.110 359 1.5 16 343 Mali 322 0.244 79 1.5 16 63 Burkina Faso 201 0.777 156 1.5 16 140 Togo 135 0.284 38 9 41 -3 Benin 100 0.635 64 9 55 9 Senegal 95 0.341 32 1.5 14 18 Ghana 85 0.663 57 9 169 -112 Mauritania 52 0.331 17 2.5 25 -8 Côte d'Ivoire 40 0.500 20 1.8 28 -8 Chad 44 0.489 21 1.5 11 10

1 FAO 2000, PPMED (2000), SRID (1999), ONASA (1990-1999), DSID (1999), DSCN (2000), MAES/DISA (1990-2001), International Financial Statistics (1990-1999), and Ouedraogo et al, 1997.

2 Demand includes consumption and demand for seed. 3 Negative figures imply demand exceeds supply

4 Hall and Frate, cited by Langyintou, A.S., et al., 2003 (only dry grains) 5 Record Copyright FAO 1990-2001

6 Total may differ from the sum of country estimates because of rounding. Over 570 000 hectares are cultivated in other parts of Africa.

A dense population and oil revenue in West Africa create an enormous effective demand of cowpea. Structured cowpea market in West Africa is part of an ancient trade that links the humid coastal zones with the semiarid interior. In the humid coastal areas, it is relatively easy to produce carbohydrate (e.g. cassava, maize, rice), but because of pests and diseases it is difficult to produce animal or vegetable protein. On the contrary, lack of rainfall limits grain production in the interior, but it creates good condition for livestock, cowpeas and groundnuts. In the sub-Sahelian zone, there is a well-developed network of village buyers who assemble small quantities from individual farmers into 100 kg bags and merchants who transport and store the bags. (Lowemberg-DeBoer, J. et al., 2000). As a result, in West Africa protein products traditionally move south to the humid area, while carbohydrates move north. Cowpea is actively traded from West to Central Africa because of the comparative advantages that drier areas of West Africa have in protein production. (Langyintuo, A.S, et al., 2003). Fig. 6 illustrates distribution of cowpea production and movement in West and Central Africa.

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Fig.6. Distribution of cowpea production in West and Central Africa At least, 285 000 tons of cowpea are shipped among countries in the region each year. This is probably an underestimate because the official sources on which the estimate is based do not collect data on all flows. In 1998 Burkina Faso imported about 8 000 tons from Niger and exported a total of 5 500 tons to Togo, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana and Benin. It is estimated that Nigeria's average annual imports of 260 000 tons per year from Niger accounts for about 73 percent of Niger's surplus production. Cowpea trade between Nigeria and Benin is bilateral. Togo and Ghana, and Ghana and Benin trade bilaterally as well. Gabon depends on Cameroon, Togo, Benin and Nigeria for cowpea. Mauritania, Gambia and Guinea Bissau rely on Senegal. Cowpea trade in West and Central Africa is clustered around Senegal and Nigeria. Senegal exports to its neighbours to the north and south. In contrast, Nigeria imports from its neighbours more than it exports. Market structure in West and Central Africa Grain marketing is organized in formal and informal places. Formal market places are designated locations managed by public organizations. Informal markets are not officially recognized and therefore, not subject to most government controls. An informal market may be a group of women who assemble every week in the centre of a village or who buy from farmers on roadsides. Farmers usually accept lower prices because they are not aware of the market prices or because they lack the time, money or means to transport cowpea grains to the market. Cowpea passes from farmers to consumer through various market channels. Farmers usually sell their surpluses to rural assemblers, who in turn sell to urban wholesalers directly or through commission agents. Large wholesalers hold large stocks for sale to retailers when prices are high enough to pay for cost of procurement, storage, handling and a margin for profit. They may also be involved in the import and export of maize, groundnut and other grains. Small wholesalers handle smaller volumes and use markets in their homes neighbourhood and acquire the grains from wholesalers and commission agents for sale to consumers in smaller quantities. In Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo and Benin grain traders constitute themselves into commodity-based associations to promote better marketing conditions and discuss general guidelines for grain prices. Traders discuss grain pricing during association meetings but prices are

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fixed by individual traders. Factors influencing price setting are: grain quality, selling time, transport, storage, market tolls, taxes and taxes. Prices At harvest, traders tend to heap their measures; it is common to observe 5-10 percent more grains (on a standard bowl of 2.5 kg or on a 100 kg bag) than the average depending on the relationship between seller and buyer. This is often the reverse during those months of the year when prices are high. In Niger, Benin, Nigeria and Ghana, prices tend to rise above the average in February through September when grains are scarce. Marketing margins for cowpea Cowpea trade is only possible if traders earn enough to cover their costs. In Ghana, about 70 percent of consumer expenditure for domestically produced cowpea goes to pay the cost of production and farmers' returns. Six and 4 percent contribute to transport cost and marketing cost respectively, while traders receive 20 percent as remuneration for their services. (Langyintuo, A.S. et al., 2003) Table 3. Marketing margins for cowpea in selected countries in West Africa (US$ t1)

Country Source of grain

Purchase price

Transport Cost 1

Marketing Cost 2

Selling price

Marketing Margin 3

Traders' Profit

margin

Ghana (Accra)

Tamale (Ghana) Ouagadougou (B.F.)

31.6 35.2

2.8 3.6

1.7 2.0

44.8 56.0

13.2 20.8

8.8 15.2

Benin (Cotonou)

Glazoue (Benin) Lome (Togo)

41.7 36.7

3.2 10.0

0.3 0.3

53.3 58.3

16.7 21.7

13.3 11.4

Côte d'Ivoire (Bouake)

Bouake (Côte d'Ivoire) Ouagadougou (B.F.)

30.0 25.0

3.2 4.4

1.5 7.2

56.7 56.7

26.7 31.7

21.9 20.1

Source: Langyintou (1999, 2000, 2001) and Faye (2001) 1 Transport cost includes truck charges, loading and off-loading charges 2 Marketing cost includes taxes, duties and market tolls. Marketing margin: selling prices - purchase price

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Nigeria The production trend of cowpea in Nigeria shows a significant improvement with about 440 percent increase in area planted and 410 percent increase in yield from 1961 to 1995 (Ortiz, R. 1998). The development within the two decades is attributable to the significant advances made on cowpea seed improvement in the drylands by the IITA. Although Nigeria is the largest producer of cowpea in the world producing about 56 percent of the world production, it is also the largest consumer of cowpea in the world. (NAQA, 2001). That is the reason why substantial amounts of cowpea come to Nigeria from neighbouring countries especially Cameroon and Chad. A large proportion of cowpea from Burkina Faso and Mali are sold into Côte d'Ivoire. (Lowemberg-DeBoer, J. et al., 2000). In Nigeria the organization of traders in Kano's Dawanau market - the largest cowpea market in the world - differs from other trading organizations. Traders are organized into a formal market union, "Dawanau Market Development Association" comprised of smaller associations such as Dawanau Farm Produce Merchant Association, Restaurant Owners Association, Transport Operator Associations, etc. The main role of the major association is to negotiate with the government over issues such as taxes and market infrastructure. (Langyintuo, A.S. et al., 2003) Niger Development of cowpea production, which concerns 5 regions of Niger (Zinder, Maradi, Tahoua, Tilaberi and Dosso) is principally justified because of its good export market value. Cowpea is exported unfinished. The crop is however difficult to store, and requires insecticides to protect against weevils when stored more than 6 months. State intervention in the cowpea industry mainly concerns the marketing and sale of output, which at present is operated by specialty traders (about 30 principal players), and by many active, informal distribution and sales channels. Production data indicates that cowpea is the third-largest food crop produced by Niger, after millet and sorghum. Cowpea is a crop well suited to Niger's climate and soils and well adapted to Niger's generally extensive agriculture. Strangely, cowpea is hardly consumed at all by Niger's population (less than 15 percent of production is consumed by the country). Cowpea export is mainly to the following countries:

• Nigeria (strong demand, continued growth); • Ghana; • Benin and Togo (lower export levels and market growth).

Prices and production vary widely from one year to the next. (European Union, 2002) Niger trade's potential and constraints Development potential for the Niger cowpea industry is essentially dependent on agricultural and ecological factors and on market evolution in the West African region. In particular, the following potential can be noted:

• cowpea crop is well entrenched as a traditional production of Niger's peasant farmers. Varieties cultivated are best adapted to the climate and soils under extensive cultivation and are able to resist drought and vermin.

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Cowpea production has become a cash crop, as well as a subsistence crop, notably for animal fodder;

• utilization of helm as a source of fodder also explains why cultivation of cowpea is expanding, because cowpea helm is protein-rich and economizes the draw on forage during the dry season;

• Niger's production of cowpea, as an export commodity to regional countries, enjoys strong and sustained demand. Prices in these markets, outside the harvest season are attractive;

• export industry organization for cowpea production is strongly dominated by exporter trading entities, which control most channels for the centralization of supplies and their subsequent sale. The keys for the continued market power of export traders is their control of warehousing and storage facilities and treatment of cowpea stocks, enabling them to gain the best prices on sales in consumer markets, in off season periods.

Constraints impeding on more rapid development of Niger's trade and industry are mainly of financing:

• production: low or no access to credit and loans in rural areas very often forces peasant farmers to sell their production immediately after harvest, that is when prices are at their lowest levels;

• concerning commercial trading, little access to credit and loans, or at least loans at reasonable interest rates, prevents traders from intervening in the market in the sense of stabilizing seasonal fluctuations in final markets and their prices.

1.3. The socioeconomic baseline study: Methodology

A baseline survey has been carried out in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. Mainly, the surveys were carried-out in Maradi region for Niger, in northern states as Kano, Kaduna and Borno for Nigeria and in Segou regions for Mali. These regions are the major cowpea growing areas focus for the project in the three targeted countries. The main objective of the study is to provide baseline data on socioeconomics, resource use patterns, market opportunities, and access to seed, to mention a few, for the targeted project areas/communities. The major baseline indicators designed for measuring and monitoring farmers’ economic status and progress included the following: Agricultural production characteristics, such as farm size distribution, number of plots owned, important crops grown, farm households’ access to improved farm inputs, households’ food and nonfood expenditure and consumption patterns, and households’ food security status.

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The survey was conducted in 13, 7 and 1 districts respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. Some key cowpea growing villages were selected from each of district. A total of 52 villages were selected: 29, 11 and 12 villages respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. The registers of the selected villages were then used to select randomly 549 households to be interviewed in the three countries. Therefore the surveys were conducted on a sample size of 238, 152 and 159 households respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. The interviews were conducted at the homes of the respondents.

1.3.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents 1.3.1.1. Location of respondents in regions

The following tables provide the distribution of respondents by location/regions of residence. The present study covered 13, 7 and 1 districts respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. (see tables). About 238 respondents were randomly selected from 13 districts in Nigeria, 152 respondents from 7 districts in Niger and 159 respondents from 1 district in Mali. A detailed description of the distribution of respondents by their geographical location is provided in the following tables.

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Table 4: Distribution of respondents by regions and by countries Countries Regions/States Districts of study Frequency Percent

Tafa 29 38,7 Tsanyana 14 18,7 Garko 23 30,7 Rano 3 4,0 Albasu 6 8,0

Kano state

Total 75 100,0 Ibill 54 72,0 Hawal 8 10,7 Biu 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 1 21 24,1 2 20 23,0 3 19 21,8 4 9 10,3 5 18 20,7

Nigeria

Borno state

Total 87 100,0 Aguie 9 5,9 Dan issa 4 2,7 Guidan 36 23,7 Madaroun 13 8,6 Maradi 1 ,7 Mayahi 4 2,7 Mdaroufa 19 12,5 Tchadoua 59 38,8 Tchaké 7 4,6

Niger Maradi

Total 152 100,0 Mali Segou Cinzana 159 100,0 2.3.1.1 Location of respondents in villages It could be noted from the table that a total of 52 villages, i.e. 29, 11 and 12 villages respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali.

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Table 3: Distribution of respondents by villages Countries Regions/states Villages/community of

study Frequency Percent 1 16 21,3 2 6 8,0 3 12 16,0 4 13 17,3 5 10 13,3 6 3 4,0 7 3 4,0 8 3 4,0 9 4 5,3 10 2 2,7 11 3 4,0

Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9

Nigeria

Borno state

Total 89 100,0 Chadakor 24 15,9 Niger Maradi El kolta 8 5,2

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Countries Regions/states Villages/community of study Frequency Percent 1 16 21,3 2 6 8,0 3 12 16,0 4 13 17,3 5 10 13,3 6 3 4,0 7 3 4,0 8 3 4,0 9 4 5,3 10 2 2,7 11 3 4,0

Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Hadamna 11 7,3 Ishamia 1 ,7 Katchina 3 2,1 Maiguera 6 4,1

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Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Sae sabo 7 4,6 Safo 19 12,5 Tchadoua 59 38,8 Tchaké 7 4,6

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Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Tsamia 7 4,7 Total 152 100,0 Kondogola 26 16,6 Mali segou Fambougou 14 8,9

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Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Minangofa 6 3,8 N'garakoro 15 9,6 Cinzana gare 17 10,8 Sinébougou 8 5,1

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Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Falema 4 2,5 Cinzana 9 5,7 Kondia 19 12,1 Douna 13 8,3

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Kano state

Total 75 100,0 1 7 9,3 2 10 13,3 3 18 24,0 4 10 13,3 5 4 5,3 6 6 8,0 7 7 9,3 8 13 17,3

Kaduna state

Total 75 100,0 Dambola 12 13,4 FIMIRSHIKA 4 4,5 Jimshika 8 8,9 Kinaya kusar 9 10,1 Kwaya bura 7 7,9 Maina hari 7 7,9 Mandragraw 10 11,1 Minga 12 13,5 Miringa 12 13,5 Sabongari 8 9 Nabougou 12 7,6 Sanogola 14 8,9 Total 157 100,0

2.3.1.2. Levels of education of respondents

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About 22%, 13% and 25% of the respondents had attained primary education, 20%, 45% and 24% were illiterate, 21%, 4% and 4% had secondary education, 5%, 14% and 28% had adult education, and 10%, 24% and 19% had coranic education respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. This implies that about 70% of the respondents reported to have attained some form of formal education. Table 5: Distribution of respondents by levels of education Countries Regions/States Level of education Frequency Percent

Illiterate 49 20 Primary school 53 22 Secondary school 51 21 Post secondary 53 22 Adult education 13 5 Arabic 7 3 Islamic 16 7

Nigeria Kano Kaduna Borno

Total 242 100 Illiterate 68 45 Primary school 19 13 Secondary school 6 4 Adult education 22 14 Islamic school 37 24

Niger Maradi

Total 152 100 Illiterate 37 24 Primary school 38 25 Secondary school 6 4 Adult education 44 28 Islamic school 30 19

Mali Segou

Total 155 100 2.3.1.3. Marital status and gender of respondents The results presented in Table 4 show that the proportion of men in the sample is slightly higher than that of women. This is not surprising because although most households in rural regions of West African countries are headed by males, they are the ones who move to urban centers as a means of securing off-farm income required to supplement farm income. The distribution of respondents by marital status is provided in Table 4. The results show that about 92%, 66% and 92% of the respondents are married, respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. Also the results show that about 0.4%, 24% and 5% of the respondents are widowed and 3%, 5% and 3% are single, respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. A detailed description of the distribution of respondents by marital status is provided in Table 6: Gender distribution

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Countries Gender Frequency Percent Female 21 9 Male 214 91

Nigeria Total 235 100 Female 69 46 Male 82 54

Niger Total 151 100 Female 28 18 Male 129 82

Mali Total 157 100 Countries Marital status Frequency Percent

Single 6 3 Married 215 92 Divorced 2 1 Separated 9 4 Widowed 1 0.4

Nigeria Total 233 100

Single 8 5 Married 101 66 Divorced 5 3 Separated 1 1 Widowed 37 24

Niger Total 152 100

Single 4 3 Married 143 92 Divorced 1 1 Separated 0 0 Widowed 7 5

Mali Total 155 100 2.3.1.4 Age of respondents Table 5 provides the distribution of respondents by age categories. The results show that most of the respondents (89%, 81% and 89% respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali) are aged from 26 to 65 years. It can be further noted that the first (3%, 1% and 1% respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali) and last (8%, 18% and 10% respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali) age categories have very few respondents. The low proportion of respondents in the first category can be attributed to the rural-urban migration which in most cases involves the youth. Also, the baseline surveys were mainly targeted to the heads of households. 2.3.1.5. Decision making in household for crop production

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The results show that most of the respondents (84%, 94% and 64% respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali) said that the main decision makers in rural household (mainly the crop production decisions) are the heads of household who are very often men. Sometimes, he can associate his spouse or his son. Table 7: Distribution of respondents by Main decision maker on crop production Countries Main decision maker on crop production Frequency Percent

Household head 187 84 Spouse 6 3 Household head and spouse 26 12 Household head and children 1 0 spouse and children 2 1 Children 1 0

Nigeria Total 223 100

Household head 136 94

Spouse 3 2 Household head and spouse 1 1 Household head and children 3 2 spouse and children 1 1 Children 1 1

Niger Total 145 100

Household head 96 64

Spouse 5 3 Household head and spouse 3 2 Household head and children 2 1 Spouse and children 3 2 Children 27 18 All members 7 5 Brothers 7 5

Mali Total 150 100 2.3.1.6. Key findings Table 8: syntheses of key findings

Cowpea West Africa (Nigeria, Niger & Mali)

Ruling varieties

Among new varieties released to farmers, are IT97K-818-35, IT95M-1072-57, C94-23-2 au Mali. The already tested and proven varieties: IT 89DE-58-6 and KVx542-119 resistant to Striga; CZ11-94-5C and CZ11-94-32 resistant to drought and Striga in Mali; IAR-1696 with high yielding potential in Nigeria, HTR and TN 27-80 resistant to the major pest in

40

Niger, are being widely disseminated throughout the countries.

Baseline Adoption

CZ11-94-5C and CZ11-94-32 are drought and Striga resistant in Mali; KVx426-4 and Amary shô, dual purpose cowpea in Mali with yields reaching up to 1400kg/ha and 1044kg/ha of grain and forage respectively, compared to 500 and 600 kg per ha for local varieties

Baseline yield / current yield gap

Average yield for Local varieties: 500kg-600kg/ha Potential yield for improved varieties : 1500kg-2000kg/ha

Preferred traits

yield potential pest/disease resistance performance under poor rainfall superior storage pest resistance grain size yield stability early maturity drought tolerance

Gender issues

The results show that the proportion of men in the sample is slightly higher than that of women. This is not surprising because although most households in rural regions of West African countries are headed by males, they are the ones who move to urban centers as a means of securing off-farm income required to supplement farm income.

Marketed surplus

The largest producer and consumer of cowpea in West Africa (and in the world) is Nigeria where a dense population and oil revenue create an enormous demand for the crop. Niger is the largest cowpea exporter in West Africa (and in the world) with an estimated 215 000 MT exported annually, mainly to Nigeria. Substantial amounts of cowpea also come to Nigeria from other neighboring countries, especially Cameroon and Chad. A large portion of cowpea from Burkina Faso and Mali are imported into Côte d’Ivoire, and also Nigeria.

Table 9: Preferred traits among the value chain: Crop Farmer

Commission agents / Traders

Processors

Consumer

Cowpea high yielding, early maturing (17.1%) and drought tolerant (24.4%)

Varieties of cowpeas differ in testa characteristics, grain size as well as in skin and eye

Varieties of cowpeas differ in testa characteristics, grain size as well

Consumers generally prefer large grains and discount prices of grains that are damaged by insect

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colour. Grain colour (White, Red/brown) Eye colour (Black, Brown/grey)

as in skin and eye colour. Grain colour (White, Red/brown) Eye colour (Black, Brown/grey)

pests. Their preferences for grain and eye colour vary form place to place. Cowpeas are frequently consumed in West Africa as fried "Akara balls and steamed moin-moin", both of which are prepared from ground beans In order to estimate the acceptance of new IITA cowpea cultivars by consumers in West Africa, several factors that determine acceptance were measured. These included cooking time and water uptake for whole beans, as well as taste, texture, and appearance of dishes prepared from ground beans. Consumers are more sensitive to bruchid damage than it is thought.

Skin and eye colour and texture grain

Varieties of cowpeas differ in characteristics, grain size as well as in skin and eye colour. Although, the number of varieties exported by any country is usually limited to 1 to 2 up to nine may be on sale in domestic markets of West and Central Africa. Table 8 demonstrates that the predominant grain colour in african market is white. Table 10. Cowpea characteristics in selected markets in West Africa (%)

Grain colour Eye colour Country White Red/brown Others Black Brown/grey

Mali 64 17 19 79 21 Niger 49 45 6 3 97 Senegal 31 21 48 47 53

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Ghana 74 16 10 71 29 Source: Bean/Cowpea CRSP West Africa Economics team. On the other hand, the importance of testa texture varies by country. In Ghana, the cowpea grains are mostly smooth textured. On the contrary, cowpeas sold in Mali are rough texture. Cowpea rough skin is linked to the type of food prepared and to storage conditions. Rough skin is easy to dehull and therefore easier to use for those dishes that traditionally require removal of the testa, for example "moin-moin". Smooth skinned cowpeas tend to be more common in humid areas where storage conditions are poor. (Langyintuo, A.S. et al., 2003)

Grain size Analysis reported at the PEDUNE/RENACO/IITA/CRSP Cowpea Review and Planning Meeting, Ibadan Nigeria on March, 1998 indicates that cowpea characteristics vary widely and that grain size is the most important single factor influencing price. Sources of information about improved cowpea variety

Saved from last season's harvest Free seed from a neighbor Free seed from government program Free seed from an NGO program Purchased from a seed company Purchased from Ministry of Agriculture Purchased from another farmer Purchased from market Purchased from an agro-dealer

Yield levels / current yield gap In the traditional farming systems in which much of the tropical legumes are grown by small scale farmers with little or no input, the yields are in general low. For instance, while cowpea grain production in Nigeria increased by over 400% from 1961 to 1995 and about 107% increase in grain production from 1998 to 2000- productivity levels remained very low, typically less than 500 kg/ha. Table1 confirms these observations in the case of beans. In the six countries in the table, yield/ha only exceeded 600 kg/ha in Tanzania. For over nearly a decade (1995-2004), yields were in general below 500 kg/ha. However, as shown in Figure 3, the production of cowpea followed the increase in cropped land. Although no records are available about soybean, the situation would probably be the same. Several improved varieties of the legumes have been developed, distributed and adopted. The major improved technologies developed and diffused to small farmers include short cycle drought escape improved varieties IT 89DE-58-6 and KVx542-119 resistant to Striga; Kvx741-16, Kvx741-16 and KVx693-9 resistant to Aphids in Burkina Faso;

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CZ11-94-5C and CZ11-94-32 are drought and Striga resistant in Mali; KVx426-4 and Amary shô, dual purpose cowpea in Mali with yields reaching up to 1400kg/ha and 1044kg/ha of grain and forage respectively, compared to 500 and 600 kg per ha for local varieties. These varieties are well adapted to local risky and drought prone areas and have been adopted in vulnerable ecosystems on a wide scale. Cowpea innovations diffused include also techniques of seed production, plant-based insecticides extracts and improved storage techniques like solar drying, double and triple bagging and hermetic drums. Minimum recommended synthetic pesticides doses have been developed for environmentally sound pest management. In Nigeria the major constraints to the adoption of dry season dual-purpose cowpea include insect attack both in the field and in storage, insufficient water, nematodes, lack of land, and lack of seed. The magnitude of these problems also varies with location. (Inaizumi, H., et al, 1999). Binding constraints: (Seed supply) The main reason for deciding to replace the seed for improved variety:

poor seed quality reduced yield lost stored seed increased susceptibility to pest no rain/did not germinate

Losses between maturity and harvest of beans and cowpeas are caused by:

Seed deterioration: this can be a serious problem in cowpeas and can occur soon after maturity if rainfall continues. Studies by IITA have found that cowpea seed quality and germination decline rapidly when harvest is delayed. In tests under wet conditions, seed germination fell to 50 percent or lower within three weeks after maturity, and pre-harvest fungicide sprays were of little benefit in preventing this.

pod shattering: spillage of seeds from drying pods that split can be a problem, but losses are not usually serious unless harvest is delayed;

bruchid weevils: these insects are not only serious storage pests of pulse crops but also they can fly to the fields to infest cowpeas by laying eggs in cracks or cuts in the pods;

Sign of hope Considering that constraints on cowpea development occur in three broad areas, namely, biotic, abiotic and socio-economic, IFAD through research partners such as IITA has proposed an interesting program with main research areas that involve:

using participatory methods, introducing and disseminating among farmers technologies such as improved cowpea varieties which show greater resistance to diseases, insects, drought, heat and parasitic weed and adaptable to poor fertility soils;

developing and disseminating to farmers integrated production packages, including IPM technologies developed by PEDUNE.

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seed multiplication and the diffusion of improved cowpeas. In agronomic terms, there is the need, therefore, of an effective seed multiplication and distribution systems to be improved upon so as to enhance farmers' access to improved varieties.

To achieve greater impact, improved varieties would need to be used for dry cowpea production, not only used for green pods.

Assessing opportunities and threats on cowpea in West Africa Cowpea production in West Africa takes place in an ever-changing environment and so does agricultural research. On one hand, many opportunities are arising from economic growth and increasing trade relationships. Income drives the demand for high-quality cowpea grains and processed products. On the other hand, pests, diseases, drought and market access and prices are threats to food security and enhanced livelihoods. As a research institute operating in this dynamic environment, national research and IITA will need to update their research priorities, based on regular assessment of the opportunities and threats. This will require ex ante impact assessment research aimed at identifying and quantifying the opportunities and threats, such as high value crops, market opportunities, national policies deregulation, and climate change. Gender In West Africa, cowpea provides a source of cash income for women farmers who make and sell snack foods from this nutritious legume. (Okike, I., 2000). Most of the cowpea green pod marketing is handled by women; in many african countries, woman harvest and sell direct to consumer on roadsides, because pod prices are higher than dry grain prices. The role of gender appears to be important in grain retail trade in Africa. The results show that the proportion of men in the sample is slightly higher than that of women. This is not surprising because although most households in rural regions of West African countries are headed by males, they are the ones who move to urban centers as a means of securing off-farm income required to supplement farm income. The distribution of respondents by marital status is provided in Table 4. The results show that about 92%, 66% and 92% of the respondents are married, respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali. Also the results show that about 0.4%, 24% and 5% of the respondents are widowed and 3%, 5% and 3% are single, respectively in Nigeria, Niger and Mali.In Nigeria, men particularly value the income and food benefits, while women emphasize home cooking and consumption and the feeding of small ruminants. Women use CRSP storage technologies, particularly solar heaters, because they often not have access to storage insecticides. A rapid appraisal survey of adoption of cowpea varieties and storage techniques carried out in 1996 indicated that both men and women use the improved varieties and the metal drum for grain storage. Information on drought research issues Cowpea is an indigenous crop that has evolved from the native wild types and its genetic diversity is greater than that of any other crop in the dry african savannah. (IFAD, 2000). In semiarid zones of West and Central Africa, farmers traditionally cultivate two main types of cowpea: early maturing varieties grown for grain and late maturing varieties that

45

are grown for fodder production. (Inaizumi, H. et al., 1999). Cowpea grows best in hot areas and can produce a yield of one ton seed and five tons hay per hectare with as little as 300 mm of rainfall. Long taproot and mechanisms such as turning the leaves upwards to prevent them to become too hot and closing the stomata, give to cowpea an excellent drought tolerance. (Van Rij, N., 1999). Cowpea is considered more tolerant to drought than soybean or mung bean because of its tendency to form a deep taproot. It has a competitive niche in sandy soils, does not tolerate excessively wet conditions, and should not be grown on poorly drained soils. One of the most remarkable things about cowpea is that it thrives in dry environments; available cultivars produce a crop with as little as 300 mm of rainfall. This makes it the crop of choice for the Sahelian zone and the dry savannahs, though cultivars that flourish in the moist savannahs are available as well. (Bean/Cowpea CRSP West Africa Mission). Length of growing season varies with type: 100 days in determinate type, 110 days in semi- determinate, 120 days in ranking type. The climate will also have an effect on the length of the growing season: the hotter the weather, the shorter the maturity period. (Van Rij, N., 1999). Cowpea is a crop well suited to Niger's climate and soils and well adapted to Niger's generally extensive agriculture.

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3. EAST AND SOUTH AFRICA (ESA) 3.1. Baseline studies in Malawi and Mozambique 33..11..11.. BBaacckkggrroouunndd The objective of the baseline studies is to establish the current food security and poverty status of the cowpea and soybean producing households and to document the importance, constraints, and variety preferences relating to cowpea and soybean production. The baseline information is intended to facilitate project monitoring and impact assessment in terms of technology adoption, yields, incomes, food security, and poverty. A greater understanding of the production and market constraints and preferences would also help identify appropriate technology and policy options to enhance the benefits from cowpea and soybean production through increased productivity and incomes. An important aspect of the baseline studies is the design of the baseline survey such that information on target as well as control villages and households would be available before and after the project. The approach accounts for conditions with and without as well as before and after the project and forms part of an overall monitoring and evaluation framework aimed at measuring and attributing the short term and long term impacts of the project using rigorous methods. 33..11..22.. MMeetthhooddoollooggyy Survey tools Baseline household survey questionnaires have been developed to gather baseline data on: (1) basic farm and household characteristics; (2) cropping pattern, input use, production, and yields; (3) non-farm employment and incomes; (4) food and non-food consumption; (5) vulnerability and coping strategies; (6) gender roles in food production and marketing and women’s access to productive assets and financial resources; (7) cowpea and soybean varietal adoption and trait preferences; (8) cowpea and soybean seed systems; and (9) soybean processing and marketing. For Mozambique, the questionnaires had to be translated from English to Portuguese. In addition to questionnaires, other supporting tools included improved and local seed samples and GPS equipment. The seed samples of four varieties in Malawi and four varieties in Mozambique were prepared and provided to each enumerator to facilitate data collection relating to variety adoption and preferences. Similarly, a set of GPS equipment was provided to each enumerator to record the GPS coordinates of surveyed villages and households.

Sample design and data collection The baseline surveys in Malawi and Mozambique were conducted over a period of 6 to 7 weeks between May and July 2008 in the same areas where participatory variety selection (PVS) and seed multiplication activities are being undertaken. This was in part to ensure that early adoption and impact assessment will be undertaken in the same areas where early adoption would most likely occur. In Malawi, the survey was conducted in Lilongwe and Dowa districts in the Central Region, which are the major soybean growing districts. In each district, target and control villages and households were selected. A total of 20 villages were selected for the survey. Specifically, 12 target villages were selected

47

randomly from a list of major soybean growing villages in the target villages—6 villages in Chitekwere Extension Planning Area (EPA) in Lilongwe and 6 villages in Nachisaka EPA in Dowa. Similarly, 8 control villages were selected randomly from a list of major soybean growing villages in the control sites—4 villages in Nyanja EPA in Lilongwe and 4 villages in Madisi EPA in Dowa. Based on a household sampling frame developed for each of the selected target and control villages, 15 households were randomly selected in each village. The sampling process thus resulted in 180 target households and 120 control households, with a total of 300 households selected for the baseline study in Malawi. Female headed households accounted for 24% (=72 households) of the sample households in Malawi. Figure 1 shows the map of the sampled target and control sites in Malawi.

Figure 7. Baseline study areas in Malawi. In Mozambique, the survey was conducted in Nampula and Zambezia provinces in and around the sites targeted by the project as the major cowpea and soybean growing areas. The specific target districts for the survey were Rapale in Nampula and Gurue in Zambezia. The control districts corresponding to Rapale were Muecate and Mogovolas in Nampula, whereas the control districts corresponding to Gurue were Malema and Cuamba in Nampula and Niassa, respectively. A total of 10 villages were selected for the

48

survey in Mozambique. Specifically, 6 target villages were selected randomly from a list of major cowpea and soybean growing villages in the target districts—3 villages in Rapale and 3 villages in Gurue. Similarly, 4 control villages were randomly selected from a list of major cowpea and soybean growing villages in the control districts—a village in each of Muecate, Mogovolas, Malema, and Cuamba. Based on a household sampling frame developed for each of the selected target and control villages, 30 households were selected randomly in each village. As in Malawi, a total of 300 households—180 target households and 120 control households—were selected for the baseline study in Mozambique. Female headed households accounted for 13% (=39 households) of the sample households in Mozambique. Figure 2 shows the map of the sampled target and

control districts and villages in Mozambique. Figure 8. Baseline study areas in Mozambique Using the questionnaires as the main reference, two-day training workshops were organized for enumerators and supervisors with a view to: (1) upgrading the interview skills of enumerators and enhancing their understanding of each question; and (2) enhancing the quality control skills of supervisors and their understanding of the expected outcomes of the survey. Exploratory field visits and preliminary farmer interviews were then arranged for questionnaire pretesting as well as early assessment of the competence

49

of enumerators. The sampled households were interviewed using the final sets of questionnaires developed based on the feedback from the pretesting exercises. Similarly, major markets in the various districts were surveyed using structured modules to gather market price and related information. In Malawi, national as well as district level data on cropped area, yields, and production of major crops—including soybean— were assembled to supplement primary household level data. Data entry and analysis The baseline survey data have been coded and entered in SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), which provides full documentation of the data collected thereby making the data available for use by others. The survey data have also been cleaned and a database established. Even allowing for any remaining documentation that may need to be done, the milestone relating to submission of the baseline database in February 2009 will be achieved. While report writing will be a major activity until the baseline report submission date of October 2009, the key variables have been analyzed to provide some insights into the role of cowpea and soybean and the current livelihood status of the households surveyed in Malawi and Mozambique. 33..11..33.. OOvveerrvviieeww ooff ddaattaa aanndd rreessuullttss Major crops Table 10 presents the major crops grown by the sample households in Malawi and Mozambique. As the most important staple in southern Africa, maize accounts for over 40% of the area cultivated by the sample households in Malawi, and more so among female headed households. Soybean is the third most important crop next to maize and groundnut, and more so among female headed households. In fact, survey results showed that soybean is the most important source of cash income accounting for a third of total cash income for female headed households, whereas male headed household rely on tobacco. Table 10. Major crops grown by the sample households—by country and household

headship

Malawi Mozambique All Male

headed Female headed

All Male headed

Female headed

Crops (% of cultivated land) Crops (% of cultivated land) Maize 42 41 47 Maize 22 22 20 Groundnut 15 15 18 Cassava 17 17 16 Soybean 13 12 16 Cowpea 15 15 15 Tobacco 11 13 5 Soybean 11 11 13 Beans 5 5 6 Groundnut 9 9 10 Sweet Potatoes 4 4 3 Pigeonpea 8 8 7 Land (ha) 1.75 1.92 1.22 Land (ha) 3.60 3.7 2.7

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In Mozambique, maize and cassava are almost equally important staples, which together account for nearly 40% of the land cultivated. Cowpea and soybean are the third and fourth most important crops, which together account for 25% of the cultivated land. Consistent with the popular perception about gender imbalances in access to land, female headed households both in Malawi and Mozambique cultivate smaller plots than male headed households. In view of relative land abundance in Mozambique, however, an average female headed household in Mozambique actually cultivates a larger 2.7 hectares of land compared with that cultivated by an average female (1.2 ha) or male headed household (1.9 ha) in Malawi. New technology often results in a shift in cropping pattern and increased incomes following changes in relative benefits from the production of alternative crops. Assessing the impact of improved cowpea and soybean varieties on cropping patterns and incomes would however require baseline information on the relative importance of crops for the target and control households in terms of cultivated land. Table 10 presents the relative importance of major crops to the target and control households in Malawi and Mozambique. Clearly, the major crops are generally equally important to both target and control households. In Malawi, the only difference between the two groups relates to groundnut and tobacco where tobacco is relatively less (more) important than groundnut for the target (control) households. In contrast, soybean is equally important to both groups. Similarly, in Mozambique, cowpea and soybean are equally important to both groups. In both countries, there is also little or no noticeable difference in the size of land cultivated by the target and control households. A successful cowpea and soybean technological innovation would be expected to raise the relative benefits from these crops that would result in a shift in cropping patterns with greater share of cultivated land planted to cowpea and soybean by the target households. Table 11. Major crops grown by the sample households—by target group

Malawi Mozambique All Target Control All Target Control Crops (% of cultivated land) Crops (% of cultivated land) Maize 42 43 42 Maize 22 24 19 Groundnut 15 14 17 Cassava 17 15 20 Soybean 13 13 12 Cowpea 15 13 17 Tobacco 11 7 19 Soybean 11 12 10 Beans 5 7 2 Groundnut 9 9 10 Sweet Potatoes 4 5 3 Pigeonpea 8 8 7 Land (ha) 1.75 1.88 1.56 Land (ha) 3.60 3.7 3.4 Yields of cowpea and soybean The productivity of cowpea and soybean in Malawi and Mozambique is low and this is attributed to a number of constraints, such as pests and diseases and low-yielding varieties. The baseline survey results show that cowpea yields range from as low as 300 kg/ha in Malawi to only a little more than half a ton per hectare in Mozambique. In

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Malawi, the much lower cowpea yields, coupled with the negligible share of cowpea in total cultivated land, confirm the low potential of the crop and serves to validate the focus of cowpea interventions in Mozambique. In Mozambique, female headed households obtain slightly higher cowpea yields (600 kg/ha) than male headed households (540 kg/ha), but this difference is not statistically significant. In Malawi, male headed households obtain slightly higher yields (640 kg/ha) than female headed households (570 kg/ha), but there is no evidence of significant gender differentials. In contrast, soybean yields in Mozambique provide evidence of significant gender differentials, with male headed households obtaining over 700 kg/ha yields than female headed households who obtained only about 450 kg/ha. A further examination of the reasons behind this differential only pointed to a possible exclusion of female headed households from NGO-driven projects in Zambezia that are promoting soybean production through an integrated credit and seed supply system. Table 12. Yields of cowpea and soybean—by country and household headship

(kg/ha)



All Male headed

Female headed

Cowpea 300 – – 548 541 597 Soybean 623 640 572 688 717 448 Cowpea and soybean yields also differ across target sites and households. The impact of the project on yields will be related to the level of change in the yield difference between the target and control households before and after completion of the project in a manner that accounts for already differing initial conditions. The baseline yields among target and control households presented in Table 12 show that both cowpea and soybean yields are higher among the target households. This is in part due to the greater production potentials of the target sites than the control sites. The yield differentials are greater for soybean than for cowpea and in Mozambique than in Malawi. Not only are the yield differences between the target (760 kg/ha) and control households (575 kg/ha) generally more apparent in Mozambique, but the yield levels (690 kg/ha) are also slightly higher there relative to that in Malawi (620 kg/ha). Although soybean production is much more established in Malawi, there are a number of ongoing multi-stakeholder efforts to promote soybean production in Mozambique through integrated support systems involving seed and credit (e.g., CLUSA). Table 13. Yields of cowpea and soybean—by target group (kg/ha)

Malawi Mozambique All Target Control All Target Control Cowpea 300 – – 548 575 510 Soybean 623 572 702 688 761 575

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Adoption of cowpea and soybean varieties Low adoption of improved varieties is argued to be one of the reasons for low yields. Even when a farmer is said to have adopted an improved variety, it is usually the case that the seeds have been recycled for many generations to the extent that their yields advantage have been lost and hence give no more yields than the local varieties. The baseline survey gathered information on the varieties of cowpea and soybean currently being grown by the farmers in Malawi and Mozambique. The adoption rates presented in table 13 are generally low for most of the available improved varieties the seeds of which have been mostly recycled. Table 14. Adoption of soybean and cowpea varieties—by country and household

headship



All Male headed

Female headed

(% of sample households) (% of sample households) Soybean Soybean Ocepara-4 29 27 38 Storm 29 30 20 427/5/7 10 11 8 Santa Rosa 8 9 7 747/6/8 8 8 8 Solitaire 9 9 13 Cowpea IT-18 50 52 41 IT-16 3 3 3 In Malawi, close to 30% of the sample farmers have adopted the soybean variety Ocepara-4, with the varieties 427/5/7 and 747/6/8 having 10% or less adoption rates. Female headed households tend to have relatively greater adoption rates of Ocepara-4. In Mozambique, nearly 30% of the sample farmers have adopted the soybean variety Storm, with the varieties Santa Rosa and Solitaire having much less adoption rates. A higher 50% of the sample households in Mozambique have adopted the cowpea variety IT-18. Unlike in Malawi, female headed households in Mozambique tend to have relatively lower adoption rates of cowpea (40%) and soybean varieties (20%). Farmer preferences for variety traits One of the reasons for low adoption of improved varieties is argued to be the fact that most improved varieties lack the characteristics valued by farmers. This has in turn been due to the failure of crop improvement programs to involve farmers in the process of designing and developing improved varieties with a view to meeting their priorities and preferences. In this regard, the baseline survey gathered information on variety trait preferences of cowpea and soybean producers in Malawi and Mozambique. In Malawi, about 60% of soybean producers indicated a clear preference for improved varieties with high grain yield. Larger grain size and earliness of maturity turned out to be distant second and third important characteristics of soybean varieties in Malawi. While high-

53

yielding variety preferences are equally strong among male and female headed households, earliness is slightly more important than grain size among female headed households. In Mozambique, most soybean producers indicated a clear preference for improved varieties with high grain yield as well as attractive prices. As soybean is a relatively new crop in Mozambique and is grown mainly for cash, the survey results confirm that the market is the main driver of soybean production. Cowpea producers’ preferences in Mozambique are also not different than those of soybean producers, with grain yield highly preferred by nearly 60% of producers. While price and taste are distant second and third important traits overall, female headed households prefer cowpea taste to its price. This only confirms the importance of cowpea as a food crop especially among women. Table 14. Most preferred soybean and cowpea traits—by country and household

headship



All Male headed

Female headed

(% of farmers growing….) (% of farmers growing….) Soybean Soybean Grain yield 59 57 63 Price 44 43 56 Grain size 11 12 7 Grain yield 42 41 44 Earliness 10 9 11 Earliness 10 10 Cowpea Grain yield 57 55 69 Price 15 17 5 Taste 12 12 15 Poverty and food insecurity An important livelihood outcome associated with the TLII project is its expected impact on poverty reduction and food security in the target countries. Apart from actually generating positive impact, the challenge also relates to measuring the impacts brought about through the intervention. The baseline survey of target and control villages and households to document, among others, their current poverty and food security status is exactly intended to facilitate the assessment of project impacts on poverty and food security. Specifically, this impact is related to the level of change in the poverty and food security differences between the target and control households before and after completion of the project in a manner that accounts for already differing initial conditions of poverty and food insecurity. Measuring the current poverty and food security status of the surveyed households was the most demanding in terms of data and methods. This was determined using the comprehensive data collected on a range of food and non-food consumption

54

expenditures, with food consumption comprising both purchased food as well as own produced food. First, all food consumed over a period of 7 days (elicited using 7-day recall) was converted into calories and then into calories per person per day using the FAO food conversion table. Food secure and insecure households were then readily identified based on the minimum 2200 calories per capita per day requirement. Second, the poverty line was defined based on the cost of basic needs (CBN) method by first defining the food poverty line as the cost of the minimum 2200 kcal/capita/day. This was derived as the product of 2200 calories and the average price per calorie (i.e., total food expenditures divided by total calories). Having determined the food poverty line, the critical non-food expenditures and the overall poverty line were jointly estimated econometrically. The baseline poverty and food insecurity status of the target and control households is presented in Table 14. In Malawi, about 60% of the sample households in Malawi are poor and 45% are food insecure, confirming pervasive poverty and food insecurity in one of the poorest countries in the world. In Mozambique, 62% of the households are poor and 58% are food insecure, indicating that the sample households in Mozambique are relatively more food insecure than those in Malawi. This could be due to fertilizer subsidies in Malawi for maize production that would ensure greater food self-sufficiency in Malawi. Both in Malawi and Mozambique, the target households are at least as poor and food insecure as the control households, implying that the project has rightly targeted relatively more needy households. Consistent with their poorer access to land and lower adoption of improved varieties, female headed households both in Malawi and Mozambique are relatively poorer than male headed households. Table 15. Poverty and food insecurity—by country and target group (% of households)

Malawi Mozambique

All Target Control All Target Control

Poverty 60 61 60 62 63 59

Food insecurity 45 46 44 58 61 53

Note: Poverty—based on CBN method; food insecurity—based on 2200 kcal/person/day. Vulnerability and coping strategies Technological interventions should be targeted in the context of broader development challenges relating to the vulnerability and coping strategies of rural households for greater impact on poverty reduction. In this regard, the sample households were interviewed to generate information to facilitate our understanding of their perceptions of the sources of vulnerability, ex ante risk management options, and ex post coping mechanisms. In Malawi, the survey results can be summarized as: (1) drought is the main source of vulnerability (40%) followed by pests and diseases (25%) and sickness (18%); (2) the ex-ante risk management options include crop diversification (24%), no conscious strategy yet (24%), and planting early or drought tolerant maize (20%); and (3) the ex-post coping options include reduced number and quantity of meals (31%), switching to

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cassava (15%), and casual work (14%). In Mozambique, the survey results can be summarized as: 1) drought is the main source of vulnerability (46%) as in Malawi followed by pests and diseases (42%); (2) the ex-ante risk management options include crop diversification (52%), planting more cassava than maize (22%), and off-farm work such as petty trade (12%); and (3) the ex-post coping options include reduced number and quantity of meals (42%), borrowing money to buy food (31%), and switching to cassava (13%). Gender issues Women play key roles in agricultural production, but agriculture is increasingly characterized by growing gender imbalances in access to key productive assets such as land, animal power, and education. The failure of many agricultural research and extension programs in Africa has been argued to be due largely to gender biases in project design and implementation. With the interventions largely inappropriate to them, it is argued that women have been effectively excluded from the development process. In an effort to inform the design and implementation of the project, the sample households were interviewed on a number of issues relating to the roles and resource access of women. In Malawi, the observations can be summarized as: (1) in about 50% of the households, women own some land and all livestock; (2) most farming activities are undertaken jointly, but threshing, seed selection, and storage are mainly undertaken by women; (3) marketing is done by men, particularly of tobacco, with obvious patterns of control of cash income by men. In Mozambique, the observations can be summarized as: (1) in most households (67%), women own 50% of the land and livestock; (2) most farming activities are undertaken jointly, but threshing, seed selection, and storage are mainly undertaken by women; (3) marketing is done by men, both food and cash crops, with obvious patterns of control of cash income by men. Overall, the survey results suggest that women have no control over their own productive assets and the resulting incomes. 33..11..44.. AAsssseessssiinngg eenndd--uusseerr pprreeffeerrrreedd ttrraaiittss ffoorr rreesseeaarrcchh ttaarrggeettiinngg Appropriate crop variety development requires the involvement of end users—such as farmers and processors—in variety selection based on their preferences for several different traits. In this regard, a major activity of the project planned to be undertaken jointly by economists and breeders over a period of 3 years involves assessing end-user trait preferences to inform variety selection processes. The following milestones have been achieved in the first year: (1) survey tools have been designed, tested, and refined for assessing end-user preferences for participatory varietal selection (PVS); (2) survey tools have been administered for soybean in Malawi to gather phase I data on farmer preferences for all varieties on-station as well as for already released varieties grown on-farm for demonstration—Ocepara-4, 747/6/8, and 427/5/7; and (3) Phase I data have been entered, cleaned, and stored for later merging with other data as they become available in the subsequent phases to enable a comprehensive economic analysis. In Mozambique, the on-station as well as on-farm PVS exercises will start in the second year when the pool of varieties available becomes adequate to allow meaningful variety assessment. The baseline survey was also designed in such a way as to generate information that would supplement that on participatory variety selection. Both in Malawi and Mozambique, for

56

example, most of the soybean and cowpea producers indicated a clear preference for improved varieties with high grain yield. Analysis of the PVS data from Malawi showed no significant differences in the overall stated score across traits There were also no significant differences in the actual average yields across varieties. Consistent with its relatively higher adoption rates observed during the baseline survey, the variety Ocepara-4 gave a slightly higher average yield of 1.47 tons/ha, followed by 427/5/7 with 1.30 tons/ha and 747/6/8 with 1.25 tons/ha. While the on-farm data showed little yield variation across varieties, it revealed rather significant yield variation across farmers, with coefficient of variation ranging from 39% (747/6/8) to 56% (Ocepara-4). It would be natural to hypothesize that technical inefficiency relating to management practices, where some are more efficient than others, characterizes soybean production in the area. However, a stochastic frontier production function analysis revealed no evidence of inefficiency among the participating farmers. Instead, much of the yield variation was found to be due to variation in land quality. This is consistent with the fact that all the three varieties are not promiscuous and cannot fix atmospheric nitrogen, but still give better yields than other varieties. Although conclusive evidence needs to be based on several such exercises replicated over time and space, it suggests that the three available varieties could be used as options depending on access and suitability for local conditions. For example, Ocepara-4 is known for suppressing nematodes in the tobacco growing areas and could be a better option for farmers in those areas. 33..11..55.. SSooyybbeeaann pprroocceessssiinngg,, uuttiilliizzaattiioonn,, aanndd mmaarrkkeettiinngg Processing and utilization In an effort to guide interventions aimed at promoting soybean both as a food and cash crop, baseline household surveys were conducted in Malawi and Mozambique to gather information on soybean processing, utilization, and marketing. The survey results in Table 8 show that soybean flour is the most important type of processed product both in Malawi (88%) and Mozambique (28%), with soybean milk being a minor product. The popularity of soybean flour especially in Malawi is due mainly to the fact that it is used to make the highly nutritious porridge-like food known locally as Likuni phala—a corn–soybean blend that is recommended for improving children’s nutritional status. In addition, soybean flour is easier to process without any need for special training. With less than a third of the soybean producers processing soybean flour, household processing of soybean is, however, not as popular in Mozambique as it is in Malawi. This is consistent with the survey results showing that, in Malawi, most soybean producers (70%) grow soybean both for food and for cash, whereas nearly half of soybean producers in Mozambique grow soybean only for the market. This implies that more concerted efforts in terms of popularization and value addition capacity at household and community levels are needed to promote soybean as a food crop in Mozambique. By diversifying the uses of soybean, value addition would indeed help avoid price risks facing producers following increased supply or reduced demand.

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Table 16. Household processing of soybean in Malawi and Mozambique (% of

households)

Malawi Mozambique

Soybean flour 88 28

Soybean milk 3 4

The survey results presented in Table 9 further demonstrate the quantity of consumption and diversity of utilization of soybean both in Malawi and Mozambique. As the surveys were carried out during harvesting of soybean, the consumption information is unlikely to apply to all seasons and would only be valid for the harvest period. In Malawi, soybean grain and flour are consumed relatively more frequently than soybean milk. While over half a kilogram of soybean flour is consumed per day, a negligible quantity of 4% of a kilogram of grain is consumed per day. This only confirms the greater popularity of soybean flour than other forms of use of soybean in Malawi. Although the same grain and processed products consumed in Malawi are also consumed in Mozambique, soybean is consumed more as grain than as flour in Mozambique. Table 17. Mean consumption of soybean and soybean products in Malawi and

Mozambique

Malawi Mozambique Product Quantity (kg/day)

Frequency (days/week)

Quantity (kg/day)

Frequency (days/week)

Grain 0.04 3 0.26 2 Flour 0.60 3 0.16 2 Milk 0.02 2 0.05 2 Soybean marketing In Malawi and Mozambique, a number of market forces—both domestic and global—have combined to create growing demands for soybeans—both for export to the regional markets and for domestic processing to meet the rising demand for soybean meal and oil. In Malawi, protectionist trade policy measures intended for protecting the poultry industry—import quota for poultry meat—have resulted in substantial increase in demand for soybeans primarily to supply the feed industry. This change in trade policy encouraged the rapid growth of the local feed industry, with increased derived demand for soybean. However, domestic production falls far short of demand. In Malawi, a survey of 10 processing industries revealed a combined current demand of over 50,000 tons per year and potential demand (with planned capacity expansion) of about 90,000 tons per year (Table 10). The three main soybean traders in Malawi—Mulli Brothers, Transglobe Produce Exports, and Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation of Malawi (ADMARC)—alone bought a total of 35,000 tons of soybean in 2007. Mulli Brothers and Transglobe are predominantly grain exporters while ADMARC largely sells on the domestic market. Although soybean production is estimated at about 80,000 tons per year, a sizable share of this production is not marketable due mainly to high

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transaction costs associated with poor transport and road infrastructure, isolation, smaller quantities, and poor quality. Table 18: Industrial demand of soybean in Malawi

Demand (tons) Processor Product Actual Potential

CP Feeds Chicken feed 21,000 25,000 Proto Feeds Chicken feed 5,000 6,000 Asumi Dairy mash 50 100 SEBA Foods Textured protein 2,500 2,500 Domasi Corn soybean blend 50 60 Rab processors Corn soybean blend 10,000 12,000 Capital Oil Vegetable oil 3,000 3,600 Unilever Oil* Vegetable oil – 25,000 Transglobe Grain export 10,000 12,000 Mulli Brothers Grain export 10,000 12,000 Demand (tons) 53,150 88,780 Marketable supply (tons) 40,000 * Import substitution—Unilever imports over 20,000 tons of soybean oil annually. In Mozambique, a survey of 10 processing industries revealed a combined current demand of over 40,000 tons per year and potential demand (with planned capacity expansion) of about 80,000 tons per year (Table 11). With the current level of soybean production of only about 2,000 tons a year, the gap between demand and supply is much greater in Mozambique. Table 19: Industrial demand of soybean in Mozambique

Demand (tons) Processor Product Actual Potential

Abilio Antunes Feed 8,000 12000 Novos Horizontes Feed 4,000 6,000 Frangoking Feed 3,000 4,500 CIM Feed 11,000 16,500 HIGEST Feed 7,000 10,500 UGC Feed 1,000 1,500 Meadow Feed 4,000 6,000 San Oil* Oil – 20,000 IBA-VET Feed 1,000 1,500 GETT Feed 1,500 2,250 Demand (tons) 40,500 80,750 Marketable supply (tons) 2,000 * Expected to start operation

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Soybean producers both in Malawi and Mozambique are beginning to respond to the growing market price incentives. In Malawi, soybean production increased from less than 50,000 tons in 2006 to nearly 80,000 tons in 2008, whereas in Mozambique it increased from less than 1000 tons in 2006 to over 2000 tons in 2008. In Malawi, farmgate prices of soybean increased sharply from only a little over US$200 per ton in 2006 to over US$300 per ton in 2007 and over US$600 per ton in 2008 (Fig. 9). Similarly, in Mozambique, soybean prices increased from only a little over US$200 per ton in 2006 to about US$580 per ton in 2008.

Figure 9. Soybean prices in Malawi and Mozambique, 2006–2008. In Malawi, the baseline survey results also show for 2008 that, on average, 70% of soybean produced was sold. Although most soybean producers (90%) sold right after harvest and mainly to rural assemblers or traders, they received an average price of MK90 per kg, which is equivalent to US$640 per ton. Similarly, in Mozambique, the baseline survey results show for 2008 that most soybean producers (90%) sold right after harvest, most of them to the farmer association known locally as IKURU, and received an average price of Mt13 per kg, which is equivalent to US$540 per ton. In both countries, soybean prices increased even further with time after harvest in 2008. 33..11..66.. SSeeeedd ssuuppppllyy ssyysstteemmss aanndd ddeemmaanndd ccoonnssttrraaiinnttss Basic seed production in Malawi In Malawi, the Department of Agricultural Research Services (DARS) is responsible for the production and distribution of basic or foundation seed. However, the level of investment is so variable and usually leads to erratic supply of basic seed. For instance, no adequate basic seed was available at the start of 2007 season such that multiplication

0

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2006 2007 2008

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Malawi Mozambique

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had to be done using certified soybean seed. Currently, production is undertaken under the DARS Basic Seed Upscaling Program. Potential farmers apply and successful applicants are then supplied with breeder seed to produce basic seed under inspection of the Seed Services Unit. The basic seed is then sold through the program management unit. In 2008, nearly 7 tons of basic soybean seed was produced (Table 12). Table 20. Basic soybean seed production in Malawi, 2008

Variety Quantity (tons) Ocepera-4 0.70 427/5/7 1.95 747/6/8 3.65 Magoye 0.20 Total 6.50 The up-scaling program signals the public sector efforts to improve the production and distribution of basic seed of soybean. As opposed to past basic seed production initiatives, the up-scaling program is more organized. For instance, the varieties that are multiplied under this program are chosen based on farmer and consumer preferences and the seed production is undertaken by farmers with inspection and other technical support from the Seed Services Unit. Certified seed production and demand in Malawi Production of soybean seed is concentrated in the main soybean producing areas of Lilongwe, Kasungu, and Mzuzu. The main actors in soybean seed production in Malawi are the Association of Small-scale Seed Multipliers Action Groups (ASSMAG) and SeedCo. ASSMAG is a farmer-owned rural seed production and marketing organization in Malawi and was formed in 2001 as a successor to the National Smallholder Seed Producer Association (NASSPA). The objectives of ASSMAG are to act as a coordinating body for smallholder seed producers; to facilitate sustainable seed production and ensure seed is readily available on the market; facilitate identification of seed markets within and outside the country and create a lobbying platform for smallholder seed producers. Soybean seed production has been part of the association since its inception in 2001. ASSMAG procures basic seed from DARS and distributes it to its members and then plays a leading role in market identification. All certified seed produced under ASSMAG is bulked and sold to NGOs (World Vision International Malawi, Action Relief, Christian Health Association of Malawi, Catholic Development Commission of Malawi) that either distribute it for free or under a revolving credit scheme. The main soybean seed producing associations are Mzuzu, Bua, and Chigwa in Mzuzu, Kasungu, and Salima Agricultural Development Divisions (ADDs) respectively. In 2007, ASSMAG accounted for 95% of total certified soybean seed production in Malawi. On the other hand, SeedCo is a private seed company that is involved in production and distribution of soybean seed in Malawi—registered in 1999 and started operations in 2000. The company produces seed of two varieties (Saprano and Solitaire). These varieties were developed by SeedCo–Zimbabwe and released in Malawi in collaboration

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in August 2003. SeedCo produced about 111 tons in 2005 and 300 tons in 2006—both through its out-growers. In 2006, SeedCo accounted for about 50% of total soybean seed production in Malawi.

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Soybean seed production in Malawi has exhibited significant fluctuation over the period 2000–2007 (Fig. 10). Production increased from only 122 tons in 2000 to 767 tons in 2001, but then declined sharply to almost 50 tons in 2003. The sharp increase in seed production in 2001 was largely due largely to: (1) community-based seed production initiatives involving NASSPA with funding from foreign sources (e.g., European Union), and (2) seed production by Monsanto. The subsequent sharp decline in seed production was again due to: (1) a sharp decline in seed producers who were not paid for the seed they produced and supplied to NASSPA due to financial mismanagement, and (2) phasing out of Monsanto soybean seed production activities due to poor returns. Following the re-organization of seed producers under ASSMAG in 2001, soybean seed production has shown a modest and consistent increase from only 50 tons in 2003 to 580 tons in 2006. The noticeable increase in soybean seed production in 2005 and 2006 is due to the involvement of SeedCo, which accounted for about 50% of total production. Underscoring not only production but also demand uncertainties surrounding seed production, soybean seed production in Malawi again declined to less than 300 tons in 2007. Having sold only about 15% of its production in 2006 due to lack of demand, SeedCo had to stop producing soybean seed in 2007. This resulted in a build up of unsold soybean seed stock in 2007 and beyond. Basic seed production in Mozambique The national agricultural research system of Mozambique (IIAM) has weak capacity for maintaining basic and pre-basic seed of cowpea and soybean. Apart from limited operational budgets, the capacity constraint relates to technical capacity as well as infrastructure for basic seed production (e.g., irrigation facilities, seed processing, grading, packaging, and storage). Currently, for example, IIAM has no soybean breeder

Figure 10. Soybean seed production in Malawi, 2000–2007.

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and it has not yet released a single soybean variety. Therefore, IIAM does not have basic or pre-basic soybean seed. The community-based seed producers, organized under IKURU farmers’ association, obtain basic seed of cowpea from the Basic Seed Unit (USEBA) of IIAM, but they buy basic seed of soybean from seed companies in Zambia. Basic seed stocks are generally maintained by private seed companies. It is reported that most of the seed being sold in Mozambique is derived from basic seed stocks built and maintained outside the country. In an effort to fill the basic seed production gap, IITA-Mozambique produced 5.5 tons of basic cowpea seed and 4 tons of basic soybean seed in the 2007/08 season with provisions made under the AIMS (Agricultural Input Markets Strengthening) and Tropical Legumes II projects. Certified seed production and demand in Mozambique Soybean seed multiplication is solely undertaken by community-based associations that are members of IKURU. IKURU is a farmer-owned commercial entity that works with local out grower associations for cowpea and soybean in Nampula and Zambezia. It procures basic seed of cowpea—mainly IT-18—from the Basic Seed Unit of IIAM (USEBA) and basic seed of soybean—mainly Santa Rosa and Storm—from seed companies in Zambia and distributes it to farmers through the affiliate associations. All the seed multiplied under this scheme is sold to IKURU after it has been thoroughly cleaned and treated with actelic dust. The seed is later sold to agro-dealers, government projects, and NGOs at a whole sale price while part of it is sold on the retail market through IKURU retail shops. In 2007, a total of 108 tons of certified soybean seed and about 250 tons of cowpea seed were produced (Table 14). Seed companies accounted for about 87% of cowpea seed production in 2007, whereas soybean seed was produced exclusively by the community-based seed producers.

Table 21: Soybean and cowpea seed production in Mozambique, 2007

Soybean Cowpea Production (tons) Production

(tons) Community-based Community-based Eduardo Mondlane 18.6 Chalaua 6.00 Acaba Pobre 14.0 Muecate 9.10 Ermaos Unidos 3.0 AENA 16.80 Epalaque 6.0 25 de Setembro 2.10 Sodoma 13.5 Celeiro Mutequeleci 15.2 Adecor 38.5 Seed companies 0 Seed companies 215 Total 108 Total 249 Seed demand constraints In a situation where most of the farmers rely on their own farm-saved, recycled seed, lack of effective improved seed demand will continue to be a critical constraint to the

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development of the seed sector. The baseline survey results showed that 60% of soybean producers in Malawi cannot distinguish between soybean seed and grain. Both in Malawi and Mozambique, the maximum willingness to pay for soybean and cowpea seeds with desirable traits is on average equivalent only to the price of grain, far less than the prevailing price of certified seed of soybean. This implies that there is no premium price for improved seed and hence seed subsidies may need form part of the overall strategy to promote adoption of improved varieties. In addition, more concerted extension or popularization efforts may be needed for farmers to recognize the new varieties as being superior. Seed credit or subsidies, coupled with greater popularization activities, is thus needed to create awareness and market demand for improved seed. In northern Mozambique, many farmers ventured into soybean production when a multi-stakeholder partnership project aimed at market-based development provided them with integrated credit, extension, and input supply services. The survey results showed that about 83% of adopters of improved soybean varieties got improved seed from NGOs (e.g., CLUSA) on credit. Improved cowpea seed is more accessible than soybean seed in the area, but farmers have poorer access to credit for cowpea production than for soybean production. The survey results showed that only 12% of adopters of improved cowpea varieties bought improved seed from agro-dealers, with the rest using their own recycled seed. Similarly, in Malawi, the baseline survey results showed that about 63% of adopters of available improved varieties of soybean used their own seed from previous harvest. Apart from lack of economic access, many farmers also have neither the information nor the physical access to improved seed. Therefore, improved access to credit, extension, and information and market infrastructure would be a key component of an overall strategy aimed at enhancing farmer access to improved seed and other complementary inputs. 4. Baseline study in Tanzania 4.1. The Tanzanian Economy The economy of Tanzania is overwhelmingly agricultural, in 2006 contributed 44.7% of the GDP (URT 2007). It relies on smallholder production of crops such as maize, rice, coffee, cotton, cashews and tobacco. Crops such as tea, sisal, and sugarcane are grown in both small and large farms. Other crops which are grown by small-scale farmers include wheat, millet, sorghum, vegetables, bananas, and cassava. Only a few crops such as coffee, sisal, tea, and sugarcane are grown on large-scale commercial farms. According to a World Bank report (2000), agriculture supports about 90% of the population living in rural areas. As the Tanzania’s urban population is increasing at the rate of 8% per annum, the agriculture sector is expected to increase marketed output of food crops in order to support the growing urban population (URT, 1999). The sector is also expected to produce raw materials for domestic agro-industries. If the incomes of smallholder farmers are increased, they can generate a substantial market for goods and services produced by other industries in the economy. In addition to crop growing, large numbers of cattle, sheep and goats are kept. Small industries dealing with processing of agricultural goods, producing beverages, paper, and basic consumer items, also constitutes an important part of the country’s economy. The

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mining sector is among the fastest growing in Tanzania. The minerals which are extracted in significant quantities include gold, salt, gypsum, phosphates, kaolin, diamonds, and tanzanite (URT, 2006). The crop and livestock sub-sectors play an important role in the socio-economic development of Tanzanians. As pointed out earlier, the agriculture sector in the country is mainly based on small-scale peasant farming. It is estimated that smallholders’ production under labour intensive farms with low production technology account for more than 75% of the total agricultural production. Moreover, almost 90% of the marketed agricultural output in the country comes from small-scale farmers. The predominance of rudimentary production technologies is signified by the fact that, about 70% of the country’s cropped area is cultivated by hand hoe and 20% by ox-plough. Only 10% of the land is cultivated by using tractors. The use of low production technologies means that farmers are not likely to cultivate large farms. Thus, it is not surprising that nearly 93% of all farmers in the country cultivate less than two hectares (URT, 2006). A detailed description of the contributions of selected economic activities to the total GDP, from 1992 to 2005, is provided in Figure 11.

Figure 11: GDP by Economic Activity in Tanzania Source: Produced by using data from NBS (2006) Figure 11 shows that the agriculture sector is the main contributor to the total GDP although its relative importance has been declining slightly in the past few years. The decline of the sector’s share of the total GDP can be attributed to the rapid growth of the mining sector. Despite the slight decrease, yet the agriculture sector remains the mainstay of the Tanzanian economy and it is likely to continue to be vital for the Tanzanian economy in the foreseeable future. Thus attempts to alleviate poverty in this country

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should put more emphasis on this sector. With this reality in mind, the present project aims to play its part in invigorating the agriculture sector by developing and promoting the use of improved cowpea varieties among small-scale farmers in semi-arid areas. 4.2. The socioeconomic baseline study As pointed previously (section 1.1), in pursuance of the goals of the project, a baseline survey has been carried out in Dodoma and Iringa regions. These regions are the major focus for the project in Tanzania. The main objective of the study is to provide baseline data on socioeconomics, resource use patterns, market opportunities, and access to seed, to mention a few, for the targeted project areas/communities. The major baseline indicators designed for measuring and monitoring farmers’ economic status and progress included the following: Agricultural production characteristics, such as farm size distribution, number of plots owned, important crops grown, farm households’ access to improved farm inputs, households’ food and nonfood expenditure and consumption patterns, and households’ food security status. 4.3. Methodology The baseline survey was carried out in the regions which will be covered by the project, i.e. Iringa and Dodoma. One district was selected from each of these regions. The survey was conducted in Iringa rural and Chamwino districts in Iringa and Dodoma regions respectively. Three villages were selected from each of the two districts, two villages will be used for participatory evaluation of new cowpea germplasms with farmers while the third village will be used as control. The registers of the selected villages were then used to select randomly 25 households to be interviewed per village. Therefore the survey was conducted on a sample size of 153 households. The interviews were conducted at the homes of the respondents. A detailed description of the villages and sub-villages covered by the survey is provided in Appendix 2. 4.4. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents 4.4.1. Location of respondents in regions Table 15 provides the distribution of respondents by location/regions of residence. The present study covered two districts i.e. Iringa rural in Iringa region and Chamwino district in Dodoma region. About seventy-five respondents were randomly selected from each of the two districts. Originally it was thought that there should be stratification of the respondents depending on their exposure to improved cowpea seed. The stratification was not done because the preliminary survey showed that there were very few or no farmers who had reasonable exposure to improved cowpea seed. A detailed description of the distribution of respondents by their geographical location is provided in Table 15. Table 22: Distribution of respondents by regions Region Frequency Percent Iringa 75 49 Dodoma 78 51 Total 153 100

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The table 22 show that a total of 153 respondents were interviewed during the survey conducted for the present study. It could be noted further, from the table, that the number of respondents interviewed in each of the two districts was more or less the same. This could be attributed to the fact that it was decided in advance that about seventy-five farmers should be interviewed in each district. 4.4.2. Location of respondents in villages Table 16 presents the description of the distribution of respondents by their villages of residence. It could be noted from the table that a total of six villages, i.e. three villages from Iringa region and the same number in Dodoma region were covered during the survey conducted for the present study. The villages from which interviewees were selected in Iringa region are kiwele, mangalali and mkungugu. In Dodoma region interviews were conducted in chamwino, chinangali one and bwigiri village. A detailed description of the distribution of the respondents by their villages of residence is provided in Table 16. Table 23: Distribution of respondents by villages Village name Frequency Percent Kiwele 26 17.0 Mangalali 25 16.3 Mkungugu 24 15.7 Chamwino 23 15.0 Chinangali 1 24 15.7 Bwigiri 31 20.3 Total 153 100.0

4.4.3. Levels of education of respondents This variable was included in the data collection instrument because the researchers believe that it is likely to influence the use of improved cowpea seed. About 85% of the respondents had attained primary education, 14% were illiterate, 0.7% had secondary education and 3.3% had adult education. This implies that about 90% of the respondents reported to have attained some form of formal education. This is higher than the national literacy level which was reported to be 78% in the year 2006 (URT, 2006). Furthermore, results show that only 3% of those who reported to have acquired formal education had attained more than seven years of schooling. This implies that most of the respondents who reported to have got formal education had achieved a maximum of seven years of schooling. The large proportion of respondents who had attained only seven years of formal education could be attributed to the fact that the compulsory primary education in Tanzania lasts for seven years. The large proportion of respondents who have attained formal education implies that it will be possible to provide information about the benefits of using improved cowpea seed by using leaflets amongst other improved technology promotion methods.

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Table 24: Distribution of respondents by levels of education Male Female Total Level of

education Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Illiterate 4 6.3 10 11.2 14 9.2 Primary school 56 87.5 74 83.1 130 85.0 Secondary school

0 0.0 3 3.4 3 2.0

Post secondary 0 0.0 1 1.1 1 0.7 Adult education 4 6.3 1 1.1 5 3.3 Total 64 100.0 89 100.0 153 100.0 Moreover, there is no significant difference in the distribution of the levels of education between men and women. The Table show that, with the exception of 4 women who have attained secondary and/or post secondary education, most respondents, as pointed out previously, have primary education. 4.4.4. Marital status and gender of respondents The results show that about 76% of the respondents are married. Also the results show that about 6% of the respondents are widowed and 3% are single. Table 25: Distribution of respondents by marital status Marital status Frequency Percent Single 5 3.3 Married 117 76.5 Divorced 4 2.6 Separated 9 5.9 Widowed 9 5.9 Widow 9 5.9 Total 153 100.0

Female 89 58.2

Male 64 41.8

Total 153 100.0 The results presented in Table 18 show that the proportion of women in the sample is slightly higher than that of women. This is not surprising because although most households in rural Tanzania are headed by males, they are the ones who move to urban centers as a means of securing off-farm income required to supplement farm income. The

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large proportion of women is good news as in most cases women play a leading role in the production of crops such as cowpea. 4.4.5. Age of respondents The survey results show that most of the respondents (71.9%) are aged from 26 to 55 years. It can be further noted that the first (9.2%) and last (5.9%) age categories have very few respondents. The low proportion of respondents in the first category can be attributed to the rural-urban migration which in most cases involves the youth. On the other hand, the low proportion of respondents in the last category is not surprising as it is well above the life expectancy in this country. The average age was 40 years for female respondents and 45 years for male respondents. Table 26: Distribution of respondents by age categories Age categories (years) Frequency Percent <25 14 9.2 26-35 45 29.4 36-45 39 25.5 46-55 26 17.0 56-65 20 13.1 >65 9 5.9 Total 153 100.0 4.4.6. Materials used to construct dwellings The quality of the dwelling is among the indicators of the economic status of a household. Table 20 provides a description of the distribution of respondents by the material used to construct the walls of the dwelling they live in. About 57% of the respondents live in houses which have mud walls. This is not surprising as the use of mud for constructing houses is very common in rural Tanzania. Most households, in rural areas, use mud to construct the walls of their houses because mud is among the cheapest construction materials in the country. Consequently even the rural poor can afford to use it to build their houses. Moreover, the Table shows that about 41% of the respondents live in houses which have brick walls. This is higher than the number of respondents who live in houses which have walls constructed by using cement blocks. Most of the bricks used to construct walls in the two districts are made by using mud. Since mud is readily available, then it is not surprising that about 41% of the respondents use bricks to construct the walls for their dwellings. On the other hand the low proportion (1.3%) of the respondents who live in houses which have been built by using cement blocks can be attributed to the high cement price in the survey area. During the survey the price for a 50kg bag of cement in the area was about USD 12. Thus, given the high cement price and the fact that almost one third of the Tanzanian population live on less than one dollar a day, then the low proportion of respondents who use cement for construction is not surprising. These findings are an indication of a high level of poverty in the study area.

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Table 27: Distribution of respondents by materials used to construct dwelling walls Walls Frequency Percent Mud 87 56.8 Brick 63 41.2 Block 2 1.3 Others 1 0.7 Total 153 100.0 About 74% of the respondents live in houses which have corrugated iron roofs. The large proportion of respondents who use corrugated iron sheets as roofing material can be attributed to several factors. Among the possible reasons is the increasing population pressure which has led to scarcity of grasses which are the most common roofing materials in low income, sparsely populated villages. Furthermore, some of the villages from which data have been collected have large numbers of livestock; this also contributes to the scarcity of grass and hence the need to look for alternative roofing materials. Table 28_: Distribution of respondents by roofing materials Roofing material Frequency Percent Grass thatch 33 21.5 Corrugated Iron sheets 114 74.5 Mud/cow dung 5 3.3 Others 1 0.7 Total 153 100.0 The other housing indicator is the type of floor. This can be used as an indicator of the economic status of the household. Results in Table 22 show that about 66% of the respondents live in dwellings with earth floors. The large proportion of responds living in houses which have earth floors, as pointed out in 3.6, can be attributed to high cement price which makes it unaffordable by the majority of respondents. The distribution of respondents by floor type is summarized in Table 22 Table 29: Distribution of respondents by floor type Floor type Frequency Percent Earth 100 65.8 Cement 53 34.2 Total 153 100.0

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4.4.7. Use of improved cowpea seed 4.4.7.1 Sources of seed This section provides a brief description of the main sources of seed for cowpea by respondents. It can be noted in Table 23 that about 73% of the respondents use their own seeds, i.e. seeds saved from their previous harvest. Furthermore, the results show that very few farmers obtain seed from seed companies (1.6%), other farmers (3.3%), local market (6.6%), and agro-inputs dealers (5.8%). The large proportion of farmers using their own seeds can be attributed to the erratic supply of seed by agro-inputs dealers and high seed prices. Table 30: Distribution of respondents by major source of cowpea seed

Source of Cowpea Seed Frequency Percent Saved from last season's harvest 87 72.5 Free seed from a neighbor 5 4.1 Free seed from government program 3 2.5 Free seed from an NGO program 1 0.8 Purchased from a seed company 2 1.6 Purchased from Ministry of Agriculture 1 0.8 Purchased from another farmer 4 3.3 Purchased from market 8 6.6 Purchased from an agro-dealer 7 5.8 Other 2 1.6 Total 120 100 Note: The number of responses in this table is less than 153 because some respondents do not grow cowpea. 4.4.7.2 Constraints to uses of improved cowpea seed The results provided in Table 24 show that most of the farmers who grow cowpea (71.6%) said that they are not using improved cowpea seed because it is difficult to get them. Other reasons for not using improved cowpea seed are: not knowing whether such seeds exist (15.5%), and lack of money to buy seeds (5.2%). Some farmers (2.6%) said that they were not using improved cowpea seed because they were not interested in experimenting with new varieties. Since most farmers mentioned unavailability of seeds as the main reason for not using improved cowpea seed then there should be deliberate efforts to improve the supply of those seeds to farmers. This will help to increase the production of cowpeas and hence contribute to the twin objectives of the government (of the United Republic of Tanzania) to alleviate poverty and enhance food security for Tanzanians. Table 31: Distribution of respondents by reasons for not using improved seed Reason for not using improved seed Frequency Percent Seed not available 83 71.6

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Not heard of any improved varieties 18 15.5 No money to buy the seeds 6 5.2 Simply not interested in experimenting with new varieties 3 2.6

Not seen any demonstration (cowpea) 1 0.9 Other 5 4.3 Total 116 100.0 Note: the number of responses in this table is less than 153 because some respondents use improved cowpea seed and others do not grow cowpea at all. 4.4.7.2. Most desired characteristic in Cowpeas This section provides a brief discussion on the most desired cowpea attributes/characteristics by farmers in the study area. The results in Table 24 show that about 16.3% of farmers prefer cowpea varieties which are high yielding, early maturing (17.1%) and drought tolerant (24.4%). The large proportion of farmers preferring drought tolerant varieties can be attributed to the fact that the survey covered semi arid areas. In these areas drought is among the most important limiting factors for crop production. Thus it is not surprising that farmers consider drought resistance to be a crucial attribute in an ideal cowpea variety. The nature of the study area, semi arid, can also explain the large proportion of farmers preferring early maturing varieties. Early maturity is a crop physiological mechanism to escape drought. The attributes related to drought resistance, early maturity, yield (high and stable), and performance under poor soils (69% of respondents) provide the direction on the types of for new cowpea germplasms to be targeted to this marginal area.. Table 32: Most desired characteristic in cowpeas Attribute Frequency Percent high yield 20 16.3 field pest/disease resistance 10 8.1 performance under poor soils 12 9.8 superior storage pest resistance 6 4.9 seed size 5 4.1 seed eye color 2 1.6 yield stability 10 8.1 early maturity 21 17.1 drought tolerance 30 24.4 husk cover 3 2.4 Others 4 3.3 Total 123 100.0

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Note: the number of responses in this table is less than 153 because some respondents do not grow cowpea 4.4.4.4 Sources of information about improved cowpea variety Information about the availability of cowpea variety is crucial for farmers to be able to use them. This section provides a brief discussion on the important sources of information on improved cowpea varieties for farmers in the project area. The results provided in Table 26 show that the most important source of information about improved cowpea varieties in the area covered by the present study are fellow farmers, this was reported by 41.6% of the respondents. This is followed by extension agents (24.7%) and researchers from Agricultural Research Institutes (15.7%). The importance of fellow farmers as a source of information about improved cowpea varieties emphasizes the need to involve farmers in the process of developing and disseminating new cowpea varieties. Researchers, extension agents and farmers have to work closely in order to make sure that the right varieties are developed by breeders and used by farmers under the tutelage of extension agents. A detailed description of the main sources of information regarding improved cowpea varieties is provided in Table 26. Table 33: Sources of information about improved cowpea variety Source of information Frequency Percent Fellow farmer 37 41.6 Local retail shop 3 3.4 Ministry of Agric. Extension agent 22 24.7 Staff of Research Institute 14 15.7 Newspaper 1 1.1 Community based seed provider 1 1.1 PAM 2 2.2 Other 9 10.1 Total 89 100.0

Note: the number of responses in this table is less than 153 because some respondents do not grow cowpea and others are not aware of improved cowpea varieties 4.5. Household food security status Table 27 presents the results of the analysis of household food security among the respondents interviewed during the survey conducted for the present study. The results show that about 60% of the households had enough food throughout the year. A proportion as high as 37% of the respondents reported to have faced food shortages in the past few years. The large proportion of households facing food shortages can be attributed to the fact that the study covered semi arid areas. These areas are known for their low, unreliable and sometimes poorly distributed rains. The low, unreliable and/or poorly distributed rains, inevitably lead to frequent crop failure and hence food shortages. Thus cowpea varieties developed for use by farmers residing in these areas should be drought tolerant and early maturing in order to reduce the risk of crop failure. The

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development of such varieties will have a significant contribution in enhancing food security for farmers residing in semi arid areas. A detailed description of the distribution of respondents by food security status is provided in Table 27. Table 34: Distribution of respondents by food security status Food security status Frequency Percent Yes (have enough food) 97 63.3 No (do not have enough food) 56 36.6 Total 153 100.0 4.5.1. Most important coping mechanism against food shortage Food shortage is common in semi arid areas of Tanzania. Since the present study has been conducted in such areas then the researchers found it plausible to identify the main coping mechanisms against food shortage. The results presented in Table 14 show that reducing frequency of food intake is the most important coping mechanism; this has been reported by 18.3% of the respondents. The large proportion of respondents reporting to have reduced frequency of food intake as a coping mechanism against food shortage can be attributed to the fact that this method does not require any resources. Consequently it can be used by farmers who do not have assets to sell to raise money to buy food. Another important coping mechanism is reducing other expenditure (17%). This, like the reduction of food intake frequency does not involve the sale of assets and thus it can be used by farmers who do not have assets to sell. It leads to a deprivation of essential non-food items. The results also show that selling small animals, such as goats is an important coping mechanism against food shortage (8.5%). It can be noted further that very few respondents (1.3%) reported to have sold cattle as a coping strategy against food shortage. A detailed description of the most important coping mechanism against food shortage is provided in Table 28. Table 35: Distribution of respondents by coping mechanism against food shortage Coping mechanism Frequency Percent reduced frequency of food intake 28 18.3 reducing other expenditure 26 17.0 selling small animals 13 8.5 selling cattle 2 1.3 selling other assets 2 1.3 working more off- farm 11 7.1 working at food-for-work 9 5.8 receiving food aid 3 1.9 Others 9 5.8 N/A 50 32.6 Total 153 100.0 4.6. Access to credit facilities Availability of credit facilities is among the important determinants of farmers’ access to improved production technology. Credit, amongst others, relaxes the farmers’ capital

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constraints and hence improves their ability to purchase and use improved technologies which often times require significant capital investment. Since the present project intends to introduce improved cowpea varieties then the knowledge of the present status of farmers’ access to credit facilities is among the important information required to formulate strategies to make sure that the developed technologies will be adopted by farmers in the project area. Table 29 shows that only 14% of the respondents have access to formal credit facilities. The low access to credit facilities is not surprising as most financial institutions find the risk associated with the provision of credit to small-scale farmers unbearable. This problem, of unwillingness of financial institutions to provide loans to small-scale farmers is likely to be more serious in semi arid areas where the frequent crop failure, due to drought and low rains, increases the probability of default. The low proportion of respondents reporting to have accessed credit in the past few years is very disturbing. This is because the present era of globalisation is accompanied by a high rate of technological innovations derived from science and engineering, aimed at increasing efficiency in production. The vast array of supplies, in terms of modern machines, agrochemicals, storage facilities and services that support modern-day farming require large sums of capital (Doll, 1984). In this regard, advanced farming is not different from other businesses in that it also depends on capital markets. Small-scale farmers, given their narrow capital base, need to have access to credit facilities. Access to credit increases farm productivity in either of two ways: as a result of additional purchases of equipment within the existing technology, so that returns per unit of capital remain constant, i.e. capital widening, or as a result of purchases of new technology so that not only is the capital stock expanded, but its productivity increases as well i.e. capital deepening. Thus generally, the provision of credit facilities ceteris paribus is expected to increase the rate of adoption of improved technology (Mosley, 1996). Table 36: Distribution of respondents by access to credit Access to credit Frequency Percent Yes 22 14.4 No 131 85.6 Total 153 100.0 4.6.1 Type of credit received Table 29 provides the results of the analysis of the types of credit accessed by farmers in the project area. The results show that most of the farmers (72.7%) obtained credit in form of cash for production purposes. Only 9.1% reported to have received credit in form of cowpea seed, fertilizers and agrochemicals. Moreover the results show that only 4.5% of the respondents reported to have received credit for consumption purposes. Table 37: Distribution of respondents by type of credit received Type of credit Frequency Percent Production cash credit 16 72.7

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Consumption cash credit 2 4.5 Input credit-cowpea seed 2 9.1 Input credit-fertilizer and chemical 2 9.1 Total 22 100.0 4.7. Membership to farmers’ associations/cooperatives Table 31 provides the results of the analysis of the distribution of farmers by membership to farmers’ associations/cooperatives. The results show that only 30% of the respondents are members of farmers’ association/cooperatives. It is important to note that most of the respondents who reported to be members of farmers’ association/cooperatives came from Iringa region where there are several research projects which are facilitating the formation of farmer groups. The low proportion of respondents reporting to be members of farmers’ groups implies that they might be missing out on the benefits associated with group formation. Among the benefits of groups is enjoying economies of scale in the purchase and transport of agro-inputs, enhanced access to credit services and increased bargaining power during marketing of agricultural produce. Thus the project, amongst others, should inculcate a culture of group formation for farmers. This will not only facilitate the adoption of the developed technology but also increase the bargaining power of farmers in marketing of their produce and hence increase their incomes. Table 38: Distribution of respondents by membership to farmers’ associations Group member Frequency Percent Yes 46 30.0 No 107 70.0 Total 153 100.0 4.8. Access to extension services The results of the distribution of respondents by the number of field days attended are provided in Table 32. The results show that about 70% of the respondents have never attended demonstration conducted by extension agents. The large proportion of farmers reporting to have never attended demonstrations on good crop husbandry conducted by extension agents reflects the poor state of extension services in the country. Since extension services have an important role to play in the promotion of improved crop varieties, which are crucial for improving the performance of the agriculture sector in the country, then deliberate efforts are required to enhance the access of farmers to those services. Table 39: Distribution of respondents by the number of demonstration attended Demonstrations attended Frequency Percent None 108 70.5 1-2 15 9.8 3-4 14 9.1

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5-6 12 7.8 7 2 1.3 >7 2 1.3 Total 153 100.0 4.8.1. Extensions services’ focus on cowpea production Table 33 presents the results of the distribution of respondents by the numbers of times they attended field days focusing on cowpea production. The results show that 70.5% of the respondents have never attended field days where cowpea production is the main subject. The large proportion of farmers who have never attended field days focusing on cowpea production is likely to be the main reason behind the unawareness of famers on improved cowpea varieties which was pointed out previously. This project should aim at addressing the issue by organizing field days to expose farmers to new cowpea varieties and agricultural practices. Table 40: Distribution of respondents by cowpea field days attended Days focusing on cowpea Frequency Percent None 108 70.5 1-2 9 5.8 3-4 8 5.2 5-6 7 4.6 ≥7 2 1.3 Total 153 100.0 4.8.2 Source of extension messages There are several sources of extension messages for farmers in Tanzania. The present study, amongst others, tried to establish the importance of the various sources of extension messages for farmers in the project area. This is important as it provides an important clue on the most appropriate way to disseminate the results of the development of improved cowpea varieties in the study area and consequently in the entire country. The results of the analysis of the distribution of respondents by the most important sources of extension messages are provided in Table 34. The results show that the most important source of extension messages are the extension agents who work for the ministry of agriculture, food and cooperatives. It can be noted further that very few farmers (2.6%), use extension bulletins as their main source of extension messages. The large proportion of respondents relying of extension agents as their main source of extension messages implies that for the dissemination of information on improved cowpea varieties to be successful working closely with extension agents is imperative. Table 34: Distribution of respondents by sources of extension messages Message source Frequency Percent Agric. extension staff 108 70.5

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Extension bulletins 4 2.6 Newspaper 2 1.3 Radio 7 4.6 Television 1 0.7 Other 31 20.2 Total 153 100.0 4.9. Most serious threats for livelihoods Identification of the most serious threats for livelihoods is an important step in the formulation of policies to improve the welfare of households. The results of the efforts to identify the most important threats for the livelihoods of farmers in the project area are summarized in Table 35. Respondents perceive drought (reported by 67.3% of the respondents) and food insecurity (reported by about 18% of the respondents) to be the most important threats to the livelihoods of people residing in Dodoma and Iringa districts. The large proportion of farmers reporting drought to be the most important threat for their livelihoods is not surprising as the study covered semi arid areas. In these areas drought is a very common phenomenon. Likewise, the large proportion of respondents reporting food insecurity as a serious threat for their livelihoods could also be explained by the semi arid nature of the study area. These areas experience frequent droughts which lead to crop failures and hence the reported food shortages. Table 41: Distribution of respondents by most important threats for livelihoods Livelihood threat Frequency Percent Drought 103 67.3 food insecurity 27 17.6 lack of financial capital 12 7.8 lack of improved seed 4 2.6 Diseases 5 3.3 high input price 2 1.3 Total 153 100.0 5. Main findings and policy recommendations 5.1. Main findings This section provides the main findings of the present baseline survey. One of the main areas focused by the survey is the economic status of the farmers in the project area. Several indicators have been used to determine the level of affluence for the farmers. One of the indicators used is the quality of dwellings. In this respect, most of the respondents have been found to be living in dwellings with mud walls, and earth floors. Thus it can be plausibly concluded that more than 50% of the interviewed farmers in the project area are poor. Moreover, about 37% of the respondents reported to have faced food shortages in the past few years. The large proportion of respondents reporting to have faced food

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shortages in the past few years emphasizes the correctness of our previous observation that most of the farmers in the project area are poor. The present study also tried to establish the level of farmers’ access to credit facilities, extension services and use of improved technologies. It has been concluded from the results that there is very low access to credit facilities and extension services. It has been concluded further that there is very low usage of improved technologies. This has been signified by, amongst others, the large proportion of farmers using local cowpea varieties. Most desired characteristics to guide targeting of new cowpea varieties to the project area include drought resistance, early maturity, high and stable grain yields, and resistance to pests and diseases. Livestock is important in the study area. Surprisingly respondents did not mention high fodder yield among desired attributes. Dual purpose cowpea that provides high grain and high fodder yield already exist in west Africa. The additional benefit on fodder is likely to enhance the adoption of such varieties. Maybe farmers in the study area are just not aware of such technologies. It was also found that farmer-to-farmer exchange of information about improved varieties represents a major source of information for the transfer of new technologies while extension services still play a role important in the extension of technical messages. 5.2. Policy recommendations The high prevalence of poverty in the project area calls for increased efforts to alleviate poverty. The project could provide its contribution in this regard by:

(1) Enhancing the access of farmers to improved drought tolerant cowpea varieties, (2) Enhance the bargaining power in selling their produce and improve their access to

important agriculture support services such as credit. The access to credit services and the likely increase in income that will be associated with high farmers’ bargaining power for farmers would also enhance the farmers’ ability to use improved seeds.

(3) Training of farmers and extension agents in the cowpea business through the organization of field days and exchanges of farmers’ visits;

(4) Testing with farmers’ dual purpose and drought tolerant cowpea germplasm.

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II. SITUATION AND OUTLOOK FOR COWPEA AND SOYBEAN IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

Like most food crops grown in Africa, the production of cowpea and soybean is mainly rain-fed. Both crops are generally grown by small-scale farmers on small land areas and in various mixed cropping systems, usually with little or no input. Cowpea, the main component of the cropping systems in West and Central Africa (WCA), requires rains from 900 mm, in a region located at roughly 10°N, to as low as 350 mm at the northern limit (15°N). Intercropping cowpea with grain crops (sorghum and millet) or cowpea-groundnut mixed is widely practiced especially in western Africa. In Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), cowpea is mainly intercropped with sorghum, pearl millet, maize and cotton. Soybean grows from sea level up to 2000 m from equator to latitudes 55oN and 55oS. The crop grows under a wide range of temperature, but the optimum for growth and development is 30oC whilst for proper emergence of seedlings, a seedbed temperature of 25-33oC is optimal. Soybean requires 500-850 mm water during the growing season and depending on the variety and growing conditions can mature in 65 to 150 days after planting. Both cowpea and soybean are important legumes for the livelihoods of millions of rural and urban poor throughout the tropics in Africa and East Asia. Cowpea is now grown by millions of smallholder farmers throughout Africa where some two hundred million children, women, and men consume cowpea often even daily when it is available. Cowpea is widely known as the crop of the poor because its green pods and leaves are the earliest food available before cereals mature thereby serving as “insurance” against food shortages during the “hungry season”. Cowpea and soybean provide majority of low-income populations the main nutritious source of high and inexpensive protein and combined with cereals, cowpea, for example, gives a balanced amino acid intake (Inaizumi et al., 1999). Soybean has an average 40% protein content and 20% of no-cholesterol oil content. In addition to providing food and cash, cowpeas as well as soybeans are source of animal feed in raw, processed or other form. Another but not least characteristic of tropical legume crops is their impact on soil improvement. The canopies of cowpea and soybean cover the soil and protect it from recurrent erosion, add nitrogen from the atmosphere and the in-situ decay of root residues enrich the soil with nutrients. The impact of legumes on soil is a major benefit in African farming systems where soils have become increasingly exhausted by the need to produce more food per unit of input and where fertilizers are either unavailable or unaffordable for the small-scale producers. This report does not intend to inventory all the prominent varieties of cowpea and soybean that are cultivated and used in sub-Sahara Africa. Many varieties are available in the region. These may be local cultivars or improved ones developed by various NARS and IARCs research centers in sub-Sahara Africa. Whether improved or local, the varieties differ in their traits, nutrients, and other characteristics for which producers and consumers have adopted or rejected them. Many varieties have become so popular so that they have been given local (vernacular) names. The following are examples of local names that have been given to improved cowpea varieties in cultivation in 63 countries

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around the world: ‘Vijaya’ (victory) and ‘Varuni’ (breeze) in SriLanka; ‘Akash’ (sky) and Prakash (light) in Nepal; ‘Big Buff’ in Australia; ‘Fahari’ (hope) and ‘Tumaini’ (pride) in Tanzania; ‘Bubebe’ (fast growing) in Zambia; ‘Umtilane’ in Swaziland; ‘Dahab El goz’ (gold from the sand) in Sudan; "Dan ITA’ (son of IITA) and ‘Wake Rani’ (dry season beans) in Nigeria; ‘Asontem’ and ‘Bengpla’ in Ghana; ‘Korobalen’ and ‘Sangaraka’ in Mali; ‘Epace’ in Brazil and ‘Cubinata’ and ‘Mulatina’ in Cuba. The report presents an overview of the situation and outlook for cowpea and soybean as a basis for the Tropical Legumes II project in west (Mali, Niger, and Nigeria), east (Tanzania and Kenya), and southern (Malawi and Mozambique) Africa. The report is divided in seven sections. Section 1 is a short introduction that describes the general physical characteristics of the crops, including growing season, prominent varieties, and a brief history of their usage. Section two gives an overview of the distribution of the crops particularly the major growing areas in each of the regions. Section three discusses the trends in the area, yield, and production of each crop at national or regional level. Section four gives an overview of the utilization of cowpea and soybean for human consumption and animal feed, whereas the fifth section discusses international and regional trade, particularly exports and imports and international prices, domestic pricing, and marketing policies. The sixth section documents technological, institutional, and infrastructure issues affecting the production and marketing of the crops and the last section looks at the short and medium-term outlook for cowpea and soybean in sub-Sahara Africa. b). Milestones: All milestones due in the first year were met on time. Key milestones of objective 1 are:

(i) Regional situation and outlook reports for cowpea and soybean in Sub-Saharan Africa,

(ii) Synthesis reports on constraints along the value chains of cowpea and soybean for sub-Saharan Africa,

(iii) Annotated bibliography of targeting information synthesized and impact target domains defined

(iv) Documentation of a sampling frame, survey instruments and baseline survey report for cowpea and soybean

(v) Guidelines on Monitoring and Evaluation framework for the project reports, (vi) Adoption levels and constraints for improved cultivars and practices

(vii) On-job training of 50 NARS scientists (c). Deviations from proposal: None. (d). Measurable outputs and outcomes: See appendix A. (e). Knowledge generation: Information on performance of germplasm lines under drought stress (f). Activities that cannot be completed in grant period: Production of 50 kg seeds of selected lines with enhanced drought tolerance in year 3. (g). Lessons Learned: The number of lines that farmers can evaluate efficiently (under FPVS) at a time is limited to no more than twenty. As the number of cowpea lines to be evaluated increased we observed that errors crept into farmers assessments. The farmers’ abilities to make judgments in variety selection were less accurate as number of varieties

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increased. A cowpea line, IT00K-1263, developed at IITA selected by farmers in Mozambique and Tanzania as a good performing line in the two countries. There is need to encourage visits to trial sites by other scientists. Such visits will also promote better interaction among scientists. Francophone and Lusophone countries’ scientists prefer that their graduate students study at English speaking universities. The implication of this is that costs of training the students have increased far beyond the amounts proposed in the project’s budget. X. Management updates: XI. Lessons learned: XII. Changes: No major changes that have had an impact on the project during this reporting period. XIII. Risks: The US dollar has devalued, fuel costs have risen sharply and inflation is much higher than expected (>> 3%) across the countries since the commencement of the project. Seed exchange between scientists in different countries could be a problem due to plant quarantine regulations. XIV. Other sources of project support: A. Did the project receive any monetary support from other donors or self-generation of income during the last reporting period? No B. Are any new sources of additional monetary support from other donors or self-generated income expected to come on line in the next funding period? No XV. Budget variances: None. XVI. Other: None. Objective 1: Major highlights for year 1 and year 2.

Outlook report on production and utilization of cowpea and soybean in Africa. Database of baseline surveys for project target countries: Nigeria, Niger, Mali,

Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. Reports on Participatory Varietal Selection (PVS) surveys, Gaps analysis, seed

systems/ seed value chain, baseline surveys,

Surveys instruments developed and used (Gaps, PVS, Seed system, baseline survey, Adoption study, Ex post impact assessment course, Monitoring and evaluation tools),

Impact assessment short courses (modules) developed for social scientists on impact study methodology, M&E FRAMEWORK and case study

50 Scientists and 60 extension agents trained

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Milestone: ID number and brief description

Output since the last report

Person responsible

“On Track” or “Completed” On Track with Challenges Challenges and Delayed

Location of supporting documentation for completed milestones†

Baseline survey

Reports for completed East and West Africa

Dr Ousmane Coulibaly

Completed

Summary

Adoption study Instruments developed


Completed Questionnaire

Ex post impact assessment



Completed Impact assessment courses Questionnaire

† Supporting documentation may include summaries of seed shipments, journal articles, web link, database, or a one-page summary that documents the completed milestone.

baseline assessement of cowpea breeding and seed - icrisat

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