WHAT IS KYC?WHAT IS KYC? Strategic Difference between selling FMCG and

banking products. Relationship of Endurance in Finance. (Repaying

excess credits in account requires Integrity!) Recent lessons. (CHEQUE DROPPING IN

BOXES, OMBUDSMAN, ACCOUNT NUMBER, MASS ACCOUNTS)

Importance of Introduction. (NO COPIES --- ORIGINAL PROOF NEEDS TO BE VERIFIED)

Soliciting ---- Changing Trends. CODE OF COMMITMENT.

CODE OF COMMITMENTCODE OF COMMITMENT

Key Commitments Information Advertisements marketing & sales Privacy and Confidentiality Collection of Dues Complaints Grievances & feedback Products & services Protecting accounts

STARTING A NEW BANK

1.Your friends and you mobilize some capital and you want to start a bank. Can you open a Cooperative bank, or a schedule bank or a private bank? If not why not; if yes how?

2. You are NEW PRIVATE sector scheduled bank. You select a person above 65 and recommend for CHAIRMAN post. In another case you select banker with shady past but now very good. In another case you select a non banker but MBA professional. Will these selections be approved?

CENTRAL BANKER & CENTRAL BANKER & BANKING.BANKING.

Why a Regulator?Central Office/Corporate Office/Head

Office functions and setups.Control by onsite & offsite supervision by

RBI. CAMELS Model.Audits and inspection & Central Vigilance.

Detection and prevention of frauds.

INVESTMENTS & BRANCH.

1.You have fulfilled CRR and SLR criteria promptly. Since you have a chain of customers who provide large interest free current account funds, you do not wish to go for high risk lending at all. Therefore you want to invest everything in Gilt Edged Securities. Can you do it?

2. You want to open a branch in Foreign or locally. Can you do it at your will?

ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT::

Organizational setups of older Commercial banks

Technology based setups - Reduction in tiers.

Branch functions and managerial role.Regional and Zonal setups and functioning.Customer Loyalty & Bank viability.

(VERMA COMMITTEE inadequacy)

BRANCH & HO. Your branch is highly deposit oriented. How your

branch’s performance will be evaluated as it will definitely incur loss?

Your branch is inadequately staffed. When asked, HO says you are having non-remunerative business. How will you identify and eliminate?

Your branch is highly loans oriented. But a lot of them are previously granted NPA loans. Though your branch is making profits HO says it is inadequate. How do you justify your performance?

Your insurance pay outs are not quite consistent with the entire bank’s claims ---- what are the solutions.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS.TECHNICAL ASPECTS. Asset Liability management (ALCO) and matching. Treasury Management, Credit Deployment and Interest spread, Non-fund based income, Portfolio Management. NPA management. Mergers and acquisitions --- recent cases. IT and ATM accounts and inter-branch

reconciliation. CBS ---- what it does?

MANAGING HR.MANAGING HR.

HR functions –Practical knowledgePersonal touch in service. Motivation through placement – constraints. Unions and their roles.

INCENTIVES.

1. To motivate staff can you pay commission for opening deposit or loan account to your staff members?

2. Can you give gift schemes for attracting deposits/ loans?

3. Can you do picking lottery prizes for depositors?4. Can you run a CHIT scheme in a bank?5. Can you build a hotel, as a banker? If not your

bank’s training college has lodging and boarding facilities. Can you let it out and account income?

GOVERNMENT SCHEMATIC GOVERNMENT SCHEMATIC LENDING:LENDING:

Agricultural credits, Priority sector products, Micro Credit and Self help Groups. Risk mitigation through DICGC or self –

insurance concepts. 

CERTAIN SCHEMESCERTAIN SCHEMES

1. Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) The Scheme was launched in 1978‑79 in 2300 selected

blocks of the country and was extended to the whole of country with effect from 2.10.1980. It envisaged number of financing schemes for village industries, small business, transport and agro‑based avocations.

2. Service Area Approach (SAA)

  The Lead Bank Schemes introduced in December 1969

emphasized on Regional Credit Plan. However, the modified version of the same came into effect from 1.4.1989, wherein each Bank had to take up specified area for looking after the credit needs and thus serving the area in its entirety.

SCHEMES CONTINUEDSCHEMES CONTINUED

3.Model Village Project (MVP)Commercial Banks adopted villages for all its credit

requirements.4. Small Scale Industries Finance (SSI ‑ Finance)Commercial Banks were compulsorily required to achieve

the targets fixed for small scale industry financing for each Bank as a whole.

5. Tiny Sector Finance (TSF)Financing very small business by the Commercial Banks.

6. Differential Rate of Interest Scheme (DRI)Government would pay the subsidized portion of

the interest for certain very small/weak business loans.

Schemes ----Schemes ----

7. 20 Point Economic Programs A detailed Economic Program worked out by

the Government for helping small business and other priority sectors.

8. Scheme for Providing Self‑employment to Educated Unemployed Youths (SEUY)

Promotion of self‑employment among educated young people – thus improving small businesses and industries.

SCHEMES CONTINUEDSCHEMES CONTINUED9. Self-employment Program for the Urban Poor

(SEPUP) Similar to (SEUY) but liberalized towards urban poor

youth. 10. Scheme of Urban Macro Enterprise Very small business enterprises' promotion.11. Transport Operators Priority LendingSmall transport operators running independent business

being helped in lending. Apart from the above centrally conceived schemes

there are schemes which have been specifically conceptualized and implemented at certain Bank levels like NEDA scheme (New Entrepreneur Development Agency) of Indian Bank wherein the entrepreneur of a small business is not required to bring even the margin money.

PROJECT AND PROJECT AND PLANTATION LOANS:PLANTATION LOANS:

Rubber Coffee. Tea. Coca. Cardamom. Farm & Diary Projects. Etc.

DEVELOPMENT & SCHEMES. Many such schemes were formed by NABARD with exclusive financial modeling.

MANAGING SECURITIES AND MANAGING SECURITIES AND DOCUMENTATIONDOCUMENTATION

Insurance and safe keeping. Attrition in the value of securities.Principles of Dual control.Prevention from time barring. Practical tips.Risks in Blank Documents.

NPA & BAD ASSETS NPA & BAD ASSETS STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT.STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT.

Persuasion.Trade-offs (Time value of Money)Securitization law.Re-phasing. Window dressing?ARC. Legal and other measures.Debt Recovery tribunal.

ALLIED ACTIVITIES ALLIED ACTIVITIES

Insurance and bank-assurance,Mutual Funds,Factoring,Merchant banking outfits.Credit CardsVenture Funds.

OTHER INSTITUTIONS.OTHER INSTITUTIONS.

Specialized and Term Lending and Development Banks (IDBI, SIDBI, IFCI, EXIM BANK, NABARD, NHB)

RRB, SFC, SIDCIBA, IIB.Scope of the InstitutionsInternational position in respect of

Development Banking.

Banking Products --- DepositsBanking Products --- Deposits

Deposit ---- Demand & Time!Time Deposit --- Cumulative & Non Recurring.Annuity Type.Demand: SB & CurrentHybrid.CD (& CP)

Lending ---Lending ---

Working Capital Products. ---- OD & Bills.Term Loans ----- Project LoansExport & Import Loans.Agricultural & Allied Loans.Small Loans.Cards & Structured Loans.

BILLS OPERATIONSBILLS OPERATIONS

What is a bill? USANCE & DEMAND! Bills discounting. Bills purchase. Bills collection

1. Inward Bills.

2. Outward Bills.

Bills Finance vs. Simple Bills Finance vs. Simple OverdraftOverdraft

Point of comparison. Bills Finance. Simple Overdraft.

Nature It is Self-diluting. It is a Continuing liability.

Flexibility to borrowers Not much. There is flexibility as the borrower can withdraw at any time and repay within the stipulated period.

Security Only credit worthiness is checked. Accorded against approved securities like shares, NSC’s, Life Insurance Policies etc.

Charges Only discounting at the initial stage itself.

Interest charged on running balance of utilized amount. And commitment charges are payable against unutilized balance

Purpose Specified in bill Not specified.

Chance of misuse Goods covered may not be resalable at times & Chances of kite-bills.

It is inconvenient to the banks and hampers credit planning &High by getting credit in excess and double financing.

Definition Of Bill DiscountingDefinition Of Bill Discounting

While discounting a bill, the Bank buys the bill (i.e. Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note) before it is due and credits the value of the bill after a discount charge to the customer's account. The transaction is practically an advance against the security of the bill and the discount represents the interest on the advance from the date of purchase of the bill until it is due for payment.

Why Bill Discounting?Why Bill Discounting?

Bills discounting is a tool of funding working capital requirements in any firm or company.

Any firm or company requires two types of capital for smooth functioning of business viz fixed capital and working capital.

Example…….

Bill DiscountingBill Discounting

Drawer Drawee

Banker

1

2

3

54 6

1. Drawer sells the goods to the drawee (2) Drawer draws the bill on the drawee

3. Drawee accepts the bill (4) Drawer presents it to banker

5. Banker credits the amount to drawer (6) At maturity, payment is made by

Payee.

Condition’s For Bill Condition’s For Bill DiscountingDiscountingUsually, the Bank may want some conditions to be

fulfilled to be able to discount a bill: A bill must be a usance bill It must have been accepted and bears at least two

good signatures (e.g. of reputable individuals, companies or banks etc.)

The Bank will normally only discount trade bills Where a usance bill is drawn at a fixed period after

sight the bill must be accepted to establish the maturity

FeaturesFeatures

Following are the salient features of bill Discounting:

Discount ChargeMaturityReady Finance

Bill of ExchangeBill of Exchange

It is a negotiable instrument and one of the means of Bill discounting.

Definition: A bill of exchange “is an instrument in writing containing an unconditional order, signed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain sum of money only to, or to the order of, a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument.” (Sec 5 Negotiable Instrument Act)

Bill of ExchangeBill of Exchange

Payable to order on demand

Mumbai September 17, 2xxx

On demand please pay Mr. Abhishek or order the sum of

Rupees Twenty Five Thousand only.

Rs. 25000

Mr. Menon Atul Jadhav

Pune

Types of Bill Types of Bill

Types of Bill

Time Based Nature of Liability

Geographic Based

Red Bill Other Bills

Usance Bill Demand BillWith

RecourseWithout

RecourseInland Foreign Bill

Accommodation or Kite

•supply Bill•Documentary

Bill•Trade Bill

•Ambiguous Bill•Escrow Bill

Letter of CreditLetter of Credit

A document, issued by a bank per instructions by a buyer of goods, authorizing the seller to draw a specified sum of money under specified terms, usually the receipt by the bank of certain documents within a given time.

Letter of CreditLetter of Credit

Red Clause Letter of Credit:

Red Clause Letters of Credit provide the seller with cash prior to shipment to finance production of the goods. The buyer's issuing bank may advance some or all of the funds. The buyer, in essence, extends financing to the seller and incurs the risk for all advanced credits.

Letter of CreditLetter of Credit

Standby Letter of CreditThis credit is a payment or performance guarantee used primarily in the United States. They are often called non-performing letters of credit because they are only used as a backup should the buyer fail to pay as agreed. Thus, a stand-by letter of credit allows the customer to establish a rapport with the seller by showing that it can fulfill its payment commitments.

Legal AspectsLegal Aspects

Banks are the financial institution which are protected by law ,by Securitization act and Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT). In case of a default banker needs to serve a notice and then they can seize the necessary assets which as been kept as security.

Difference b/w Difference b/w

Bill discounting Factoring

It is also called invoice discounting.It is also called invoice Factoring.

In this parties are drawer,drawee and payee.

In this the parties areClient, factor and debtor.

It is narrow in scope. It is broad in scope.

It is sort of borrowing fromCommercial bank.

It is management of book debts.

Maximum time is 3 months. Maximum time is 6 months

Grace time is 3 days. Grace time not given.

Negotiable instrument actapplies.

There is no specific act

No such provision is available.Provision of advancePayment of book debt is available.

Accounting TreatmentAccounting Treatment

In Respect of Bill of Exchange:• Separately treated in Books of DrawerBills receivable Account Dr To Acceptor Account(with face value of the bill drawn and accepted)• Books of AcceptorDrawer’s Account Dr To Bills payable Account(with the face value of bill accepted) Separately treated in

– Books of Drawer– Books of Acceptor

Books of DrawerBooks of Drawer

Cash (or Bank) Account Dr (with the net amount of the bill, i.e., the face value of the bill . less the Amount of discount)

Discount Account Dr (with the amount of discount)

To Bills receivable Account Cr (With the face value of the bill)

Books of Acceptor No entry will be passed in the books of the acceptor

for the discounting of the bill, because he is not at all affected by the discounting of the bill.

RISK MANAGEMENT RISK MANAGEMENT

Formation of Committee.Effective MIS & Specialized Staff.MIS should be Organization Specific.Asset Liability Matching. (ALCO)Market Variables.Credit Risk.

MANAGING CREDIT RISKMANAGING CREDIT RISK

Counter party risk. Measurement of risk through credit

rating/scoring; Quantifying the risk through estimating expected

loan losses i.e. the amount of loan losses that company would experience over a chosen time horizon (through tracking portfolio behavior over 5 or more years) and unexpected loan losses i.e. the amount by which actual losses exceed the expected loss. (Standard Deviation)

Credit Risk ManagingCredit Risk Managing

        Risk pricing on a scientific basis;

and

        Controlling the risk through effective Loan Review Mechanism and portfolio management.

TOOLS OF CREDIT RISK TOOLS OF CREDIT RISK MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT

Credit Approving Authority. PRUDENTIAL LIMITS Stipulate benchmark like current/debt equity,. Single/group borrower limits Substantial exposure limit Maximum exposure limits to industry, sector etc. Companies may consider maturity profile of the

loan book

COMPREHENSIVE RISK COMPREHENSIVE RISK RATING POLICYRATING POLICY

Based on MISIdentifying risk elementsGive them scores in point scales.Weighted Averaging depending on risk

ranked parameters Based on track record of self and others.Periodic revision necessary.

UN-HEDGED FOREX UN-HEDGED FOREX EXPOSURE RISKEXPOSURE RISK

When Foreign exchange exposure is exposed it should be either hedged or the un-hedged portion must be considered for quantification of probable loss.

Hedging Instruments when used as trading items, they should also be considered for risk evaluation.

RISK PRICING.RISK PRICING.

It is fundamental tenet in Management.Expected probability and default should

decide the price.However collaterals also need be

considered while pricing.Risk Return Tangle is fundamental to any

management decision.

RISK ADJUSTED CAPITAL & RISK ADJUSTED CAPITAL & PRICINGPRICING

RAROCPROVIDING FOR ADEQUATE

CAPITAL BASED ON RISK ADJUSTED ASSETS

ALSO CONSIDER COMPETITOREXIT THE PARTICULAR SEGMENT OF

BUSINESS IF UNAFFORDABLE

OTHER RISKSOTHER RISKS

Investment Risk.Off Balance Sheet Exposure Risk.Inter-corporate Exposure risk.

RISKSRISKS

MARKET RISK( Liquidity, Interest Rate, Exchange Rate, Commodity Price, Equity Index)

LIQUIDITY RISK (Funding, Time, Call , Risks) Basis Risk (Volatile Markets) Option Risk. Yield Curve Risk. Price Risk. Reinvestment & Resale Risk.

RISKSRISKS

Interest Rate Risk.Trading RISK & VAR.Transfer Pricing (Including Funds –FTP) VAR approach to Foreign Exchange Risk.Capital Market Risk.Operational Risk its Control.Risk Aggregation and Capital allocation

PRACTICAL BANKERPRACTICAL BANKER

1. When you pay a CHEQUE, where the signature is forged but could not be detected while verifying, can you get a legal protection?

2. A CHEQUE when bounced without funds, can a holder of the same, who is not the direct payee, but an endorsee sue the original signatory/drawer of the CHEQUE?

3. You bounce a CHEQUE by mistake though the customer had funds in the account. The customer sues YOUR bank for very large amount of damages, though the CHEQUE amount is very small. Can the customer succeed in the case?

4. In a loan account there are dues both of interest and installments. When a customer remits some part amount, does not mention as to whether it is for the interest or for the installment. You have appropriated the same for interest and intimated the customer, the customer does not raise objection but at the time of closing the final account raises dispute and says that it was meant for interest, will the customer succeed?

PRACTICAL BANKERPRACTICAL BANKER5. A Brigadier of Army asks for cash payment of open DD

without identification stating that it is on Demand? How ill you convince?

6. A CHEQUE is endorsed in favor of three persons in succession. All have apparently signed and it is bearer. Can you pay cash?

7. A CHEQUE or DD crossed plain, account payee and Not Negotiable. Discuss Significance. A customer brings a DD crossed NOT negotiable endorsed in his/her favor. Can you collect the DD on behalf of the Customer?

8. A CHEQUE drawn in favor of a Ltd. company is bearer. Can you pay cash? Will the position change if the amount is above 20000/=

PRACTICAL BANKERPRACTICAL BANKER9. A CHEQUE is six months old dated. Can you pay

cash, if the customer is well known?10. From Reliance Mobile Co., a bank obtained PDC

and discounted the same ---- is it in order?11. A customer has sufficient balance in account.

Wants his CHEQUE to be marked as good for payment. Can you do?

12. A CHEQUE is not in the appropriate stationery. But properly drawn and you know that your customer has drawn it. Can you pay, can the customer later on sue you for negligence?

COUNTERFEIT NOTES & FRAUDS

13.Your cashier tracks a Counterfeit note. The customer says “let us burn it – I will give another one” --- what will you do?

14.Your safe kept cash bundle has a counterfeit note—detected while paying --- what will you do?

15.PWD engineer invokes your Bank’s Guarantee. When you verify the register, the BG is not in the records. But clearly bears the previous manager’s signature--- what will you do?

16.A leading personality says that the previous manager has been holding the FD receipts; but while leaving, when verified was found deficient. The VIP feels that the previous man has taken undue advantage of the fact that the money was number 2. What will you do?

PRACTICAL BANKERPRACTICAL BANKER

17. A DD is presented for payment; but you have not received the issue advice for the same form the issuing branch. The DD is for very high value. To verify when you ring up the branch it is found that the particular STATE has declared holiday under NI act. The payment is demanded urgently. Even the signature of the drawing officer is new. The new signatures are yet to be FASCIMILATED. What will you do?

18. Pro-notes are time-barred in three years. But your loan to a customer exceeds three years and you know that if the loan is not renewed within three years the pro-note would be time-barred. Your customer suggests that you can enter into an agreement with him stating that the pro-note executed by him in bank’s favor would not be time barred as he is agreeing to it. Would you bite it?

19. Your customer has borrowed and the surety has co-obliged the pro-note. The original borrower loses his assets and you are filing suit against the surety only. In court the surety alleges that he is only surety and the main borrower is let off. What will court do?

PRACTICAL BANKERPRACTICAL BANKER

20. In a paying in slip the customer fills his account number wrongly and the name is not quite legible. You have accepted the same without seeing it properly. Based on the wrong account number you pass credit to the account and the other fellow draws the amount and closes the account. After sometime, your customer your customer comes with the counterfoil, which is easily readable and demand payment/ proper credit to his account. You argue that he should have written the account number correctly and since he has erred he should suffer the loss. He goes to court. Who will succeed?

MODEREN BANKER!!MODEREN BANKER!!

A CHEQUE drawn on your bank has been received at another far off place in a totally different bank --- they are sending a fax giving the scanned image of the CHEQUE and ask you to pay the amount through electronic exchange kept in place by the CENTRAL BANKER ---- Discuss the implications! Is there a law to Govern this?

CORE BANKING SOLUTION CORE BANKING SOLUTION Banking EarlierBanking Earlier

Changing face of BankingManual ledger environmentDelay in MIS / DataMany legacy systemsCustomer ServiceCompilation of financial information as a

Bank

Core BankingCore Banking

Remove various legacy systemsEnd to end financial solutionsBetter customer serviceEasy compilation of financial dataAccess of data / financials from any pointScalability – better solutionsSingle Vendor

AdvantagesAdvantages

More structured productsNew Delivery ChannelsCustomer Relationship managementRisk Management

PlayersPlayers

INFOSYS - FINACLEI-Flex - Universal Banking Solution

THEMINOSPeople soft Technologies

Branch

Database At Central Point

UBS – System Structure

UBSUBS

FCR – Supports Retail Application FCC – Supports Wholesale Banking Access through telecom lines from any place with

centralized database Branch level user and customer information -

Database Online updating of debits / credits – Centralized

database Information availability online through other

channels like E-net / ATM / Mobile etc.

Information ExchangeInformation Exchange

Branch functions are performed by accessing centralized database through workstation connected to Branch server, which in turn speaks to Centralized Database.

Branch server has both FCR application and local branch database, which stores local branch transactions.

Branch server communicates with UBS production servers at Centralized location on an online basis and ensures both local branch database and production database are in sync.

To communicate with production servers, branch server is configured with production server IP Addresses and ports.

Users from the branch connect through browser based application or CITRIX

FCR branch application connects to the production database using ODBC and Application server using COM server of the branch.

Information ExchangeInformation Exchange

Non branch functions which are regular operations oriented are done through Host which is directly connected to the centralized database.

To communicate with production servers CITRIX application is used

WORKING CAPITAL GAPWORKING CAPITAL GAPTANDON COMMITTEETANDON COMMITTEE

1.     Working Capital gap = Current Assets – (Current Liabilities- Bank limit for Working Capital)

   Maximum 75% of the identified gap can be financed. Rest of the gap to be financed by own funds or on long-term basis as a term loan.

15 industries were basically identified, which covers cotton, jute, rubber, pharmaceuticals, cement, engineering, automobile industries etc.

The norms cover limits of Raw materials, Semi-finished products, finished products & receivables.

METHODOLOGY OF METHODOLOGY OF FINANCINGFINANCING

I Method is financing for WC up to 75% of the gap identified as above. Excess was converted as TL.

II Method envisages financing up to 75% of the net current assets only.

III Method envisages financing of core current assets up to the full extent and rest of the 25% needs to be financed through own resources

MIS statements were considered mandatory and defaults would attract penalty interest over and above of the contracted rate.

CHORE COMMITTEE CHORE COMMITTEE RECOMMENDATIONSRECOMMENDATIONS

As per this, all banks were directed in December 1980 that Method 2 should be applied for all accounts where the working capital limit is Rs50lakhs and above.

Different types of advances, cash credit, loan and bills types to continue.

Bifurcation of cash credit limit into demand loan and fluctuating cash credit portions - not favored.

Seasonal Credits studied in detail analyzed.

NAYAK COMMITTEE NAYAK COMMITTEE

Preference to village industries, tiny industries and other small-scale units in that order.

TANDON Committee will not apply for working capital credit limits up to Rs50lacs from the banking system for the above category.

25% of the output value should be computed as WC requirement, of which at 4/5th should be provided by Banking Sector, the remaining 1/5th, representing borrower's contribution towards margin money for the WC

VAZ COMMITTEE VAZ COMMITTEE

VAZ committee has extended the concept of NAYAK committee to all business enterprises

This is deviation to previous committees!

WORKING CAPITAL WORKING CAPITAL MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT

It is complicated at the international level because: 

a.      Some countries do not have the concept of working capital.

b.      Receivables and payables are in multi-currencies.

c.      Credit terms vary internationally.

Methods to manage working Methods to manage working capitalcapital – 1 Inventory Mgt – 1 Inventory Mgt

i.           1 A good inventory management system- some of the techniques of inventory control are:

a)      Just-In-Time (JIT): Its applicability depends upon the country.

b)      ABC Analysis c)  EOQ- Balancing inventory carrying cost

against unit order cost. d)      Reorder Level.

2 Managing Receivables2 Managing Receivables

Credit scoring model can be devised (for internal transactions)

Only rated clients (for big transactions of MNC’s) Taking security (when risky) Debt period analysis i.e. within 3 months, between 3 and 6

months, above 6 months etc. Offer a discount for immediate settlement. For a depreciating currency, calculate a discount and offer it

immediately. Forfaiting is a technique to manage receivables as the rights

of an unpaid seller may not be applicable in every country.

3 Cash Management3 Cash Management

Tools for cash management:

EOQ for cash = 2AO

C

Where A= Annual requirement;

O= Opportunity cost; C= Carrying cost.

                                

Bills Finance and Simple Bills Finance and Simple overdrafts.overdrafts.

CCODBillsGoods LoanAcceptance BillsExport & Import Bills etc.

Current Ratio

Current Assets

-----------------------

Current Liabilities + Provisions

Quick Ratio

CA - Inventories---------------------

CL – OD

Newer Ratio?Newer Ratio?

Compare Average Current Liability To Monthly Cash Flows

Going Concern Approach & Gone Concern Approach