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HISTORY  OF  MIGRATIONS  –  MIDDLE  AGES  

Fabio  Baggio    

0.  Terminological  Questions  

The  period  called  “Middle  Ages”  lies  in  the  “middle”  between  ancient  and  modern  history.  This  is  obviously  a  terminology  that  responds  to  a  Europocentric  history  and  cannot  have  universal  claims.  The  middle  ages,   i.e.   those  ages  preparing  the   full  development  of  civilization,  differ   in  dating  according  to  geographical  locations  of  reference.  Moreover,  the  European  Middle  Ages  is  still  under  discussion  regarding   its  start  dates,   its  end  and   its  different  sub-­‐periods.  Generally  historians  indicate  as  starting  point  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  make  its  end  coincide  with   the  arrival  of  Columbus   in  America.  Historians  also  distinguish  between  the  High  Middle  Ages,   from   the   fifth   to   the   tenth   century,   and   the  Low  Middle  Ages,   from   the  eleventh  to  the  fifteenth  century.  

 

1.  Barbaric  Invasions  

After   a   long   series   of   barbarian   invasions,   in   476   AD   the  Western   Roman   Empire   fell   at   the  hands  of  Odoacer,  king  of   the  Herul,  who  ousted   the   last  emperor  Romulus   “Augustulus.”  The  imperial   territories,   including  Rome,  ended  up   in  the  hands  of  barbarian  kings.  They  were  the  chiefs  of  different  tribes,  often  not  directly  tied  to  each  other.  Until  the  fifth  century  these  tribes,  with  few  exceptions,  had  lived  beyond  the  imperial  boundaries.  Many  of  them  settled  down  as  structured  human  groups  after  an  earlier  migration   from  the  northeastern  areas  of  Europe  or  from  different  regions  of  Asia.  

Vandals.  They  were  Germanic  tribes  without  much  contact  with  the  Roman  Empire.  Historians  believe   that   they   originally   came   from   northern   Europe   and   from   the   coasts   of   Scandinavia.  They   migrated   first   from   Poland   to   Silesia   and   Bohemia,   then   to   Germany   and   France,   and  finally  to  Spain.  They  settled  down  in  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  North  Africa.  Their  invasions  are  characterized  by  cruelty  and  the  total  destruction  of  conquered  cities.  

Visigoths.   They  were   also  Germanic  peoples,   belonging   to   the   great   family   of   the  Goths.  They  initially  settled   in  Dacia,  on   the   left  bank  of   the  Danube  and   in   the   third  century   they  become  allies  (foederati)  of   the  Romans  to  protect   the  borders  of   the  Empire.   In   the   fifth  century  they  migrated  first  to  Gaul  and  then  to  Spain,  where  they  can  consolidate  their  kingdom.  

Ostrogoths.  They  were  Germanic  tribes  of  the  family  of  the  Goths.  They  left  Scandinavia  to  settle  in  the  third  century  between  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  Don  and  Dnieper,  up  to  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  For  a  couple  of  centuries  they  alternated  moments  of  good  relations  with  the  Roman  Empire  and  moments  of  open  conflict.  In  the  fifth  century  they  moved  into  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  After   the   fall   of   Romulus   Augustulus   they   fought   against   Odoacer   (Herul)   and   conquered   the  Italian  peninsula,  in  alliance  with  the  Eastern  Roman  emperor.  

Sueves.  They  were  Germanic  tribes  from  the  Baltic  Sea  regions.  In  the  first  century  they  settled  in   the  present  Rhine.   In   later  centuries   they  expanded   in  Gaul  and   joined   the  Vandals   in   their  westward   migration   and   conquest.   They   finally   migrated   to   Spain   and   settled   in   the   north  region  (Galicia).  They  allied  with  the  Roman  emperor  and  committed  to  ensuring  peace  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  

Lombards.  They  were  Germanic   tribes,  originally   settled   in  Scandinavia.  They  migrated   to   the  continent   and,   up   the   river   Elbe,   they   reached   Pannonia.   In   the   sixth   century,   the   Lombards  conquered   the   Italian  peninsula,   taking   advantage   of   the  weakness   of   the  Ostrogoth   kingdom  and  the  weak  restoration  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire  in  Ravenna.  

Franks.  They  were  Germanic   tribes,   resulting   from   the  merger  of   several   existing  populations  along  the  banks  of  the  Rhine.  In  the  fourth  century  they  settled  in  central  Gaul  and  became  allies  

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of  the  Roman  Empire,  entrusted  the  defense  of  the  Rhine  frontier  against  the  Alans,  Sueves  and  Vandals.  After  476  A.D.  they  split  into  two  kingdoms:  the  West  Franks,  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Scheldt,  and  the  Eastern  Franks,  at  the  banks  of  the  river  Moselle.  

It  's  difficult  to  precisely  estimate  the  numerical  values  of  these  barbarian  invasions/migrations.  While   there   are   reliable   data   for   the   Vandals   under   King   Genseric   (around   80,000   people),  historians  agree  that  no  barbarous  group  exceeded  100,000  people.  Nonetheless,  at  the  end  of  their   invasion/migration   into   the  West  Roman  Empire’s   territories,  barbarians  did  not  exceed  5%  of  the  total  population.  

The  map  below  highlights  the  main  migration  routes  of  the  different  barbarians  groups.  

   2.  The  Eastern  Roman  Empire  

Despite   ups   and   downs,   the   eastern   portion   of   the   Roman   Empire   managed   to   resist   the  barbarian  invasions  first  and  then  the  Islamic  expansion  up  to  the  fifteenth  century.  Faced  with  the  Muslim  threat,   the  alliances  with  the  different  barbarian  kingdoms   in  Europe  over  several  centuries   were   extremely   useful,   although   the   Near   East   territories   were   ceded   to   the   Arab  sultans.  

Thanks   to   its   geographical   position,   the   empire   of   Constantinople   served   as   a   “physical”   and  cultural  corridor  between  Asia  and  Europe,  compulsory  passage  for  the  representatives  of  two  very  different  worlds,  which  wanted   to  dialogue  when   they  were  not   at  war  with   each  other.  The   imperial   territories  were  also  a   refuge   for   those  escaping   from   the  various   invasions  and  dissidents  of  the  new  regimes.  The  same  areas  were  also  obliged  transit  places  for  both  pilgrims  and  crusaders  heading  to  the  Holy  Land.  

 

3.  Golden  Ages  and  Fall  of  the  Maya  Empire  

In  317  A.D.  the  Maya  Empire  entered  its  Classic  Period,  which  lasted  until  987.  In  this  period  the  Mayas  reached  their  zenith,  expanding  to  all  Guatemala.  The  dominant  states  (Palenque,  Piedras  Negras,  Copan  and  Quirigua)  were  constituted  with  the  development  of  large  cities,  mainly  due  to   a   remarkable   phenomenon   of   urbanization.   For   the   huge   construction  works  many   slaves  were  captured  and  deported   from  the  surrounding   forests.  At   the  end  of   the  ninth  century  all  

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these  cities  were  abandoned  for  reasons  that  still  remain  obscure:  perhaps  earthquakes,  climate  changes,  epidemics  or  civil  wars.  

 

4.  The  Chinese  Empire  of  the  Sui  and  Tang  Dynasties  

In  581  A.D.   the  emperor  Sui  Wendi   Jian  Yang  founded  the  Sui  dynasty,  which   lasted  until  618.  The  emperor  Yangdi  undertook  the  excavation  of  the  Grand  Canal  linking  Beijing  to  Hangzhou  for  1794  km.   It  was  a  huge  endeavor   that  required   the  displacement  of   thousands  of  workers  following  the  progress  of  construction.  The  completion  of  the  work  greatly  improved  the  river  transport  of  goods  and  people,  fostering  internal  migration.  

In  the  seventh  century  the  Tang  dynasty  took  power  to  rule  the  empire  until  907.  After  ten  years  of   internal  strife  and  division,  which  caused  several   forced  migration  flows,  the  emperor  Tang  Taizong   Li   Shimin   consolidated   the   empire   leading   the   Chinese   feudal   society   to   an  unprecedented  prosperity.   In   the   eighth   century,   however,   the   first   signs  of   decline   appeared  starting  the  decline  of  the  Tang  Dynasty.  

 

5.  The  Muslim  Expansion  

In  the  seventh  century,  the  Arabian  Peninsula  was  populated  by  a  large  number  of  tribes,  mostly  nomadic,   often   fighting  among   themselves.  Despite   the  obvious  ethnic   affinities,   there  was  no  element  that  would  facilitate  cohesion.  In  the  early  decades  of  the  century  Muhammad,  with  his  preaching   of   Islam   (=   unconditional   devotion   to   Allah),   rose   as   a   prophet   of   a   monotheistic  religion  that  succeeded  in  unifying  the  various  tribes  into  one  nation  essentially  theocratic.  

After  the  death  of  the  prophet  (632  AD),  the  leadership  of  the  new  nation  was  entrusted  to  the  kings  who  have   converted   to   Islam.  They   saw   in   the  weakness   of   the   neighboring  nations   an  opportunity  to  begin  to  transform  the  entire  known  world  into  "El  Islam"  (i.e.  the  territory  loyal  to  the  religion  of  Allah).  Thus  they  began  to  “conquer”  the  neighboring  territories,  starting  from  Palestine,   Syria,   Egypt   and  Persia,  which  before   the   end  of   the   century   are   already  under   the  domination  of  the  Arab  caliphs.  

In   the   eighth   century   it  was   the   turn   of   Armenia,   Cyprus,   Turkestan,  North  Africa   and   finally  Spain.  The  Muslim  expansion  is  stopped  on  the  one  side  at  the  Pyrenees  and  on  the  other  side  at  the   outskirts   of   Constantinople.   For   decades,   massive   displacements   of   people   took   place.  Thousands  of  people  migrated  either  to  invade  and  occupy  the  conquered  territory  or  to  escape  and  take  refuge  in  safer  places.  

The  map  below  highlights  the  distinct  stages  of  the  Muslim  expansion  from  the  seventh  century  to  the  tenth  century.    

 

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6.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  

From   the   sixth   century   onwards   the   Frankish   kingdom  was   consolidated   by   the  Merovingian  dynasty.   In   the   eighth   century   the   Carolingian   dynasty   took   over   the   rule.   After   stopping   the  Muslim   expansion   at   the   Pyrenees   (Charles  Martel),   they   deserved   the   gratitude   of   the   pope,  which   developed   in   an   alliance   between   the   Papacy   and   the   Franks   that   was   consolidated  during   the   reign   of   Pepin   the   Short.   The   latter’s   son,   Charlemagne,   was   able   to   unify   and  strengthen  the  kingdom  and  initiated  a  series  of  military  campaigns  that  expanded  the  Franks’  rule  in  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy.  

Charlemagne  wanted  to  restore  the  Western  Roman  Empire  with  a  strong  Christian  basis:   the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Charlemagne  was  crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  himself  in  the  Christmas  of  800.  This  event  marked  an  alliance  with  the  spiritual  power  that  started  a  time  of  peace  and  of   great   economic   and   intellectual   prosperity,   founded   on   the   harmonic  merger   of   Latin   and  Germanic  elements.  

Charlemagne   grandsons   divided   the   empire   into   three   parts,   corresponding   more   or   less   to  modern  France,  Germany  and  Italy.  After  a  series  of  internal  struggles,  in  the  tenth  century  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  identified  with  the  reign  of  Germany,  went  to  the  Ottonian  dynasty,  which  maintained   the   imperial   title   until   1024.   Later   the   imperial   crown   went   to   the   house   of  Franconia/Swabia.  

As  many  modern  historians  stated,  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  set  the  basis  of  the  European  union,  which   politically   developed   only   in   modern   times.   The   alternation   of   moments   of   glory   and  moments  of  decline  did  not   jeopardize   the   spread  of  a   “European”  culture   that  had  a  positive  impact  on  the  sense  of  belonging  and  citizenship  of  the  various  peoples  involved  in  the  process.  The   security   within   the   imperial   borders   and   the   economic   growth   promoted   internal  migration.  

 

7.  The  “Reconquista”  of  Spain  and  the  Crusades  

In  the  ninth  century  the  process  of  Christian  re-­‐conquest  (Reconquista)  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  began   by   the  work   of   autochthonous   populations   (Hispanic-­‐Visigoth)  who   had   suffered   from  Muslim  rule  for  several  decades.  The  military  campaigns  lasted  several  centuries  and  displaced  thousands   of   people   on   both   sides,   especially   from   north   to   south   in   the   Iberian   Peninsula:  Muslims  forced  to  fall  back  and  Christians  repopulating  the  re-­‐conquered  territories.  

Following   the  occupation  of  Palestine  by   the  Muslim  caliphs   the  myth  of   the   liberation  of   the  Holy   Tomb   arose.   This   led   European   Christian   kingdoms   to   organize   military   expeditions  (crusades)  to  recover  the  Holy  Land.  The  crusades  undertaken  in  the  XI-­‐XIII  moved  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  on  both  sides.  There  were  ten  “official”  crusades  and  five  ones  not  officially  recorded   because   sadly   finished.   Holy  wars,   redemption   of   relics,   pilgrimages   and   chivalrous  adventures  motivated  continuous  migrations  within  the  Mediterranean  basin.  

Even  after  many  centuries,  it  is  not  easy  to  express  an  agreed  upon  historical  judgment  on  these  events.  The  Crusades  were  marked  by  errors  and  abuses  that  often  responded  more  to  religious  fanaticism   than   to   spiritual   ideals,   which   they   were   declaredly   inspired   by.   Nonetheless,  battlefields  and  jails  were  also  suitable  places  for  positive  encounters  between  the  two  cultures.  

 

8.  Kingdoms,  Cities  and  Universities  

In   the   Low  Middle  Ages,   Europe   gave   birth   to   kingdoms,   counties,   duchies   and   principalities,  which  were  formally  separated,  from  each  other,  but  were  often  allies  before  common  enemies.  The  independentization  processes  leading  to  the  definition  of  modern  states  started  in  this  time.  The   struggles   and  wars   between   kingdoms   often   cause   the   forced  migration   of   defeated   and  dissidents.  

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European   population   increased   as   well   as   the   phenomenon   of   urbanization   resulting   in   the  establishment   of   large   cities.   Culture   became   much   more   accessible   and   universities   were  founded,  attracting  students   from  the  neighboring   territories  and  abroad.  The  classical  world,  especially  Greek  and  Hellenistic,  was  reconsidered  along  with  the  cosmopolitan   ideal   that  had  characterized  its  golden  age.  

The  quite  uncertain  outcome  of   the  crusades  had  fueled  the  desire  not   to  depend  on  the  Arab  caravans  to  maintain  and  strengthen  trade  and  cultural  relations  between  Europe  and  the  Far  East.  The  best-­‐known  effort  to  this  extent  is  the  famous  Marco  Polo’  voyage,  which  was  reported  in  the  book  titled,  The  Million.  

Among  the  cities  that  were  more  developed  in  the  Low  Middle  Ages  Venice  was  outstanding.  It  was  structured  as  a  republic  and  annexed  large  areas  of  the  northeastern  region  of  the  Italian  peninsula  and  the  coast  of  Yugoslavia.  Thanks  to  the  alliance  with  the  Byzantine  Empire,  Venice  became  the  owner  of  many  Mediterranean  routes,  playing  a  central   role   in   the   trade  between  East  and  West.  The  lagoon  city  was  enriched  by  art  and  culture  and  attracted  new  citizens  from  all  over  the  known  world.  

 

9.  The  Mongol  Empire  

The  Middle  Ages  also  marked  the  rise  of  the  Mongol  Empire.  Descendants  of  the  Huns,  savage  people  who  had  failed  to  settle  in  European  territories  in  the  fourth  century,  the  Mongols  were  structured  as  separate   tribes  until   the  end  of   the   twelfth  century.  They  were  mostly  nomadic,  living  in  the  steppes  north  of  China.  

At   the   beginning   of   the   thirteenth   century,   Temudjin   (Genghis   Khan),   chief   of   one   of   the  Mongolian   tribes,   rose   as   a   charismatic   leader   and   succeeded   in   unifying   all   the   tribes   and  constituting   the   Mongol   Empire.   Thanks   to   their   exceptional   war   skills,   the   Mongols   quickly  expanded   their   rule   south   up   to   Tibet,   east   up   to   the   Sea   of   Japan   and   west   up   to   the  Mediterranean.  This  was  the  largest  empire  in  history.  

The  nomadic  nature  of  the  Mongols  and  the  political  and  social  structure  of  the  empire  caused  reiterated  displacements  of  people  within  the  imperial  territories.  On  the  death  of  Genghis  Khan  the  Mongol  empire  was  divided  into  four  independent  kingdoms.  

The  map  below  illustrates  the  division  of  the  empire  after  the  death  of  Temudjin.  

 

 

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10.  In  America:  The  Inca  Empire  and  the  Azteca  Empire  

Before   the   eleventh   century   in   Peru   some   great   civilizations   developed:  Chavin,  Tiahuanaco,  Moche,  Nazca,  Chimu  and  Inca.  Among  them,  around  the  year  1000,   the   Inca   civilization   rose   as  outstanding.  The   Incas   settled   in   the  region  of  Cuzco  (Peru)  and  rapidly  extended  their  rule  from  the  Andes  along  the   Pacific   Ocean   coasts,   south   up   to   Talca   (Chile)   and   north   up   to   Quito  (Ecuador).  In  the  thirteenth  century  the  Inca  Empire  was  born,  an  empire  that  reached   its   zenith   in   the   fifteenth   century.   The   construction   of   large-­‐scale  buildings  and   long  roads   linking  the  northern  areas  to   the  southern  areas  of  the   empire   facilitated   the   development   of   commercial   activities   and   the  movement  of  population  within  the  imperial  territories.  

In   the   twelfth   century,   from   the   city   of   Aztlán   -­‐   a   city   whose   geographical  location   continues   to   be  debated   -­‐   the  Mexica  people  migrated  massively   to  central  Mexico   to   settle   in   the  vicinity  of   the   actual  Mexican   capital.  Though  such   migration   the   Aztec   civilization   began.   It   reached   its   heyday   in   the  fifteenth   century,   thanks   to   its   expansion   in   the   surrounding   areas   and   its  flourishing  agriculture.