PREDICTORS OF PREDICTORS OF CAREER SUCCESS & CAREER SUCCESS &

GENDER:GENDER:A PRELIMINARY A PRELIMINARY CONCEPT PAPERCONCEPT PAPER

ByByRachel SamuelRachel Samuel

Universiti Sains MalaysiaUniversiti Sains MalaysiaWk 6.1Wk 6.1

BACKGROUNDBACKGROUND

Women make up an increasing proportion of full time Women make up an increasing proportion of full time workforce and of managers around the world (Wirth, 2001); workforce and of managers around the world (Wirth, 2001); yet they are under-represented in management in most yet they are under-represented in management in most countries and in senior management everywhere (Davidson & countries and in senior management everywhere (Davidson & Burke, 2004).Burke, 2004).

Top management and senior management positions related to Top management and senior management positions related to being successful in career.being successful in career.

Does this mean that women have not been as successful as Does this mean that women have not been as successful as men in terms of career? men in terms of career?

Distribution of Female Employment by Distribution of Female Employment by

Occupation, 2004Occupation, 2004 in Malaysia (%)in Malaysia (%) Legislators, senior officials & managersLegislators, senior officials & managers 5.95.9; ;

ProfessionalsProfessionals 6.76.7;;Technicians & associate Technicians & associate professionalsprofessionals13.013.0;;Clerical workersClerical workers17.517.5;;Service Service workers, shop and market sales workers, shop and market sales workersworkers18.418.4;;Skilled agricultural & fishery Skilled agricultural & fishery workersworkers10.010.0;;Craft and related trade Craft and related trade workersworkers5.25.2;;Plant & machine operators and Plant & machine operators and assemblersassemblers11.411.4; ; Elementary WorkersElementary Workers12.012.0

DEFINITIONDEFINITION

Career success can be divided into 2:Career success can be divided into 2:

Extrinsic (Objective)Extrinsic (Objective) Intrinsic (Subjective)Intrinsic (Subjective) SalarySalary ** SatisfactionSatisfaction PromotionPromotion ** Life successLife success

(Gattiker & Larwood, 1988; (Gattiker & Larwood, 1988;

(Judge et al, 1995)(Judge et al, 1995) Boudreau et al, 2001) Boudreau et al, 2001)

career success in two distinctive ways: first, the career success in two distinctive ways: first, the external, extrinsic or objective perspective. Here, external, extrinsic or objective perspective. Here, visible metrics or tangible indicators are used, for visible metrics or tangible indicators are used, for example, salary, promotions or status. These measures example, salary, promotions or status. These measures have been considered as the hallmarks of career have been considered as the hallmarks of career success across a wide range of societies (Nicholson, success across a wide range of societies (Nicholson, 2000). In addition, proximity to the Chief Executive 2000). In addition, proximity to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and employability are also included as Officer (CEO) and employability are also included as extrinsic aspects. CEO proximity reflects power, extrinsic aspects. CEO proximity reflects power, authority and responsibility in the current authority and responsibility in the current organization. organization. Employability is an increasing Employability is an increasing indicator of success as multiple-employer and indicator of success as multiple-employer and multiple-profession careers become more commonmultiple-profession careers become more common (Boudreau et al., 2001). (Boudreau et al., 2001).

The second measure is subjective, intrinsic or internal The second measure is subjective, intrinsic or internal and this would depend on what individuals perceive the and this would depend on what individuals perceive the criteria of success to be using personal definitions of criteria of success to be using personal definitions of success or failure, across any dimensions that are success or failure, across any dimensions that are important to that individual (Van Maanen, 1977; important to that individual (Van Maanen, 1977; Gattiker & Larwood, 1989; Miguel, 1993). Intrinsic Gattiker & Larwood, 1989; Miguel, 1993). Intrinsic success is made up of job success, interpersonal success is made up of job success, interpersonal success and hierarchical success. Job success means success and hierarchical success. Job success means the extent to which individuals perceive that their jobs the extent to which individuals perceive that their jobs offer opportunities for achievement, satisfaction, offer opportunities for achievement, satisfaction, learning and development. Interpersonal success is the learning and development. Interpersonal success is the degree to which individuals perceive they are respected degree to which individuals perceive they are respected and accepted by their work colleagues. Hierarchical and accepted by their work colleagues. Hierarchical success is the extent to which individuals are satisfied success is the extent to which individuals are satisfied with their up-to-date hierarchical advancement and with their up-to-date hierarchical advancement and their prospects for future advancement. their prospects for future advancement.

Subjective career success is also measured by Subjective career success is also measured by career satisfaction (Burke, 2001; Ng et al, 2005) career satisfaction (Burke, 2001; Ng et al, 2005) and life satisfaction. Adding life satisfaction to and life satisfaction. Adding life satisfaction to the measures of career success acknowledges the the measures of career success acknowledges the importance of work-life and family balance importance of work-life and family balance (Boudreau et al., 2001). A dual (Boudreau et al., 2001). A dual operationalization of career success is necessary operationalization of career success is necessary because the two do not always overlap (Poole, because the two do not always overlap (Poole, Langan-Fox & Omodei, 1993; Bozionelos, 2003).Langan-Fox & Omodei, 1993; Bozionelos, 2003).

The analysis of researches on career success since The analysis of researches on career success since 1980 show that the objective criteria/ measure 1980 show that the objective criteria/ measure have dominated most research (Burke & have dominated most research (Burke & Vinnicombe, 2005;Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Ng Vinnicombe, 2005;Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Ng et al, 2005; Eddleston et al, 2004; Ismail, Mohd et al, 2005; Eddleston et al, 2004; Ismail, Mohd Rasdi & Abdul Wahat, 2005; Kottke & Agars, Rasdi & Abdul Wahat, 2005; Kottke & Agars, 2005). The subjective criteria, though not 2005). The subjective criteria, though not commonly used, has been increasingly adopted commonly used, has been increasingly adopted over the last decade (Nabi, 2001; Greenhaus, over the last decade (Nabi, 2001; Greenhaus, 2003; Hall, 2002; Ng et al., 2005). 2003; Hall, 2002; Ng et al., 2005).

The deficiency of using objective success criteria has been The deficiency of using objective success criteria has been recognized for a long time (Hilton & Dill, 1962). However, recognized for a long time (Hilton & Dill, 1962). However, many studies continue to use this measure as the sole many studies continue to use this measure as the sole criteria of career success (Chenevert & Tremblay, 2002; criteria of career success (Chenevert & Tremblay, 2002; Judiesh & Lyness, 1999; Lyness & Thompson, 2000). Judiesh & Lyness, 1999; Lyness & Thompson, 2000). LikewiseLikewise, subjective measures of career success also have , subjective measures of career success also have its limitation. Subjective measures should include reactions its limitation. Subjective measures should include reactions to actual and anticipated career-related attainments across a to actual and anticipated career-related attainments across a broader time frame than one’s immediate job satisfaction broader time frame than one’s immediate job satisfaction (Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk, 2000) as well as wider (Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk, 2000) as well as wider range of outcomes, such as a sense of identity (Law, Meijers range of outcomes, such as a sense of identity (Law, Meijers & Weijers, 2002), purpose (Cochran, 1990) and work-life & Weijers, 2002), purpose (Cochran, 1990) and work-life balance (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Job satisfaction balance (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Job satisfaction may contribute to subjective career success but it could be may contribute to subjective career success but it could be distinct and not necessarily related. Hence, future research distinct and not necessarily related. Hence, future research should avoid adopting job satisfaction alone as proxy for should avoid adopting job satisfaction alone as proxy for subjective career success (Heslin, 2005).subjective career success (Heslin, 2005).

AN ERA OF CHANGE?AN ERA OF CHANGE? For career success to be measured using objective measures, one For career success to be measured using objective measures, one

has to advance hierarchically within a single organization over the has to advance hierarchically within a single organization over the course of their career (Eby et al., 2003). However, linear, secure course of their career (Eby et al., 2003). However, linear, secure and predictable careers have been replaced by dynamic, flexible and predictable careers have been replaced by dynamic, flexible and multidirectional career paths (Baruch, 2006). Since late and multidirectional career paths (Baruch, 2006). Since late 1990s, career no longer follow a linear path but are boundaryless, 1990s, career no longer follow a linear path but are boundaryless, protean and portable in nature (Sullivan, 1999; Goffee & Jones, protean and portable in nature (Sullivan, 1999; Goffee & Jones, 2000). In a linear career path, managerial success is normally 2000). In a linear career path, managerial success is normally looked at using tangible outcomes and the milestones are looked at using tangible outcomes and the milestones are compensation, promotions offered and managerial level. In a compensation, promotions offered and managerial level. In a boundaryless career, however, success is marked by career boundaryless career, however, success is marked by career impatience (the need to move to something better), marketability, impatience (the need to move to something better), marketability, willingness to relocate, mentoring efficacy and exposure to willingness to relocate, mentoring efficacy and exposure to powerful networks (Arthur, Inkson & Pringle, 1999; Eby et al., powerful networks (Arthur, Inkson & Pringle, 1999; Eby et al., 2003). 2003).

The individual factors of success which are The individual factors of success which are discussed within the boundaryless career literature discussed within the boundaryless career literature are career competencies (knowing why, knowing are career competencies (knowing why, knowing how and knowing whom), locus of career how and knowing whom), locus of career development responsibility and the boundary development responsibility and the boundary between work and personal life (which is between work and personal life (which is considered as part of intrinsic success) (Arthur & considered as part of intrinsic success) (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Cappellen & Janssens, 2005). Rousseau, 1996; Cappellen & Janssens, 2005). As organizations begin to downsize and delayer, As organizations begin to downsize and delayer, hierarchical success is difficult to achieve. If hierarchical success is difficult to achieve. If career is boundaryless, then success is related to career is boundaryless, then success is related to accomplishments, expertise and personal accomplishments, expertise and personal achievement (Wellington, Kropf & Gerkovich, achievement (Wellington, Kropf & Gerkovich, 2003). 2003).

Linked to boundaryless career is the concept of protean Linked to boundaryless career is the concept of protean career which is internally-oriented, flexible, and mobile career which is internally-oriented, flexible, and mobile and may involve both horizontal and vertical growth in the and may involve both horizontal and vertical growth in the pursuit of goals defined by individual workers (Hall, pursuit of goals defined by individual workers (Hall, 1999; Sullivan, 1995). Protean model assumes that 1999; Sullivan, 1995). Protean model assumes that careers continue to develop throughout life as skills and careers continue to develop throughout life as skills and knowledge is continuously sought in accordance with knowledge is continuously sought in accordance with individual goals (MacDermid & Lee, 2001). This model individual goals (MacDermid & Lee, 2001). This model allows workers with various personal or family needs or allows workers with various personal or family needs or different definitions of success to adjust the pace of their different definitions of success to adjust the pace of their career development while continuing to make valuable career development while continuing to make valuable contributions to the organization. The increasing diversity contributions to the organization. The increasing diversity of the workforce will continue to increase the pressure on of the workforce will continue to increase the pressure on organizations to create niches whereby all workers, not organizations to create niches whereby all workers, not just those following the traditional external career, can be just those following the traditional external career, can be successful (MacDermid & Lee, 2001). successful (MacDermid & Lee, 2001).

Role of GenderRole of Gender Research on career success and gender has long Research on career success and gender has long

been examined (Powell & Mainiero, 1992; Lyness been examined (Powell & Mainiero, 1992; Lyness & Thompson, 2000). When objective criteria is & Thompson, 2000). When objective criteria is used to measure career success, women fall short. used to measure career success, women fall short. Though with equal employment policies women Though with equal employment policies women are given more opportunities to advance, a wide are given more opportunities to advance, a wide wage gap remains between men and women. wage gap remains between men and women.

Women however report equal levels of subjective success Women however report equal levels of subjective success to men (Kirchmeyer, 1998; Bradley, Brown & Dower, to men (Kirchmeyer, 1998; Bradley, Brown & Dower, 2003). Understanding of women’s careers require the 2003). Understanding of women’s careers require the acknowledgement that women have fundamentally acknowledgement that women have fundamentally different experiences and women find themselves in different experiences and women find themselves in different situations when developing their career different situations when developing their career compared to men (Mavin, 2001). Pay and position do not compared to men (Mavin, 2001). Pay and position do not appear to define how women managers and older appear to define how women managers and older managers define success for themselves (Sturges, 1999). managers define success for themselves (Sturges, 1999). Women were more likely than men to describe success Women were more likely than men to describe success with reference to internal intangible criteria especially with reference to internal intangible criteria especially accomplishment, achievement, and in particular personal accomplishment, achievement, and in particular personal recognition. Women have transcended material career recognition. Women have transcended material career success and their definition of success is broader. Career success and their definition of success is broader. Career success is just one part of the success they wish to success is just one part of the success they wish to achieve in other parts of their lives as a whole. That is achieve in other parts of their lives as a whole. That is why balance is important for women. why balance is important for women.

For men, it is essentially career success when For men, it is essentially career success when they talk about success (Wellington et al, 2003). they talk about success (Wellington et al, 2003). Despite poorer income progression and lower Despite poorer income progression and lower returns from promotion, women may perceive returns from promotion, women may perceive careers to be as successful as males. In fact, once careers to be as successful as males. In fact, once the effects of the career determinants were the effects of the career determinants were considered simultaneously, women’s perception considered simultaneously, women’s perception of success is higher than men (Jackson, 1989). of success is higher than men (Jackson, 1989).

How do women fit into these changes in the career and How do women fit into these changes in the career and working world? Women now prefer a kaleidoscope working world? Women now prefer a kaleidoscope model of career that fits their concerns for authenticity, model of career that fits their concerns for authenticity, balance and challenge, vis-à-vis the demands of their balance and challenge, vis-à-vis the demands of their career in the new millennium (Mainiero & Sullivan, career in the new millennium (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005). They prefer self-crafted careers that suit their 2005). They prefer self-crafted careers that suit their objectives, needs and life-criteria, where they can blend objectives, needs and life-criteria, where they can blend and integrate rather than separate the work and non-work and integrate rather than separate the work and non-work facets of their lives. Today’s managerial and facets of their lives. Today’s managerial and professional women do not have a typical male-type professional women do not have a typical male-type linear career. She is prepared to settle for a satisfying linear career. She is prepared to settle for a satisfying career than one that maximises her capacity to reach the career than one that maximises her capacity to reach the top (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005). Hence, research should top (Mainiero & Sullivan, 2005). Hence, research should focus on finding the most valid predictors of job focus on finding the most valid predictors of job performance or success regardless of the job (Canger, performance or success regardless of the job (Canger, 2003). 2003).

Women’s career might not follow the same trend as men’s where Women’s career might not follow the same trend as men’s where in the middle and later career years, men experience stability, in the middle and later career years, men experience stability, maintenance and decline. Women, on the other hand, might find maintenance and decline. Women, on the other hand, might find renewed sense of purpose, energy and increased vitality for work renewed sense of purpose, energy and increased vitality for work pursuits in middle adulthood (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). pursuits in middle adulthood (O’Neil & Bilimoria, 2005). Between the ages of 24 and 35 years, women experience positive Between the ages of 24 and 35 years, women experience positive management. The trend in career is positive in this stage. In the management. The trend in career is positive in this stage. In the second stage, between the ages of 36 and 45 years, women are second stage, between the ages of 36 and 45 years, women are between middle and upper levels of management in many between middle and upper levels of management in many organizations. If their needs are not met at this stage, they can quit organizations. If their needs are not met at this stage, they can quit and this will result in continued under-representation of women in and this will result in continued under-representation of women in senior organizational levels. For women in management senior organizational levels. For women in management positions, the burdens placed upon them during this stage are positions, the burdens placed upon them during this stage are enormous, and it often happens at a time in their lives when they enormous, and it often happens at a time in their lives when they are trying to juggle the requirements of young families, ageing are trying to juggle the requirements of young families, ageing parents and developing their own careers (Cross & Linehan, parents and developing their own careers (Cross & Linehan, 2006). The career trend is negative in this stage. The third stage, 2006). The career trend is negative in this stage. The third stage, between ages 46 and 60, the career trend is positive again. between ages 46 and 60, the career trend is positive again. Success for these women is about recognition, respect and living Success for these women is about recognition, respect and living integrated lives (Wellington et al, 2003). integrated lives (Wellington et al, 2003).

The relationship between mentoring, networking and The relationship between mentoring, networking and career success has been noted in literature on career career success has been noted in literature on career success (O’Reilly, 2001; Higgins and Kram, 2001). success (O’Reilly, 2001; Higgins and Kram, 2001). Would these variables still be critical when determining Would these variables still be critical when determining success in the boundaryless career? In the pursuit of success in the boundaryless career? In the pursuit of boundaryless career success within the organizational boundaryless career success within the organizational setting, individuals still need the factors of information, setting, individuals still need the factors of information, support and relationship ties. In fact, extra-support and relationship ties. In fact, extra-organizational support which is one of the outcomes of organizational support which is one of the outcomes of boundaryless career is drawn from the individual’s peer boundaryless career is drawn from the individual’s peer group within the same occupational or industrial setting group within the same occupational or industrial setting (Arthur & Parker, 2002). Hence, these variables are also (Arthur & Parker, 2002). Hence, these variables are also related to boundaryless career success measures.related to boundaryless career success measures.

In the boundaryless career, too, some personality In the boundaryless career, too, some personality factors are pertinent to strive for goals in the factors are pertinent to strive for goals in the individual’s lives. Self-confidence (self-efficacy) individual’s lives. Self-confidence (self-efficacy) which is important for advancing careers in which is important for advancing careers in organizations could be an equally important organizations could be an equally important factor for success in the boundaryless career factor for success in the boundaryless career (Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Hall, 2002). To chart (Hollenbeck & Hall, 2004; Hall, 2002). To chart your own direction and to pursue goals which are your own direction and to pursue goals which are important to an individual, self-confidence is a important to an individual, self-confidence is a very effective tool.very effective tool.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVETHEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE

i)i) Contest-mobility perspectiveContest-mobility perspectiveii)ii) Sponsored-mobility perspective (Turner, 1960)Sponsored-mobility perspective (Turner, 1960)

PREDICTORS THAT HAVE BEEN FREQUENTLY USED:PREDICTORS THAT HAVE BEEN FREQUENTLY USED: Human capital (Wayne, 1999; Kirchmeyer, 2002)Human capital (Wayne, 1999; Kirchmeyer, 2002) Organizational sponsorship (Dreher & Ash, 1990)Organizational sponsorship (Dreher & Ash, 1990) Socio-demographic predictors (gender, race, Socio-demographic predictors (gender, race,

marital status & age) (Powell & Butterfield, 2003; marital status & age) (Powell & Butterfield, 2003; Simpson et al, 2004)Simpson et al, 2004)

Stable individual differences (Seibert et al, 2001; Stable individual differences (Seibert et al, 2001; Eby et al, 2003)Eby et al, 2003)

ISSUES TO BE LOOKED ATISSUES TO BE LOOKED AT

Salary, promotion & career satisfaction Salary, promotion & career satisfaction represent conceptually distinct aspects of represent conceptually distinct aspects of career success (Judge et al, 1995; Poole et al, career success (Judge et al, 1995; Poole et al, 1993; Jaskolka et al, 1985)—need to isolate 1993; Jaskolka et al, 1985)—need to isolate key variables that predict a particular aspect of key variables that predict a particular aspect of career success.career success.

In sponsored-mobility perspective, need to In sponsored-mobility perspective, need to look at person-organization fit.look at person-organization fit.

ContinuedContinued……

Boundaryless career—to examine the Boundaryless career—to examine the presence of strong external networks presence of strong external networks (Eby et al, 2003; Arthur & Rousseau, (Eby et al, 2003; Arthur & Rousseau, 1996)1996)

Specific conditions where men and Specific conditions where men and women may have advantage over one women may have advantage over one another (Ragins et al, 1998; Ng et al, another (Ragins et al, 1998; Ng et al, 2005)2005)