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ES-344 Teaching of EnglishINDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY (IGNOU)SUBJECT : B.EDContent Based et!odo"o#$ Co%&ses

Block-1 Instructional Planning in Teaching of English

UNIT 1 NATURE, NEED AND OBJECTIVES

St&%'t%&e. Int&od%'ton.* O+,e't-es. T!e Stat%s and Nat%&e o/ En#"s! Lan#%a#e Tea'!n# n Inda.. T!e Stat%s o/ En#"s! 0t!n t!e 1o&2a" Inst&%'ton S$ste2

.3 T!e Needs and O+,e't-es o/ Tea'!n# En#"s!.3. 4!$ do 0e Tea'! En#"s!5.3.* Ho0 do 0e Tea'! En#"s!5.6 Let Us S%2 U7.8 9e$0o&ds. Ans0e&s to C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&ess.< S%##ested Readn#s

. INTRODUCTIONT!e nat%&e o/ tea'!n#="ea&nn# o/ an$ "an#%a#e n t!e 0o&"d 0"" a"0a$s &e2andee7"$ 'onne'ted to t!e need>2ot-atons o/ t!e "ea&ne&s to a'?%&e t!at "an#%a#e. 1o&e@a27"e) A Ben#a" '!"d n H$de&a+ad s ";e"$ to 7'; %7 Te"e#% +e'a%se t!at s t!e"an#%a#e s7o;en +$ !s 7ee&s. T!e '!"ds need to 'o22%n'ate 0t! !s 7ee&s2ot-ates !2 to "ea&n t!e "an#%a#e.) A '!"d 0!o !as Hnd as !e& 2ot!e& ton#%e (T) 2a$ "ea&n En#"s! +e'a%se t s a'o27%"so&$ 7a&t o/ !e& s'!oo" '%&&'%"%2.) A st&eet -endo& se""n# !and'&a/ts on t!e 7a-e2ent 2a$ 7'; %7 eno%#! En#"s!to +e a+"e to se"" !s 0a&es to /o&e#n to%&sts.In t!s %nt 0e 0"" atte27t to e@a2ne t!e "n; +et0een t!e needs>2ot-atons o/"ea&nn# En#"s! n o%& 'o%nt&$ and ts n/"%en'e on t!e o+,e't-es and nat%&e o/

En#"s! "an#%a#e tea'!n# n Inda n /o&2a" settn#s s%'! as s'!oo"s 'o""e#es andot!e& En#"s! "an#%a#e tea'!n# nstt%tes.Lan#%a#e s a 2eans o/ ds'o-e&$: ds'o-e&$ o/ t!e se"/ and o/ t!e 0o&"d. T!e !%2an%e to s!a&e 0t! ot!e&s o& e@7&ess ones t!o%#!ts and des&es d&-es t!e "ea&nn# o/ a"an#%a#e.Ta";n# a+o%t t!e /%n'tons o/ "an#%a#e 1. Ne02e$e& (

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As "an#%a#e tea'!e&s t s 27o&tant /o& %s to &e2e2+e& t!e nat%&a" /%n'tons o/"an#%a#e. In o&de& to "et t!s /%n'tona"t$ &e2an nta't n /o&2a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn#st%atons o77o&t%ntes to 'o22%n'ate o& %se t!e "an#%a#e 2%st /o&2 de 'o&e o/an$ "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7&o#&a22e. It s t!%s t!at tea'!n# o/ En#"s! n Inda s

+e'o2n# n'&easn#"$ s;"" +ased n ts atte27ts to 2a;e t!e "ea&ne& a'?%&e t!e /o%&

"an#%a#e s;""s (s7ea;n# &eadn# "stenn# and 0&tn#) to ena+"e t!e "ea&ne& to+e'o2e an e//e't-e and a%tono2o%s 'o22%n'ato&..* OBJECTIVEST!s %nt 0"" ena+"e $o% to:assess t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! "an#%a#e +ot! 0t!n t!e /o&2a" ed%'atona" set %7 (n$o%& state>'t$) as 0e"" as o%tsde t!e '"ass&oo2%nde&stand t!e nte&=&e"atons!7 +et0een t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! 0t!n t!e '"ass&oo2and t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! o%tsde t!e '"ass&oo2#et so2e ns#!t nto t!e &o"e o/ t!e tea'!e& n tea'!n# En#"s! n "ea&nn# st%atons0!e&e a''ess to t!e "an#%a#e s -e&$ "2ted.

. THE STATUS AND NATURE O1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHINGINTNDIAA''o&dn# to t!e 'onstt%ton o/ Inda En#"s! s a se'ond "an#%a#e. B%t 0!at s t n/a't5A't-t$ AT!n; a+o%t !o0 En#"s! s %sed n $o%& state. Does t !a-e t!e stat%s o/ a se'ond"an#%a#e o& a /o&e#n "an#%a#e5Ed%'ato&s de/ne a /o&e#n "an#%a#e as one 0!'! s st%ded /o& t!e ns#!t t a//o&dsnto t!e "/e o/ anot!e& naton and a se'ond "an#%a#e as one 0!'! s st%ded /o&2o&e %t"ta&an 7%&7oses +e'a%se o/ ts d&e't -a"%e to t!e s7ea;e& o& 0&te& as a'ten o/ !s o0n 'o%nt&$. T!s s +$ no 2eans an a+so"%te dstn'ton (P&de **=*)To ans0e& t!e a+o-e ?%eston $o% s!o%"d t!n; a+o%t t!e 7%&7oses /o& 0!'! $o% andt!e 7eo7"e $o% ;no0 %se En#"s!.. 4!at "an#%a#e s 2ost 'o22on"$ %sed n o//'es5*. 4!at 7e&'enta#e o/ 7eo7"e (a77&o@2ate"$) &ead ne0s7a7e&s (a) n En#"s!and (+) n t!e &e#ona" "an#%a#e>T (ot!e& ton#%e)5. 4!'! "an#%a#e do 7eo7"e #ene&a""$ %se n &esta%&ants at &a"0a$ +oo;n#'o%nte&s 0!en s!o77n# et'.53. 4!en 7eo7"e 2eet 7eo7"e /&o2 ot!e& states do t!e$ %se En#"s!>Hnd>so2e ot!e&"an#%a#e5

6. 4!at s t!e "an#%a#e $o% /nd %sed 2ost o/ten n ad-e&tse2ents and !oa&dn#s n(a) to0ns and (+) n 'tes58. 4!at a&e so2e o/ t!e 2ost 7o7%"a& T.V. 7&o#&a22es5 4!'! "an#%a#e(s) a&e t!e$n5Has t!e Ca+"e T.V. +e'o2e 7o7%"a& a2on# 7eo7"e5 I/ $es 0!at a&e t!e 2ost 7o7%"a&'!anne"s5 I/ 7eo7"e 0at'! 7&o#&a22es n En#"s! do t!e$ !a-e an$ d//'%"t$ n%nde&standn# t!e "an#%a#e5. To 0!at e@tent does t!e 2an n t!e st&eet %se and %nde&stand En#"s!5 1o& e@a27"e/ $o% as;ed an a%to &';s!a0 d&-e& o& a s!o7;ee7e& n $o%& to0n a ?%eston nEn#"s! 0o%"d !e +e a+"e to %nde&stand t eas"$>0t! d//'%"t$>not at a""5 4o%"d !e

+e a+"e to ans0e& n En#"s!5 Gene&a""$>o''asona""$>not at a""5

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Ans0e&s to t!ese ?%estons 0"" !e"7 $o% to +%"d %7 a 7't%&e o/ 0!at t!e stat%s o/En#"s! s n $o%& state ts 27o&tan'e and no&2a""$ t!en t!e e@tent to 0!'! tsde-e"o72ent s 7oss+"e.T!e ?%eston o/ t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! n Inda s 27o&tant / $o% 0ant to t!n; a+o%t$o%& tea'!n# st%atons e//e't-e"$ +e'a%se $o%& "an#%a#e tea'!n# st%aton 'annot

+e se7a&ated /&o2 t!e "an#%a#e "ea&nn# en-&on2ent o%tsde t!e '"ass&oo2. 4e needto 'onsde& t!e "an#%a#e en-&on2ent / 0e a&e des&o%s o/ 2a;n# a '!an#e n t!e'"ass&oo2.Ds'%sson. Be &ea"st' a+o%t t!e #ene&a" En#"s! "ea&nn# en-&on2ent /a'ed +$ $o%& "ea&ne&sand t!en $o% 0"" /nd $o%& tea'!n# o/ En#"s! 0"" +e 2%'! 2o&e e//e't-e. Yo%s!o%"d t!n; o/ %sn# a"" $o%& &eso%&'es and s%77"e2entn# t!ese &eso%&'es /ne'essa&$.1o& e@a27"e $o% 2a$ 2a;e e//e't-e %se o/ ne0s7a7e& '"77n#s 2a#anead-e&tse2ents o//'a" /o&2s (&a" &ese&-aton /o&2 2one$ o&de& /o&2 and te"e#&a2/o&2) and +""+oa&d 2essa#es to 2ot-ate t!e "ea&ne&s to %se En#"s! n a%t!ent'>&ea"

"/e st%atons.T!e nat%&e o/ En#"s! "an#%a#e tea'!n# n Inda s an o%t'o2e o/ t!e stat%s o/En#"s! 0t!n t!e /o&2a" "ea&nn# '%&&'%"%2 as 0e"" as ts 7&esen'e n t!e &ea" 0o&"do%tsde. T!o%#! En#"s! does not !a-e a %n/o&2 stat%s n -a&o%s 7a&ts o/ o%&'o%nt&$ t!e /o""o0n# a&e so2e o/ t!e 'o22on &o"es o& /%n'tona" 'a7a'tes n0!'! En#"s! s 7&esent n Inda:En#"s! s t!e asso'ate o//'a" "an#%a#e n o%& 'o%nt&$. It s ta%#!t as a 7a&t o/ s'!oo"'%&&'%"%2 /o& 8 to * $ea&s et!e& as a s%+,e't o& +ot! as a s%+,e't and a 2ed%2 o/nst&%'ton.In 'onte@t o/ a #"o+a" so'et$ and es7e'a""$ sn'e t!e o7enn# o/ t!e Indan 2a&;etsto /o&e#n n-est2ent 'o27eten'e n t!e %se o/ En#"s! !as +e'o2e t!e 7ass7o&t noton"$ to !#!e& ed%'atona" o77o&t%ntes +%t a"so to +ette& e'ono2' #ans. As a "+&a&$"an#%a#e t 0e"ds 'onsde&a+"e 7&esen'e n t!e a&ena o/ !#!e& ed%'aton. It s t!%st!at n s'!oo" t!e e27!ass !as s!/ted /&o2 "ea&nn# t!e 'ontent o/ t!e En#"s!"essons to t&$n# to a'?%&e t!e "an#%a#e s;""s 0!'! 0"" ena+"e t!e "ea&ne&s to %set!e "an#%a#e.

.. T!e Stat%s o/ En#"s! 0t!n t!e 1o&2a" Inst&%'ton S$ste2In A't-t$ A $o% e@a2ned t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! n $o%& state no0 "et %s e@a2net!e stat%s o/ En#"s! "an#%a#e 0!'! s set 0t!n a /o&2a" nst&%'ton s$ste2.

Ho0e-e& +e/o&e e@a2nn# a /o&2a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn# st%aton "et %s atte27t to"oo; at an n/o&2a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn# st%aton. An n/o&2a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn#st%aton s one 0!en "an#%a#e s not ta%#!t o& "ea&nt /o& #&a22a& +%t /o&'o22%n'aton. 1o& e@a27"e a $o%n# '!"d "ea&ns to %se "an#%a#e /%n'tona""$ .e.to #et t!n#s done o& to e@7&ess !2se"/>!e&se"/. T!s e@7&esson 'o%"d +e t&ansa'tona"o& se"/=e@7&ess-e n nat%&e. T!&o%#! 7"a$ and '!at 0!'! 'onstt%te eas$s7ontaneo%s %se o/ "an#%a#e t!e '!"d de-e"o7s "an#%a#e s;""s. T!%s +$ %sn#"an#%a#e t!e '!"d de-e"o7s "an#%a#e s;""s .e. !e>s!e "ea&ns to s7ea; &ead "stenand 0&te e//e't-e"$ and nde7endent"$.T!e /o&2a" nst&%'tona" s$ste2 s !o0e-e& -e&$ d//e&ent. He&e 0e a&e &e/e&&n# tooaned "ea&nn# on a "ae s'a"e 0t! t!e nst&%'tona" s$ste2 7&o-dn#

'e&t/'aton at t!e end o/ a "ea&nn# 7&o#&a22e.

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4e 2%st e@a2ne 'a&e/%""$ t!e d//e&en'es n t!e tea'!n# and "ea&nn# o/ "an#%a#esn /o&2a" and n/o&2a" st%atons. Ea&"$ "an#%a#e "ea&nn# n-o"-es "ea&nn# o/ t!eT (2ot!e& ton#%e) o& LI (/&st "an#%a#e). Lea&nn# En#"s! /o& 2ost Indans s"ea&nn# a se'ond "an#%a#e (L*)

In/o&2a" Lan#%a#e Lea&nn# 1o&2a" Lan#%a#e Lea&nn#. Lan#%a#e ta%#!t TL L* L et'. /&o2 '"ass I (En#"s! 2ed%2)*. A#e 1&o2 +&t! on0a&ds n n/o&2a" st%atons o/ "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 1&o2 '"assIII IV VVI (-e&na'%"a& "an#%a#e 2ed%2). Use o/ Lan#%a#e 1%n'tona" o&e /o&2a" "an#%a#e des'&7tons /o&2a"#&a22a& "ea&nt3. T&eat2ent o/ e&&o&s Pa&ents &e7eat en'o%&a#e and 'o&&e'tTea'!e& 2a$ 'o22ent/o'%s on e&&o&s o& so2et2es &e7&2and6. E@7os%&e O&a" P&edo2nant"$ n t!e 0&tten /o&2

Ho0e-e& t!ese '!a&a'te&st's o/ /o&2a" and n/o&2a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn# st%atons

s!o%"d not +e seen as e@'"%s-e to ea'! ot!e&. ode&n "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7eda#o#$ n/a't atte27ts to oane se'ond "an#%a#e "ea&nn# st%atons as '"ose"$ as 7oss+"e tots "an#%a#e a'?%ston so t!at t!e se'ond "an#%a#e s "ea&nt as nat%&a""$ as 7oss+"eand ena+"es t!e "ea&ne& to +e'o2e an nde7endent %se& o/ t.A't-t$ B4!at s t!e stat%s o/ En#"s! n $o%& state n t!e /o&2a" "an#%a#e st%atons5 Ans0e&so2e o/ t!e ?%estons +e"o0 and see / $o% 'an #et a 7't%&e.a) 4!at s t!e 7ass 2a&; n $o%& s'!oo">'o""e#e5 Is En#"s! 2ed%2 'o27%"so&$at 'o""e#e5

+) A&e ot!e& s%+,e'ts ta%#!t n En#"s!5 I/ not n 0!'! '"ass does En#"s!nst&%'ton +e#n5') 4!at does t!e "an#%a#e e@a2 test 'o27eten'e o/ "an#%a#e s;""s (&eadn#S7ea;n# 0&tn# "stenn#) o& 'ontent o/ t!e "an#%a#e te@t (I/ so n 0!at

7e&'enta#e)5d) 4!at do $o% tea'! 0!"e tea'!n# a "an#%a#e sa$ En#"s!5 G&a22a& o& t!e%se o/ "an#%a#e +$ so2et!n# e"se5e) Do $o% "et $o%& st%dents 2a;e e&&o&s5 Ho0 do $o% dea" 0t! t!e& e&&o&s5/) 4!at 7e&'enta#e o/ $o%& "ea&ne&s s!o0s nte&est n %sn# En#"s!0t!n>o%tsde t!e '"ass&oo25#) 4!at 7e&'enta#e o/ st%dents n $o%& '"ass !a-e a''ess to En#"s! n t!e s7ee'!

'o22%ntes o/ t!e& !o2e5Ds'%ssonAns0e& t!ese ?%estons one +$ one. T!ese ans0e&s 0"" #-e $o% a 7't%&e a+o%t t!eneeds and o+,e't-es o/ tea'!n# En#"s! 0t!n $o%& '"ass&oo2. I/ $o% #ea& $o%&tea'!n# to t!e a't%a" needs o/ $o%& "ea&ne&s t!e$ 0o%"d +e /a& 2o&e 2ot-ated to"ea&n t!e "an#%a#e. A need assess2ent o/ $o%& "ea&ne&s 2a$ +e %nde&ta;en +$ /ndn#o%t 0!e&e and 0!en $o%& "ea&ne&s %se>0o%"d ";e to %se En#"s!.%estonna&e I #-en at t!e end o/ t!s %nt 'an !e"7 $o% %nde&ta;e t!s a't-t$. T!s;nd o/ assess2ent 0"" not on"$ !e"7 $o% %t"e a"" 7oss+"e &eso%&'es to /a'"tate"an#%a#e "ea&nn# +%t a"so ena+"e $o% to 7t'! $o%& '"ass&oo2 a't-tes at t!ea77&o7&ate "e-e" ;ee7n# n 2nd t!e En#"s! "an#%a#e 'o27eten'e o/ $o%& "ea&ne&s

and t!e &o"e t!at t 7"a$s n t!e& "-es.

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It !as +een -e&$ o/ten seen t!at #&a22a& tea'!n# o& e-en ;no0n# #&a22a& &%"esneed not "ead to 'o&&e't "an#%a#e %se. T!s s so +e'a%se an a-e&a#e Indan "ea&ne&does not #et eno%#! e@7os%&e to En#"s! to nte&na"e ts &%"es as a nat-e s7ea;e&0o%"d.

In t!s ;nd o/ "an#%a#e "ea&nn# en-&on2ent 0!e&e e@7os%&e to t!e taet "an#%a#es -e&$ "2ted (A'?%ston=7oo& en-&on2ent) t!e "an#%a#e '"ass needs to 7&o-deo77o&t%ntes to t!e "ea&ne&s to %se>e@7e&2ent 0t! t!e "an#%a#e. T!e "ea&ne&s s!o%"dnot +e s7oon=/ed ans0e&s to e@e&'ses at t!e end o/ ea'! "esson. T!e$ s!o%"d +ea""o0ed to st&%##"e to e@7&ess t!e2se"-es so t!at t!e$ "ea&n to %se t!e "an#%a#e. T!e$s!o%"d +e en'o%&a#ed to s7ea; to ea'! ot!e& and t!e tea'!e& n En#"s! so t!at t!esense o/ !estaton and an@et$ t!at t!e$ /ee" n %sn# t!e "an#%a#e #&ad%a""$dsa77ea&s. Ea'! and e-e&$ e&&o& o/ t!e "ea&ne& need not +e 'o&&e'ted. T!e !a+t o/

7ee& o& se"/='o&&e'ton s!o%"d +e n'%"'ated so t!at t!e "ea&ne&s 'an 2onto& and !e"7ea'! ot!e& 'o&&e't t!e& %se o/ En#"s!.

C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&ess

Notes: a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.. Does t!e "an#%a#e tea'!e& need to assess t!e need(s) o/ t!e "an#%a#e "ea&ne&s to"ea&n t!e "an#%a#e5 G-e &easons /o& $o%& ans0e&..3 THE NEEDS AND OBJECTIVES O1 TEACHINGENGLISHIn a -ast and !ete&o#eneo%s so'et$ ";e o%&s t!e needs o/ t!e "ea&ne&s /o& "ea&nn#En#"s! 0"" not +e %n/o&2.As tea'!e&s 0e s!o%"d +e a+"e to dent/$ t!e &e?%&e2ents o/ -a&o%s #&o%7s o/st%dents e"ated to t!e En#"s! "an#%a#e 7&e'se"$ and t&$ to 7&o-de /o& ea'! s%'!#&o%7 t!e 7atte&n o/ 'o%&ses 0!'! 0"" +e &e"e-ant to t!e needs o/ t!e "ea&ne&s(Ve&2a 3 !e& !o2e and 22edate ne#!+o&!ood es7e'a""$ 7ee&o%7.1o& e@a27"e /o& a $o%n# '!"d n an %&+an ed%'ated %77e& 2dd"e '"ass !o2e t!e

7&e/e&&ed "an#%a#e o/ 'o22%n'aton at !o2e 0t! 7a&ents and s+"n#s 2a$ +eEn#"s!. In t!s en-&on2ent t!e '!an'es t!at t!e '!"d a'?%&es /"%ent 'o22and o-e&En#"s! a&e /a& !#!e& +e'a%se t!e "ea&nn# o/ En#"s! s not &est&'ted to t!e'"ass&oo2>s'!oo". O77o&t%ntes /o& -e0n# -a&o%s TV 7&o#&a2s and 2o-es nEn#"s! a&e a"so a 7a&t o/ a'?%ston=&'! en-&on2ents.

T!s !o0e-e& s an e@'e7ton and not t!e no&2a" st%aton n t!e 'onte@t o/ En#"s!"an#%a#e "ea&nn# n Inda.

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A'?%ston=7oo& en-&on2ents a&e t!ose "an#%a#e "ea&nn# en-&on2ents 0!e&ee@7os%&e to +e taet "an#%a#e (!e&e En#"s!) s "2ted to t!e '"ass&oo2 and t!e"an#%a#e s a+sent n t!e s7ee'! 'o22%nt$ o/ t!e "ea&ne&s !o2e o& !s 22edatene#!+o&!ood es7e'a""$ 7ee& #&o%7. In s%'! an en-&on2ent o77o&t%ntes o/ "ea&nn#t!e "an#%a#e a&e se-e&e"$ "2ted and o''%& on"$ n t!e /o&2a" ed%'atona" settn#. 1o&

e@a27"e /o& a '!"d /&o2 a "o0e& 2dd"e '"ass +a';#&o%nd n o%& 'o%nt&$ e@7os%&e toEn#"s! s &est&'ted to t!e En#"s! te@t+oo;. T!s 2a;es t!e "ea&nn# o/ t!e "an#%a#e/a& 2o&e d//'%"t. a,o&t$ o/ En#"s! "ea&nn# st%atons n Inda a&e o/ t!s ;nd. Int!ese st%atons t!e tea'!e& needs to +e es7e'a""$ senst-e to t!e 2ot-aton>need o/t!e "ea&ne&s /o& "ea&nn# t!e "an#%a#e so t!at !e>s!e 2a$ ada7t t!e 2ate&a"s andoane t!e "ea&nn# en-&on2ent to /%"/"" t!e "ea&ne&s needs.To 'te an e@a27"e /o& a "ea&ne& en&o""ed n an En#"s! "an#%a#e 7&o#&a2 at t!e%n-e&st$ 2ot-aton /o& "ea&nn# En#"s! 0"" +e 2%'! !#!e& / t!e 'o%&se'on'ent&ates on t!e tea'!n# st%d$ s;""s &eadn# 'o27&e!enson te'!n?%es note=2a;n# 0&tn# te&2=7a7e&s et'. +e'a%se t!ese a&e t!e s;""s t!at a %n-e&st$#&ad%ate &e?%&es.

In a 'o%nt&$ ";e o%&s 0!e&e t!e "ea&ne&s d//e& 'onsde&a+"$ 0t! &e/e&en'e to t!e&needs /o& "ea&nn# En#"s! as 0e"" as t!e& 'o27eten'e n t!e "an#%a#e an o2n+%s(.e. +&oad=+ased n'"%s-e) '%&&'%"%2 'annot +e &e"e-ant. T!e&e s a need not on"$ tode-e"o7 d//e&ent En#"s! "ea&nn# 2od%"es ;ee7n# n 2nd t!e -ast -a&et$ o/ "ea&ne&needs +%t a"so to t&an t!e "an#%a#e tea'!e& to ada7t t!e #-en 2ate&a". T!e tea'!e&s!o%"d a"so atte27t to %se t!e so'o='%"t%&a" )"e% o/ t!e "ea&ne& as a sto&e!o%se o/2ate&a"s and %t"et o7t2a""$ /o& "an#%a#e "ea&nn#. 1o& e@a27"eto 7&a't'e ad,e't-es t!e tea'!e& 2a$ as; t!e "ea&ne&s to #at!e& /a2"a& o+,e'tsa&o%nd t!e& !o%ses +&n# t!e2 to '"ass and des'&+e t!e2.Lea&ne&s 2a$ +e ta%#!t !o0 to #-e d&e'ton +$ d&a0n# %7 a 2a7 /&o2 s'!oo" tot!e& !o2es and te""n# t!e& 7ee&s !o0 to #et t!e&e.1a2"a& and s27"e 'oo;n# &e'7es 2a$ +e %t"ed to de-e"o7 t!e s;"" o/ #-n#nst&%'tons.

Nat%&e Need and O+,e't-esInst&%'tona" P"annn# n Tea'!n# o/ En#"s!.3. 4!$ do 0e Tea'! En#"s!5

A't-t$ C: Let %s e@a2ne o%& tea'!n# 7&o&tes.. Do 0e tea'! En#"s! so t!at st%dents 'an 7ass e@a2natons +ased %7on t!e'ontent o/ t!e te@t+oo;(s)5*. Do 0e -e0 En#"s! as a 2ed%2 /o& 2aste&n# "an#%a#e s;""s5Ds'%ssonIn 'ase $o% sa$ t!at $o%& o+,e't-e s () $o% a&e add&essn# on"$ s!o&t=te&2 #oa"s andt!e&e/o&e +en# %n/a& to t!e "ea&ne&s. T!o%#! t!e 22edate need o/ 7assn# t!ee@a2s s +en# /%"/""ed t!e "ea&ne& s not +en# t&aned to +e'o2e an a%tono2o%s%se& o/ "an#%a#e.O+,e't-e (*) !e"7s t!e "ea&ne&s a'?%&e t!e s;""s o/ t!e "an#%a#e and an$ 2eann#/%""an#%a#e 7&o#&a2 2%st 7&e7a&e t!e "ea&ne&s to %se t!e "an#%a#e as a 2ed%2 /o&

'o22%n'aton and not as a 'ontent +ased s%+,e't. A"so /%"/"2ent o/ o+,e't-e (*)

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a%to2at'a""$ ens%&es s%''ess at o+,e't-e () .e. / t!e "ea&ne&s de-e"o7 "an#%a#es;""s t!e$ a&e s%&e to s%''eed n t!e e@a2natons.In o%& 'o%nt&$ too 0e 'an see a s!/t /&o2 'ontent=+ased tea'!n# to s;""=+asedtea'!n# n s'!oo"s 0!e&e nte&a't-e "ea&nn# 2ate&a"s a&e n %se. T!ese 2ate&a"s/o'%s on de-e"o7n# -a&o%s "an#%a#e s;""s n En#"s!. Ho0e-e& t!ese e//o&ts need to

+e ste77ed=%7. T!e$ s!o%"d a"so +e e@tended to "o0e& "e-e" .e. t!e e"e2enta&$ andt!e 7&2a&$..3.* Ho0 do 0e Tea'! En#"s!5Lan#%a#e s;""s 'an +e de-e"o7ed n t!e "ea&ne&s +$ 7&o-dn# t!e2 o77o&t%ntes /o&a't-e"$ 7&o'essn# and %sn# t!e "an#%a#e on t!e& o0n. T!e /o'%s 2%st +e on t!e"ea&ne& =!o0 o/ten and !o0 0e"" !e>s!e 'an %se En#"s!. T!e tea'!e& needs to/%n'ton as an oane& and a /a'"tato& n t!e '"ass&oo2 and 7&o-de t!e "ea&ne&so77o&t%ntes /o& "an#%a#e %se. 1o& e@a27"e:) 1o& a #&o%7 o/ 2ot!e& ton#%e 2ed%2 +e#nne& "e-e" "ea&ne&s t!e tea'!e& 2a$ 7onto%t and na2e n En#"s! t!e -a&o%s o+,e'ts n t!e en-&on2ent. S!e 2a$ "ate& as; t!e"ea&ne&s to na2e a /e0 o+,e'ts n En#"s!.

) T!e tea'!e& 2a$ de2onst&ate !o0 to #&eet ot!e&s and nt&od%'e onese"/ and as;ea'! o/ t!e "ea&ne&s to do t!s one +$ one. In t!s 0a$ t!e tea'!e& 'an !e"7 t!e "ea&ne&sde-e"o7 o&a" s;""s n an a%t!ent' 'o22%n'at-e 'onte@t.

C!e'; $o%& 7&o#&essNotes : a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.*. 4!at s t!e "n; +et0een need /o& "ea&nn# a "an#%a#e and ts tea'!n# o+,e't-es5E@7"an 0t! an e@a27"e.

.6 LET US SU UP

T!e nat%&e o/ En#"s! "an#%a#e tea'!n# n Inda s an o%t'o2e o/ t!e stat%s o/En#"s! 0t!n t!e /o&2a" "ea&nn# '%&&'%"%2 as 0e"" as ts 7&esen'e and &o"e n t!e&ea" 0o&"d o%tsde. T!e /o""o0n# a&e so2e o/ t!e 'o22on /%n'tona" 'a7a'tes n

0!'! En#"s! s 7&esent n Inda:As an asso'ate o//'a" "an#%a#eAs a "+&a&$ "an#%a#eAs a 7ass7o&t to !#!e& ed%'atona" o77o&t%ntes and +ette& e'ono2' #ans

and Nat%&e Need and O+,e't-esAs a 7a&t o/ t!e s'!oo" '%&&'%"%2 /o& 8 to * $ea&s.

Lan#%a#e tea'!n# 7&o#&a22es 2%st +e o&ented to0a&ds 'ate&n# to t!e needs o/ t!e"ea&ne&s so t!at n an a'?%ston=7oo& en-&on2ent t!e "ea&nn# o/ En#"s! s/a'"tated +$ t!e nt&ns' 2ot-aton and nte&est o/ t!e "ea&ne&s. An$ "an#%a#e

7&o#&a22e 2%st a2 at 2a;n# t!e "ea&ne& an a%tono2o%s and e//'ent %se& o/ t!e"an#%a#e. T!e tea'!e& 'an /a'"tate t!s 7&o'ess +$ 7&o-dn# o77o&t%ntes /o& a't-e

"an#%a#e=%se to t!e "ea&ne&s..8 9EY 4ORDS

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/o&e#n "an#%a#e : a /o&e#n "an#%a#e s one 0!'! s st%ded /o& t!e ns#!tt a//o&ds nto t!e "/e o/ anot!e& naton (P&de ).se'ond "an#%a#e : a se'ond "an#%a#e s a "an#%a#e ot!e& t!an ones /&st"an#%a#e. It s "ea&nt /o& %t"ta&an &easons +e'a%se o/ ts d&e't -a"%e to t!e s7ea;e& o&0&te& as a 'ten o/ !s o0n 'o%nt&$ (P&de ).

a'?%ston=7oo& en-&on2ent : a "an#%a#e "ea&nn# en-&on2ent 0!e&e a''ess tot!e"an#%a#e s &est&'ted to t!e '"ass&oo2 t!%s 2a;n# a'?%ston o/ a s7e'/' "an#%a#ed//'%"t.a'?%ston=&'! en-&on2ent : a "an#%a#e "ea&nn# en-&on2ent 0!e&e +esdes/o&2a""an#%a#e "ea&nn# n t!e '"ass&oo2 t!e "ea&ne& !as a''ess to t!e taet "an#%a#e n t!es7ee'! 'o22%nt$ o/ !s !o2e 2a;n# a'?%ston ease&..'ontent=+ased tea'!n# : a "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7&o#&a22e 0!e&e t!e "ea&ne&sa&eta%#!t and e@a2ned on t!e 'ontent o/ t!e te@t+oo;(s).

s;""=+ased tea'!n# : a "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7&o#&a22e 0!e&e t!e "ea&ne&s a&e#-en o77o&t%nt$ to de-e"o7 t!e& "an#%a#e s;""s (&eadn# 0&tn# s7ea;n# and"stenn#) and e@a2ned n te&2s o/ t!e& 'o27eten'e n t!ese s;""s.. ANS4ERS TO CHEC9 YOUR PROGRESS. T!e "an#%a#e tea'!e& not on"$ needs to assess t!e need o/ t!e "an#%a#e"ea&ne&s to "ea&n t!e "an#%a#e +%t a"so needs to e-a"%ate t!e& e@stn# 'o27eten'e nt!e taet "an#%a#e n o&de& to +e a+"e to oane t!e "an#%a#e "ea&nn# a't-tes and2ate&a"s to /%"/" t!ese needs. I/ t!ese needs a&e 'ate&ed to t!e "ea&ne&s 0"" +ee@t&e2e"$ 2ot-ated to "ea&n t!e "an#%a#e.*. T!e o+,e't-es o/ a "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7&o#&a22e s!o%"d e2ee o%t o/ t!eneed(s) to "ea&n t!at "an#%a#e. 1o& e@a27"e a seno& se'onda&$ "ea&ne& /&o2 a-e&na'%"a& 2ed%2 s'!oo" 0!o 7"ans to en&o"" n an En#"s! 2ed%2 +a'!e"o&sde#&ee 7&o#&a22e n Co22e&'e 0"" need to +e /a2"a& 0t! t!e En#"s! te&2s %sedn Co22e&'e. He>s!e 0"" a"so need to +e t&aned to a'?%&e st%d$ s;""s ";e note=2a;n# &eadn# 'o27&e!enson te'!n?%es et'.I/ a "ea&ne& needs to "ea&n En#"s! on"$ +e'a%se t s a 'o27%"so&$ 7a&t o/ t!e s'!oo"'%&&'%"%2 and / t!e e-a"%aton 7atte&n n a s'!oo" 'on'ent&ates 7&2a&"$ on 0&tn#and &eadn# t!e tea'!n# o/ t!ese s;""s 0"" #an 27o&tan'e o-e& t!e ot!e& t0o(es7e'a""$ s7ea;n#). So t!e "ea&ne& 2a$ not 2a;e s%staned e//o&t to s7ea; t!e"an#%a#e.

%estonna&es = NAE:AGE:CLASS:ADDRESS:OTHERS PRO1ESSION:1ATHERS PRO1ESSION:

In-t&n'tn%t" P"annn# n Tea'!n# o/ En#"s!

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A. 4!en do $o% %se En#"s!5T'; 2a&; n t!e a77&o7&ate 'o"%2n. n t!e C"ass&oo2: an$ T2es So2et2es Ne-e&a) 4!en ta";n# to /&ends

+) 4!en ta";n# to t!e tea'!e&') D%&n# t!e En#"s! 7e&od

*. At Ho2e :a) 4!en ta";n# to $o%& +&ot!e& o& sste&

+) 4!en ta";n# to /&ends') 4!en ta";n# to #%estsd) 4!en ta";n# to $o%& 2ot!e&e) 4!en ta";n# to $o%& "at!e&/) 4!en ta";n# to ne#!+o&s =. 4!en ta";n# to t!e s!o7;ee7e&3. 4!en as;n# /o& n/o&2aton at t!e Ban; o& Post O//'e et'.B. Can $o% &ead s7ea; o& 0&te an$ ot!e& "an#%a#e +esdes Hnd and En#"s!5

Ans0e&:C. 4!'! "an#%a#e do $o% %se t!e 2ost5) At !o2e) In s'!oo") 4t! /&endsD. 4!'! +oo;s and 2a#anes do $o% &ead5) In Hnd ) In En#"s!E. 4!'! ne0s7a7e&(s) do $o% &ead5

T'; 2a&; n t!e a77&o7&ate 'o"%2nE-e&$da$ So2et2es 4ee; ends

1. 4!'! T.V. 7&o#&a22es do $o% 0at'!5 ) In Hnd) In En#"s!.< SUGGESTED READINGS

Nat%&e Need and O+,e't-es

Nad;a&n .V. (

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UNIT 2: WHO ARE THE LEARNERS OF LANGUAGE?

St&%'t%&e*. Int&od%'ton*.* O+,e't-es*. T!e Cent&a" Ro"e o/ Lan#%a#e n H%2an So'et$*.. So'a"aton: T!e Lea&nn# o/ Lan#%a#e and C%"t%&e*.3 D//e&ent Conte@ts and Settn#s /o& H%2an Lea&nn#*.3. T!e Ve&sat"t$ o/ t!e H%2an Lea&ne& : T!e C&%'a" Ro"e o/ Lea&nn# nDe-e"o72ent*.3.* T!e Lea&ne&s Ro"e n Lea&nn# : Pe&sona" +%t not 1@ed C!a&a'te&st's*.6 D//e&ent T$7es o/ Lea&ne&s*.6. T!e E//e't o/ Lea&nn# Conte@ts on Lea&ne&s*.6.* Pe&sona" %a"tes o/ Lea&ne&sLea&ne& 1a'to&s n Se'ond Lan#%a#e A'?%ston*.8. A#e

*.8.* Se@*.8. Inte""#en'e*.8.3 A7tt%de*.8.6 Co#nt-e St$"e*.8.8 Pe&sona"t$*.8. Attt%de*. : ot-aton*.. 4!at s ot-aton5*..* T$7es o/ ot-aton*.. Re-e0 o/ Resea&'! on ot-aton*..3 Is ot-aton t!e Ca%se o& Res%"t o/ S%''ess5

*.< Let Us S%2 U7*. 9e$ 4o&ds*. Ans0e&s to C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&ess*. S%##ested Readn#s

*. INTRODUCTIONT!s %nt dea"s 0t! "ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e. Be/o&e 0e ente& nto a se&o%s ds'%sson o/t!e tea'!n# o/ "an#%a#es 0e need to t&$ and %nde&stand so2e t!n#s a+o%t "ea&ne&s:t!e& 'a7a+"tes and 2ot-es and e@7e'tatons. 4!en 0e t!n; o/ ed%'aton andnst&%'ton and es7e'a""$ o/ des#nn# s$""a+%ses and t&ann# tea'!e&s 0e !a-e an

2a#e o/ "ea&ne&s es7e'a""$ '!"d&en n o%& 2nds. T!s 2a#e tends to 7&esent t!e2as 7ass-e &e'e-e&s o/ 0!ate-e& 0e 7&o-de as n7%ts t!&o%#! "essons and 'o%&ses.Ps$'!o"o#sts !a-e 'ond%'ted !%nd&eds o/ e@7e&2ents (%sn# +ot! !%2ans andan2a"s as s%+,e'ts) and !a-e ds'o-e&ed o& /o&2%"ated -a&o%s #ene&a" "a0s o/"ea&nn#. C%&&'%"%2 s7e'a"sts !a-e t&ed to a77"$ t!ese "a0s o& 7&n'7"es to des#nan e//e't-e '%&&'%"%2 = one t!at s ";e"$ to +e s%''ess/%" and e//'ent. T!e 2ost27o&tant 'onsde&aton n t!e s%''ess o/ a '%&&'%"%2 s o/ 'o%&se 0!et!e& t!e"ea&ne&s o& 7%7"s) !a-e "ea&nt a"" o& 2ost o/ 0!ate-e& t!e$ 0e&e s%77osed to "ea&n.As 0e 0"" see "ate& n t!s %nt a #&eat dea" o/ "ea&nn# ta;es 7"a'e e-en 0t!o%t an$

7"anned and de"+e&ate tea'!n#. T!s "ea&nn# n'"%des not on"$ 7%&e"$ 7!$s'a"a't-t$ ";e 0a";n# o& s022n# o& &dn# a +'$'"e +%t a"so 2atte&s 0!'! n-o"-e

t!e 2nd.

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T!e "ea&nn# o/ t!e /&st "an#%a#e 0t!o%t 2%'! o+-o%s e-den'e o/ tea'!n# +$nea&"$ e-e&$ $o%n# '!"d n e-e&$ !%2an 'o22%nt$ s 7e&!a7s t!e +est e@a27"e o/t!s.T!e ;no0"ed#e t!at so'etes !a-e a''%2%"ated and 0!'! -a&o%s ad%"ts (s7e'a"sts)!a-e 2aste&ed needs to +e 7assed on to t!e $o%n#. C!"d&en a&e not +o&n 0t! t!s

;no0"ed#e. ost o/ t !as to +e 7assed on t!&o%#! t!e 7&o'ess o/ ed%'aton n 0!'!t!s ;no0"ed#e s 7a';a#ed n t!e /o&2 o/ s'!oo" s%+,e'ts. And 2ost s'!oo" s%+,e'ts!a-e to +e ta%#!t +$ tea'!e&s n t!e /o&2a" s'!oo" at "east to +e#n 0t! and %s%a""$/o& 2an$ $ea&s. Lan#%a#e es7e'a""$ t!e 2ot!e& ton#%e s a st&;n# e@'e7ton to t!s#ene&a" &%"e. As a"&ead$ 2entoned '!"d&en "ea&n to s7ea; t!e& 2ot!e& ton#%e (at"east) "on# +e/o&e t!e$ ente& /o&2a" s'!oo". A"so 2an$ 7e&sons 0!o !a-e d&o77ed o%to/ s'!oo" and e-en t!ose 0!o !a-e ne-e& +een to s'!oo" at a"" a&e ?%te /"%ent %se&so/ t!e "an#%a#e (so2et2es "an#%a#es) o/ t!e& 7a&t'%"a& 'o22%ntes. O/ 'o%&ses%'! 7eo7"e 2a$ not +e a+"e to &ead and 0&te (.e. !and"e t!e 0&tten /o&2 o/ t!e"an#%a#e) +%t t!e$ !a-e 2aste&ed 2ost o/ t!e 'o27"e@ #&a22a& an e@tended-o'a+%"a&$ and 27o&tant as7e'ts o/ oanaton and e-en st$"e o/ t!e "an#%a#e t!e$

s7ea;.T!e 7&n'7"e t!at e2ees /&o2 t!ese /a'ts s t!at t!e "ea&nn# o/ t!e "an#%a#es'o22on"$ s7o;en n t!e 'o22%nt$ n 0!'! nd-d%a"s "-e s a 2%'! 0de&

7&o'ess t!an 0!at s 7&es'&+ed and ta%#!t n s'!oo" o& 'o""e#e. Sn'e t!e&e s no'"ea&"$ dent/a+"e a#en'$ o%tsde t!e s'!oo" t!at s don# an$ tea'!n# o/ "an#%a#e0e 2%st 'on'"%de t!at !%2an "ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e !a-e so2e s7e'a" 'a7a't$ to"ea&n "an#%a#e.Be#nnn# 0t! t!s /&st %nt 0e 0"" t&$ to %nde&stand so2et!n# a+o%t t!s 7o0e&/%"'a7a't$ to "ea&n "an#%a#e t!at see2s to +e a 7a&t o/ !%2an nat%&e. 4e 0"" /o'%s on"ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e = t!e& a+"tes t!e& st$"es o/ "ea&nn# t!e& so%&'es o/2ot-aton et'. 4e s!o%"d +e a+"e to %se t!ese deas n t!e "an#%a#e s$""a+%s des#nand "an#%a#e tea'!n# 2et!odo"o#$ 0e 0ant to /o&2%"ate. Lan#%a#e nst&%'ton 'an

+e 2ade !#!"$ e//e't-e / 0e a&e a+"e to ta7 t!e &'! &eso%&'e &e7&esented +$ t!e!%2an "ea&ne&s t&e2endo%s 'a7a't$ to "ea&n "an#%a#e and +%"d on t.T!s %nt !as t!e ?%eston 4!o a&e "ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e5 as ts tt"e. 4e a&e notnte&ested !e&e n /a't%a" n/o&2aton o/ t!e t$7e t!at #oes nto nd-d%a" +o=datas!eets o& s%&-e$ &e7o&ts = +o$s>#&"s %&+an>&%&a" En#"s! 2ed%2>Re#ona" "an#%a#e2ed%2 2ono"n#%a"> +"n#%a" and so on. S%'! '!a&a'te&st's a&e o/ 'o%&se27o&tant es7e'a""$ 0!en 0e a&e 7"annn# nst&%'ton /o& 7a&t'%"a& taet #&o%7s.He&e 0e a&e 2o&e nte&ested n t!e 'a7a+"tes and &eso%&'es t!at "an#%a#e "ea&ne&s n#ene&a" !a-e. 4e s!a"" +e#n +$ &e-e0n# t!e &o"e o/ "an#%a#e n !%2an a//a&s and

#o on to "oo; at t!e "ea&nn# &eso%&'es t!at 2e2+e&s o/ t!e !%2an so'et$ !a-e.*.* OBJECTIVESO%& a2 n t!s %nt s to #-e $o% ns#!ts a+o%t:

t!e 'ent&a" &o"e o/ "an#%a#e n !%2an so'et$t!e &o"e o/ t!e "ea&ne&s en-&on2ent n t!e "ea&nn# 7&o'esst!e &o"e o/ d//e&ent 'onte@ts and settn#s /o& !%2an "ea&nn#d//e&ent t$7es o/ "an#%a#e "ea&ne&s and t!e& 7e&sona" att&+%tes a//e'tn#

"an#%a#e a'?%stont!e att&+%tes o/ "ea&ne&s 'an +e e@7"oted /o& des#nn# t!e '%&&'%"%2 as 0e""

as e-o"-n# 'e&tan tea'!n# st&ate#es.*. THE CENTRAL ROLE O1 LANGUAGE IN HUAN SOCIETY

T!e %se o/ "an#%a#e as t!e 7&2a&$ 2eans o/ 'o22%n'aton s one o/ t!e de/nn#'!a&a'te&st's o/ t!e !%2an s7e'es. an$ an2a" s7e'es a"so %se s#ns o/ -a&o%s

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t$7es to 'o22%n'ate o& 'on-e$ n/o&2aton (see %nt 6 o/ t!s 'o%&se). B%t t!ese s#ns$ste2s a&e -e&$ s27"e and n/"e@+"e. T!e$ a&e -e&$ /a& &e2o-ed /&o2 t!e'o27"e@t$ and -e&sat"t$ and '&eat-t$ t!at #o 0t! !%2an o& nat%&a" "an#%a#es. T!e

7&2a&$ 7oston o/ "an#%a#e (es7e'a""$ s7ee'!) n t!e "/e o/ 2an;nd s !#!"#!ted+$ t!e e@7&esson ta";n# an2a" t!at s so2et2es %sed to des'&+e !%2ans.

T!s 'ent&a" &o"e o/ 'o22%n'aton t!&o%#! nat%&a" "an#%a#e n !%2an so'a" "/e s2ade 7oss+"e +$ t!e /a't t!at a"" !%2an nd-d%a"s a&e a+"e to !and"e o& o7e&ate t!e"an#%a#e (o& "an#%a#es) o/ t!e& so'etes. T!s s so o+-o%s t!at 0e s27"$ ta;e t /o&anted. B%t t s %se/%" to note t!at t!e&e s an 27o&tant 7&n'7"e !e&e. Nea&"$e-e&$one n an$ so'et$ s a 'o27etent and e//e't-e "an#%a#e %se&. T!s a77"es to a""no&2a" !%2an +en#s. On"$ t!at tn$ 7&o7o&ton o/ t!e 7o7%"aton o/ an$ 'o%nt&$ 0t!2a,o& 7!$so"o#'a" !and'a7s (+&an da2a#e 2enta" &eta&daton dea/ness andd%2+ness) &e2ans %na+"e to %se "an#%a#e. T!e "ea&nn# o/ t!e 2ot!e& ton#%e o& /&st"an#%a#e (LI) s a s"o0 and "on# d&a0n=o%t 7&o'ess. It s d//'%"t to sa$ 0!en a

7e&son !as /%""$ 2aste&ed !s>!e& LI and so !as /ns!ed "ea&nn# t. 1%&t!e& 2an$7eo7"e "ea&n 2o&e t!an one "an#%a#e. T!s s es7e'a""$ t&%e o/ 2%"t"n#%a" so'etes

";e o%&s and 0t! 2ode&n 'o22%n'aton +&ea;n# do0n natona">"n#%st'+o%nda&es "ea&nn# /o&e#n "an#%a#es s a"so +e'o2n# n'&easn#"$ 'o22on. T!eseaddtona" "an#%a#es too a&e "ea&ned s"o0"$ (e-en / t!e&e s a '&as! 'o%&se) and ";et!e LI 'o27"ete 2aste&$ s ne-e& attaned. T!%s t s 7oss+"e to sa$ t!at /o& 7&a't'a"

7%&7oses e-e&$one s a "an#%a#e "ea&ne&.*.. So'a"saton: T!e Lea&nn# o/ Lan#%a#e and C%"t%&eT!e #&o0t! and de-e"o72ent o/ t!e !%2an '!"d nto an ado"es'ent and "ate& an ad%"tn-o"-es t0o 7a&a""e" and nte&"n;ed 7&o'esses. One s 7!$so"o#'a" #&o0t! o&2at%&aton. T!s s s%77o&ted 2an"$ +$ n%t&ton and e@e&'se (t!e n#&edents o/#ood !ea"t!) and 7&ote'ton /&o2 7!$s'a" !a&2. T!e se'ond and 2o&e 'o27"e@

7&o'ess s t!e 7s$'!o"o#'a" #&o0t! o/ t!e nd-d%a". T!s s an 27o&tant as7e't o/so'a" de-e"o72ent: t!e 7&o'ess 0!e&e+$ t!e !e"7"ess n/ant #&ad%a""$ +e'o2es annde7endent and a't-e"$ 7a&t'7atn# 2e2+e& o/ !s> !e& 'o22%nt$. A /%n'tonn#2e2+e& o/ !%2an so'et$ s an nd-d%a" 0!o s a+"e to nte&a't and 'o22%n'atee//e't-e"$ 0t! ot!e&s =+ot! d&e't"$ 0t! nd-d%a"s and 2o&e nd&e't"$ 0t! t!e'o22%nt$ n #ene&a". T!s s 2ade 7oss+"e +$ t!e %se o/ "an#%a#e. T!%s one 2a,o&&e?%&e2ent t!at 2%st +e 2et as t!e '!"d #&o0s s t!e "ea&nn# o/ t!e LI. A 2e2+e& o/so'et$ s a"so a 7e&son = an nd-d%a" 0t! a %n?%e 'o2+naton o/ '!a&a'te&st'st!at 2a;e %7 !s>!e& 7e&sona"t$. A2on# t!ese '!a&a'te&st's a&e 7e&sona"t$ t&atsnte&ests a+"tes and ta"ents. (Re2e2+e& t!at 0e o/ten &e/e& to a s2a"" +a+$ as te-en 0!en 0e ;no0 0!et!e& t s a +o$ o& a #&". T!s s +e'a%se 0e !a-e not $et

+e#%n to see t!s '!"d as a 7e&son).T!e "on# and s"o0 7&o'ess o/ 7s$'!o"o#'a" and so'a" de-e"o72ent o/ t!e '!"d s'a""ed so'a"aton. an s o/ten des'&+ed as a so'a" an2a". One -e&$ o+-o%s&eason /o& t!s s t!at !%2an +en#s %s%a""$ "-e to#et!e& n /a2"es and 0de&'o22%ntes. B%t t!s s not a"0a$s t&%e. Re2e2+e& !e&e t!at n t!e /o";"o&e o/ 2ost'o22%ntes t!e&e a&e 27o&tant '!a&a'te&s 0!o a&e 0ande&e&s and !e&2ts ando%t'astes. T!ese a&e nd-d%a"s 0!o do not !a-e an$ "n; 0t! o& '"a2 to +e"on# to a

7a&t'%"a& 'o22%nt$. And 0e /nd s%'! 7eo7"e n 2ode&n so'etes too. T!e 2o&e27o&tant and nte&estn# as7e't o/ 2ans so'a" nat%&e s &e"ated to !o0 t s /o&2ed.An nd-d%a"s 7e&sona"t$ and +e!a-o%& 7atte&ns a&e dete&2ned to a "ae e@tent +$t!e '%"t%&e n 0!'! !s>!e& ea&"$ so'a"aton too; 7"a'e. T!e !%2an n/ant s +o&n

0t! t!e 7otenta" /o& de-e"o7n# n a -ast n%2+e& o/ d//e&ent 0a$s. T!e '%"t%&e nto0!'! s>!e s +o&n /%n'tons as an en-&on2ent 0!'! 7&o-des t!e o77o&t%nt$ and

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s%77o&t /o& "ea&nn# -a&o%s t!n#s asso'ated 0t! +en# a 7e&son and 2e2+e& o/so'et$. At t!e sa2e t2e t &est&'ts 0!at s "ea&nt +$ t!e '!"d. T!%s t!e "an#%a#e t!e'!"d s e@7osed to n t!e !o2e and ne#!+o%&!ood +e'o2es t!e L and t!e '%"t%&e o/t!at 7a&t'%"a& 'o22%nt$ s 0!at t!e '!"d "ea&ns and a''e7ts as !s>!e& o0n. T!%st!e "an#%a#e and '%"t%&e o/ t!e 'o22%nt$ n 0!'! so'a"aton ta;es 7"a'e

n/"%en'es t!e so'a" nat%&e and dentt$ o/ t!e nd-d%a" n 27o&tant 0a$s. A '!"d!as -e&$ "tt"e '!o'e n t!ese 2atte&s. It s on"$ a/te& 0e !a-e +e'o2e so'a"ed and"ea&nt !o0 to "-e n so'et$ (!o0 to o7e&ate t!e s$ste2 n ot!e& 0o&ds) t!at 0e 'an

+e#n to &e+e" o& +e'o2e &e/o&2e&s.A &e2a&;a+"e /eat%&e o/ t!e 7&o'ess o/ "ea&nn# t!e LI s t!at t o''%&s ?%te nat%&a""$and s 2ana#ed 0t! a !#! "e-e" o/ e//e't-eness. T!s st&;es %s as t&%"$ a2an#0!en 0e note t!at t!s "ea&nn# o/ "an#%a#e ta;es 7"a'e 0t!o%t an$ 'ons'o%s

7"annn# and e//o&t #on# nto tea'!n# t. Va&o%s 7e&sons a&o%nd t!e '!"d = +ot!ad%"ts and ot!e& '!"d&en = !e"7 and s%77o&t t!s LI a'?%ston 7&o'ess +%t t!e&e s nos$ste2at' tea'!n#. 4e 'an state anot!e& 7&n'7"e no0. E-e&$ '!"d "ea&ns to s7ea;!s>!e& L ?%te e//e't-e"$ e-en 0t!o%t 7"anned and oansed tea'!n#. O/ 'o%&se

a/te& t!e '!"d #oes to s'!oo" a #&eat dea" 2o&e "ea&nn# ta;es 7"a'e %nde&nst&%'tonK es7e'a""$ &eadn# and 0&tn#. B%t t!s '%&&'%"%2=+ased tea'!n# s

+ased on 0!at 0as "ea&nt ea&"e& t!&o%#! t!e nat%&a" 7&o'ess o/ so'a"aton. 4es!o%"d a"so &e2e2+e& !e&e t!at not e-e&$one #oes to s'!oo" and o/ t!ose 0!o dosta&t ?%te a /e0 do not sta$ t!e&e 2o&e t!an a /e0 $ea&s. E-en so s%'! 7e&sons 0t!"tt"e o& no s'!oo"n# a&e ?%te e//e't-e %se&s o/ t!e s7o;en /o&2 o/ t!e& LI. It s0o&t! notn# !e&e t!at s 2an$ so'etes and t!s s es7e'a""$ t&%e o/ a"" 7a&ts o/Inda '!"d&en #&o0 %7 n 'o22%ntes 0!e&e 2o&e t!an one "an#%a#e s 'o22on"$s7o;en.C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&ess

Notes: a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.. a) T!e t0o 7&o'esses n t!e #&o0t! and de-e"o72ent o/ a '!"d nto an ad%"t a&e:

+) T!e 7&o'ess o/ so'a"saton n-o"-es:

*. 4!at s LI5 Ho0 s t "ea&nt +- a '!"d5

*.3 DI11ERENT CONTETS AND SETTINGS 1OR HUAN LEARNINGT!e tota" 7&o'ess o/ so'a"aton as 2entoned a+o-e s -e&$ "on#=d&a0n=o%t ands"o0 and t 'o-e&s a 'o27"e@ and 'o27&e!ens-e set o/ a't-tes. T!&o%#! t!ese

a't-tes t!e '%"t%&e o/ t!e so'et$ M '%sto2s -a"%es attt%des "an#%a#e(s) /o";"o&e;no0"ed#e and s;""s>te'!no"o#$ et'. M s 7assed on to ea'! ne0 #ene&aton. T!eseon#on# and nat%&a""$ o''%&&n# a't-tes /o&2 t!e 2ost 'o22on 'onte@t /o& !%2an"ea&nn#. C!"d&en a&e n-o"-ed n t!ese a't-tes +%t 2an$ o/ t!e2 a&e not s7e'a""$des#ned /o& '!"d&en = $o%n# '!"d&en and teena#e&s and ad%"ts a"" ta;e 7a&t. T!ese"ae"$ n/o&2a" so'a" a't-tes 'an +e 'ont&asted 0t! t!e 2o&e 7"anned andoaned o7e&atons asso'ated 0t! s'!oo"n# o& /o&2a" ed%'aton.S'!oo"n# es7e'a""$ +e'a%se t s s7&ead o%t o-e& 2an$ $ea&s s o/ 'o%&se a 7a&t o/t!e +&oade& 7&o'ess o/ so'a"saton. T!e o-e&a"" 7%&7ose and e//e't o/ +ot! a&e-&t%a""$ t!e sa2e. B%t t!e oaned and 'ons'o%s"$ 27"e2ented a't-tes o/s'!oo"n# 'an +e 7"a'ed n a se7a&ate 'ate#o&$ +e'a%se o/ 'e&tan s7e'a"

'!a&a'te&st's t!e$ !a-e. One o+-o%s /eat%&e o/ s'!oo"n# s t!at a /e0 s7e'a""$des#nated 7e&sons /%n'ton as tea'!e&s and '!"d&en ("ea&ne&s) #o to s7e'a""$ set %7

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7"a'es 'a""ed t!e '"ass&oo2 0!e&e tea'!n#="ea&nn# s e@7e'ted to ta;e 7"a'e. In t!e'onte@t o/ s'!oo" '!"d&en !a-e a s7e'a" o77o&t%nt$ (and &es7ons+"t$) to "ea&n.T!e$ a&e e@7e'ted to 7a$ attenton and +e se&o%s and t&$ !a&d and so on. T!s s'!oo"=&e"ated 2a#e o/ t!e '!"d s nd'ated +$ t!e te&2 7%7". T!s s a %se/%" "a+e" and 0es!a"" %se t !e&e to dstn#%s! +et0een t0o &o"es t!at '!"d&en %s%a""$ !a-e. T!e$ a&e

a"0a$s "ea&ne&s n #ene&a" +e'a%se t!e$ a&e n-o"-ed n t!e 7&o'esses o/ so'a"saton.So2et2es t!e$ a&e a"so 7%7"s= 0!o a&e "ea&nn# /&o2 tea'!e&s n '"ass.A se'ond 27o&tant as7e't o/ s'!oo"n# s t!at on"$ so2e s7e'/' t$7es o/ ;no0"ed#eand s;"" (se"e'ted /&o2 t!e tota" '%"t%&a" !e&ta#e o/ t!e so'et$) a&e 'o-e&ed n t!e

7&o#&a22e o/ nst&%'ton /o""o0ed t!e&e. T!ese se"e'ted a&eas 'onstt%te t!e'%&&'%"%2. Ce&tan ot!e& t$7es o/ a't-t$ a&e t&eated as e@t&a='%&&'%"a&. As 0e a"";no0 ?%te o/ten t!ese a&e t!n#s t!at '!"d&en /nd 2o&e 2eann#/%" and nte&estn#t!an 0!at s n t!e '%&&'%"%2 o& 7o&tons to +e 'o-e&ed. T!e /o&2a"t$ o/ s'!oo"n#&e?%&es t!at 0!at s n t!e s$""a+%s>t2eta+"e !as to +e done on a #-en da$ not 0!atsee2s 2o&e nte&estn# and en,o$a+"e /o& t!e 7%7"s. And t!en t!e&e a&e 2an$ t!n#s0!'! a&e a"0a$s t&eated as o%tsde t!e 'on'e&ns o/ t!e s'!oo". Lea&nn# n t!ese a&eas

s ta;en 'a&e o/ +$ t!e a#en'es o/ so'a"aton o& s7e'a" s'!oo" = ";e nstt%tons.S'!oo"s and 'o""e#es (es7e'a""$ t!e& '"ass&oo2 and "a+o&ato&es) &e7&esent a -e&$!#!"$ st&%'t%&ed /o&2a" 'onte@t /o& "ea&nn#. T!e&e a&e ot!e& 'onte@ts 0!e&e t!ede#&ee o/ oanaton and /o&2a"t$ s "o0e&. 4e /nd t!ese n t!e e@t&a='%&&'%"a&a't-tes o/ s'!oo" and n s2"a& a't-tes &e"ated to t!e !o2e and ne#!+o%&!ood.So2e e@a27"es a&e: s7o&ts and #a2es '%"t%&a" 7&o#&a22es #%des and s'o%tsa't-tes e@'%&sons -sts to 2%se%2s and e@!+tons. T!ese a't-tes a&e seen as

+&oad"$ ed%'at-e: t!e&e s t!e !o7e t!at '!"d&en 0"" +ene/t ("ea&n) n -a&o%s 0a$s.B%t t!e&e s not a de"+e&ate 7"an to tea'! (and test) /o""o0n# a s$""a+%s as n t!e'"ass&oo2 settn#. 1%&t!e& t!ese a't-tes a&e not 'o27%"so&$>C!"d&ens nte&ests aen nto a''o%nt.T!e&e s a t!&d t$7e o/ 'onte@t 0e a&e a"" /a2"a& 0t! 0!e&e t!e&e s 'ons'o%se//o&t to "ea&n and so2et!n# 0e 0o%"d 'a"" nst&%'ton s ta;n# 7"a'e +%t t!ea&&an#e2ent a&e !#!"$ n/o&2a". A /a2"$ /&end (not a 7&o/essona") /%n'tonn# as a2%s' tea'!e& o& s7o&ts 'oa'! o& d&-n# nst&%'to& 0o%"d 'o2e %nde& t!s 'ate#o&$.4!at s s#n/'ant s t!at so2eone 0t! 2o&e s;"" o& ;no0"ed#e s t&$n# 'ons'o%s"$to !e"7 and #%de a "ea&ne& 0t! "ess a+"t$ nta""$ to #an 2o&e o/ t 0t! t!e'oo7e&aton o/ t!s "ea&ne&. An o"de& '!"d t&$n# to tea'! a $o%n#e& one !o0 to /"$ a;te o& &de a +'$'"e o& to 7"a$ 'a&ds 0o%"d +e #ood e@a27"es o/ t!s t$7e o/ !#!"$n/o&2a" +%t 7%&7ose/%" and e//o&t/%" settn# /o& "ea&nn#. T!e nd-d%a" 7&a'tsn#so2et!n# ('$'"n# sn#n# &e'tn#) o& don# !o2e0o&; o& &e-sn# /o& a test s a"so

"ea&nn# n t!s n/o&2a" +%t 7"anned and se&o%s 2anne&.4e !a-e +&e/"$ "oo;ed at t!e -a&et$ o/ 'onte@ts and settn#s n 0!'! "ea&nn# ta;es7"a'e. 4!at s o/ nte&est s t!at "ea&nn# see2s to o''%& ?%te s%''ess/%""$ n a"" o/t!e2. 4e !a-e anot!e& 7&n'7"e to &e'o&d no0. H%2an "ea&nn# ta;es 7"a'e n a 0de-a&et$ o/ 0a$s. (T!e&e does not see2 to +e an$ +ass /o& sa$n# t!e&e s a +est 'onte@tand 2et!od o& e-en t!at so2e a&e +ette& t!an ot!e&s). a;n# /ne dstn'tons

+et0een s'!oo"n# and so'a"aton o& +et0een /o&2a" and n/o&2a" settn#s s not o/an$ 27o&tan'e n tse"/. T!ese 'ate#o&es 0e&e %sed as a 2eans o/ '"a&/$n# so2edeas n t!e ds'%sson a+o-e. In /a't as o%& e@7e&en'e te""s %s an$ &ea" o& nat%&a""ea&nn# st%aton 0"" !a-e so2e /o&2a" and so2e n/o&2a" as7e'ts. 4e need not0o&&$ a+o%t 7"a'n# t!e2 neat"$ nto one 'ate#o&$ o& t!e ot!e&.

C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&essNotes : a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.

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+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.

. H%2an "ea&nn# "a;es 7"a'e n a 0de -a&et$ o/ 0a$s.Ds'%ss t!&ee 'onte@ts n 0!'! '!"d&en /o&2a""$ "ea&n 'e&tan s;""s.)

))*.3. T!e Ve&sat"t$ o/ t!e H%2an Lea&ne& : T!e C&%'a" Ro"e o/ Lea&nn# nDe-e"o72entOne o/ t!e 7onts t!at 'a2e %7 n o%& ea&"e& ds'%sson 0as t!at t!e '!"d s +o&n 0t!a 7otenta" to "ea&n. T!e en-&on2ent M &e7&esentn# o77o&t%nt$ to "ea&nM7"a$s an27o&tant &o"e n dete&2nn# !o0 t!s 7otenta" s /%"/""ed. T!e +est e@a27"e o/ t!ss !o0 t!e "n#%st' en-&on2ent o/ t!e '!"d dete&2nes 0!'! one (a2on# t!e!%nd&eds and t!o%sands o/ "an#%a#es t!s o& an$ '!"d 'o%"d "ea&n) 'o2es to 7"a$ t!e&o"e o/ t!e LI. It s 7oss+"e to &es7ond to t!s 7ess2st'a""$ +$ sa$n# t!at 0e a&e

-'t2s o/ /ate and t!at t!e&e s no &ea" !%2an /&eedo2. B%t s%&e"$ t!e 2o&ente&estn# and e@'tn# 7&n'7"e 0e /nd !e&e s t!at !%2an nat%&e s !#!"$ 7"ast'and ada7ta+"e and not 7&e=dete&2ned as s n t!e 'ase 0t! an2a"s. ost an2a"

+e!a-o%& s nstn't-e o& +o"o#'a""$ 7&e=dete&2ned. A"" 2e2+e&s o/ a s7e'es 0""s!o0 t!e sa2e 7atte&ns o/ +e!a-o%& / de-e"o72ent !as +een no&2a". 1o& !%2an

+en#s on t!e ot!e& !and -a&a+"t$ and nd-d%a" d//e&en'es n 7s$'!o"o#'a" andso'a" +e!a-o%& a&e t!e no&2. 4e a&e +o&n 0t! 7otenta" 0!'! de-e"o7s n 0de"$d//e&n# 0a$s /o& ea'! o/ %s. It s on"$ at t!e 7!$s'a" o& 7!$so"o#'a" "e-e" t!at

+e!a-o%& 7atte&ns a&e essenta""$ a";e. Nea&"$ a"" t!at #oes nto o%& !%2an nat%&e =deas +e"e/s attt%des ";es and ds";es !o7es /ea&s 2enta" and 7!$s'a" a+"tesand so on = s t!e &es%"t o/ "ea&nn# n nte&a'ton 0t! t!e en-&on2ent.A -e&$ 27o&tant 7ont !e&e s t!at t!e en-&on2ent t!at !e"7s to s!a7e t!e nat%&e o/t!e 7e&son s not /@ed. Bot! t!e 7!$s'a" and t!e so'a" en-&on2ent o/ an nd-d%a"'an and does '!an#e. A $o%n# '!"ds /a2"$ 'an 2o-e /&o2 one "n#%st' 'o22%nt$to anot!e& o& /&o2 "-n# as a s2a"" sn#"e '!"d /a2"$ nto a "ae ,ont /a2"$ set %7o& /&o2 a s2a"" -""a#e to a "ae 27e&sona" %&+an 'ent&e. T!e 7oss+"tes a&e-&t%a""$ n/nte and 2an$ a't%a" '!an#es do ;ee7 o''%&&n#. T!e $o%n# '!"des7e'a""$ !as to +e a+"e to ad,%st = 0!'! 2eans "ea&n =@o ne0 7!$s'a" and so'a"s%&&o%ndn#s. T!%s t!e 27o&tant 7&n'7"e &e"atn# to t!e en-&on2ent and "ea&nn# st!at !%2ans !a-e a t&e2endo%s 'a7a't$ to "ea&n and ;ee7 "ea&nn#. T!s -e&sa"t$ and/"e@+"t$ s '&%'a" /o& o%& s%&--a" n d&ast'a""$ '!an#n# en-&on2ents. I/ 0e &e"ed

"ae"$ on /@ed and nstn't-e +e!a-o%& 7atte&ns 0e 0o%"d +e %na+"e to 'o7e 0t!ne0 s%&&o%ndn#s +$ '!an#n# o%& +e!a-o%&. T!s s 0!$ t!e 7"ast't$ o/ !%2annat%&e s so 27o&tant. It s t!e essenta" /o%ndaton on 0!'! t!e d-e&st$ and&'!ness o/ 0!at 0e 'a"" !%2an '-"aton !as de-e"o7ed. T!e 'a7a't$ to "ea&n2entoned a+o-e s a"so -e&$ e//e't-e"$ a77"ed o& %t"ed +$ nea&"$ a"" !%2an

+en#s o/ a"" a#es. (4e a&e not on"$ ta";n# !e&e o/ a -a#%e !o7e ";e A "ae 'o%nt&$";e Inda !as t!e 7otenta" to 0n * #o"d 2eda"s at t!e O"$27's.)As 0e "oo; at "an#%a#e tea'!n# 2o&e '"ose"$ n "ate& %nts o/ t!e 'o%&se 0e 0"" /nd2an$ &e/e&en'es to t!e 7&o+"e2s and d//'%"tes t!at "ea&ne&s !a-e and t!e '!a""en#est!ese 7ose /o& tea'!e&s and '%&&'%"%2 de-e"o7e&s. It 2#!t +e %se/%" t!en to &e'a""t!s 7o0e&/%" dea: "ea&nn# s #on# on a"" t!e t2e and n -a&o%s 0a$s and /o& 2ost

"ea&ne&s t s ?%te s%''ess/%".

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4!o a&e t!e Lea&ne&s o/ Lan#%a#e5

*.3.* T!e Lea&ne&s Ro"e n Lea&nn#: Pe&sona" +%t not 1@ed C!a&a'te&st's

T0o -e&$ #ene&a" 7&n'7"es 0!'! e2ee /&o2 t!e ea&"e& ds'%sson a&e t!at !%2an"ea&nn# s -e&$ e//e't-e and t!at "ea&nn# s +ased on nte&a'ton 0t! t!een-&on2ent. T!s 2#!t "ead %s to t!n; t!at "ea&nn# s ent&e"$ 2ana#ed o&'ont&o""ed /&o2 t!e o%tsde o& n ot!e& 0o&ds t!at nea&"$ an$t!n# 'an +e ta%#!t to!%2an +en#s +$ 7&o-dn# t!e ne'essa&$ tea'!n# n7%ts. T!ese n7%ts a&e t!e2ode"s /o& 2taton t!e ""%st&atons and de2onst&atons t!e e@7"anatons et'. t!att!e t$7'a" tea'!e& 7&o-des to a '"ass o/ 7%7"s. B%t s%'! a -e0 o/ "ea&nn#('ont&o""ed /&o2 o%tsde) 0o%"d +e ?%te na''%&ate. Lea&nn# s NOT s27"$ a2atte& o/ a+so&+n# 0!at s 2ade a-a"a+"e as n7%ts ";e a s7on#e soa;n# %7 0ate&.T!e "ea&ne& s a ;e$ /a'to& n dete&2nn# 0!at s "ea&ned !o0 t s "ea&ned and !o0/ast. T!e&e a&e -a&o%s 7&n'7"es o& "a0s 0!'! !a-e +een /o%nd to a77"$ to t!e

7&o'esses o/ "ea&nn#. He&e 0e s!a"" ,%st note t!at -a&o%s '!a&a'te&st's o/ t!e "ea&ne&0"" n/"%en'e 0!at and !o0 !e o& s!e "ea&ns n a #-en "ea&nn# st%aton o& 0!en/a'ed 0t! a set o/ n7%ts. E-e&$ tea'!e& /nds o%t -e&$ soon t!at t!s s t&%e. 4!enso2et!n# s ta%#!t o& 7&esented to a '"ass a"" t!e 7%7"s do not ta;e t n o& "ea&n tn t!e sa2e 0a$ o& to t!e sa2e e@tent. T!e nat%&e o/ t!e nd-d%a" 7%7" see2s to +ean 27o&tant /a'to&. Anot!e& #ene&a" /a't a+o%t "ea&nn# (t!at tea'!e&s ;no0 on"$ too0e"") s t!at 0!at s "ea&ned s not ?%te t!e sa2e as 0!at s ta%#!t. T!%s "ea&nn# sst&on#"$ n/"%en'ed +$ t!e %n?%e nd-d%a" '!a&a'te&st's o/ t!e "ea&ne&. T!s a77"es

+ot! to n/o&2a" "ea&nn# and to /o&2a" "ea&nn#. T!e 27"'aton o/ t!s "ea&ne&/a'to&K s t!at 0e 'annot %nde&stand t!e 7&o'ess o/ "ea&nn# 0t!o%t a /a&"$ ade?%ate

7't%&e o/ t!e nd-d%a" "ea&ne&.In ot!e& 0o&ds 0e 'annot !o7e to 2a;e 7"anned nst&%'ton -e&$ e//e't-e / 0e donot 2at'! t 0t! t!e 7%7"s 'a7a't$ to 'o7e 0t! t!e ne0 te2 o/ "ea&nn# and!s>!e& &e'e7t-t$ to t. 4e s!a"" %se t!e te&2 &eadness /o& s7e'/' ne0 "ea&nn# !e&eto denote t!s 'o2+naton o/ a+"t$ and attt%de t!at t!e "ea&ne& +&n#s to ea'! ne0"ea&nn# st%aton. J%d#n# t!e &eadness o/ 7%7"s 0t! senst-t$ and ta"o&n#nst&%'ton to /t 0e"" 0t! t 'onstt%tes t!e 'ent&a" '!a""en#e n s$""a+%s 'onst&%'tonand n tea'!n#.A -e&$ 27o&tant /eat%&e o/ t!s "ea&ne& /a'to& s t!at t s +ased on t!e -e&$ "aesto&e o& &ese&-e o/ "ea&nt a+"tes and attt%des and nte&ests t!at e-e&$ "ea&ne& !as. 4ea&e not dea"n# !e&e 0t! t!e #ene&a" and sta+"e '!a&a'te&st's o/ nd-d%a"s t!at 0e

a&e 2o&e /a2"a& 0t! s%'! as +od$ +%"d #ene&a" !ea"t! and 2enta" a+"t$(nte""#en'e). T!ese '!a&a'te&st's do a//e't "ea&nn# +%t on"$ n a #ene&a" and7&ed'ta+"e 0a$. O%& 'on'e&n !e&e s not t!ese /eat%&es +%t ;no0"ed#e a+"tes andattt%des and nte&ests t!at !a-e de-e"o7ed and 'ontn%e to +e de-e"o7ed as a &es%"t o/e@7os%&e to t!e en-&on2ent and t!e "ea&nn# t!s #ene&ates. T!e "ae and 'onstant"$e@7andn# sto&e o/ s%'! te2s &e7&esents a "ea&ne&s s7e'a" &eso%&'es = o& &eadness =/o& ne0 "ea&nn# n 7a&t'%"a& a&eas.So2et2es 0!en a ne0 to7' s t!e /o'%s o/ "ea&nn# t!e&e 2#!t +e n t!e "ea&ne&s

+a';#&o%nd sto&e a s2a"" '"%ste& o/ s7e'/' te2s o/ ;no0"ed#e and s;"" and !#!nte&est 0!'! 'an +e o/ !e"7 and 7&o-de a +oost to "ea&nn# n t!s 7a&t'%"a& a&ea.1o& e@a27"e a '!"d 0!o s e@7osed to t!e too"s and 7&o'ed%&es o/ 'a&7ent&$ n t!e

!o2e o& ne#!+o%&!ood 2#!t 7'; %7 so2e !#!"$ s7e'/' ;no0"ed#e a+o%t sesand s!a7es and a"so de-e"o7 an nte&est n t!s +&oad a&ea. So2et2e "ate& 0!en

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'e&tan to7's n #eo2et&$ a&e +en# ta;en %7 n '"ass t!s '!"d 0"" +e a #ood"ea&ne& e-en / s>!e s #ene&a""$ 0ea; n s%+,e'ts ";e a"#e+&a and 7!$s's. He&e 0e'an sa$ t!e '!"ds s7e'/' &eadness /o& t!e to7's n #eo2et&$ !a-e a'ted as a s7e'a"ad-anta#e and #-en t!e "ea&nn# 7&o'ess a +oost.It s eas$ to see t!at t!s 'an !a77en n &e"aton to a 0de &an#e o/ a&eas n 0!'! t!e&e

s a "ea&nn# &e?%&e2ent. T!%s 0e 'an t!n; n te&2s o/ a "ae -a&et$ o/ 7oss+"es7e'/' &eadness. T!e sto&e o& &ese&-o& o/ a+"tes and attt%des 0!'! s t!e +ass o/&eadness s +%"t %7 s"o0"$ and stead"$ as e@7os%&e to t!e en-&on2ent "eads to"ea&nn#. Its se and &'!ness s not "n;ed to #ene&a" '!a&a'te&st's ";e nte""#en'en an$ 27o&tant 0a$. In /a't t!e &eso%&'e &e7&esented +$ &eadness 'an !e"7 a "ea&ne&

+e ?%te s%''ess/%" n "ea&nn# at "east n so2e a&eas e-en 0!en !s>!e& #ene&a"7&o#&ess at st%des not -e&$ #ood.A 0o&d o/ 'a%ton s ne'essa&$ !e&e. T!e "ea&ne&s 7ast e@7e&en'es (0!'! 2a;e %7t!e sto&e 0e !a-e ta";ed a+o%t) 0"" not ne'essa&"$ +e an ad-anta#e n e-e&$ 'ase.So2et2es t!e&e 2a$ +e not!n# t!at s o/ an$ s7e'a" !e"7 to 2a;e a #-en te2ease& to "ea&n. So2et2es t!e nd-d%a"s +a';#&o%nd 2#!t e-en +e a dsad-anta#e.

T!s !a77ens 0!en an nd-d%a" "a';s so2e s7e'/' te2 o/ ;no0"ed#e o& s;""0!'! nd-d%a"s o/ t!at a#e o& n t!at '"ass a&e ass%2ed to !a-e. C"ea&"$ t!s s a2atte& o/ '!an'e to a "ae e@tent as t s t!e e@7os%&e o& o77o&t%nt$ to "ea&n t!at st!e 'a%se o/ t!e de/'en'$. I/ an nd-d%a" does not ;no0 so2et!n# 2an$ ot!e&s!a77en to ;no0 t!s 'annot +e t&eated as a &e"a+"e nd'aton o/ !s>!e& +en#%nnte""#ent o& a 7oo& "ea&ne&.T!e&e s a se'ond 0a$ n 0!'! t!e "ea&ne&s +a';#&o%nd sto&e 'an !a-e a ne#at-en/"%en'e. T!s s t!&o%#! t!e de-e"o72ent o/ a ne#at-e attt%de (/o& e@a27"e a "a';o/ nte&est) to0a&ds 'e&tan a't-tes o& to7's as a &es%"t o/ %n!a77$ ea&"e&e@7e&en'es. an$ o/ %s 0o%"d ;no0 o/ 'ases 0!e&e an nd-d%a"s nte&est nso2et!n# !as +een ;""ed +$ an %nns7&n# o& nsenst-e tea'!e& 7e&!a7s e-en a!a&s! and 2ean one. T!e #ene&a" 7&n'7"e !e&e too s t!at t!e nd-d%a"s 7e&sona"

7atte&n o/ "ea&nt ;no0"ed#e and attt%des 'an a//e't /%t%&e "ea&nn#. On t!e 0!o"e!o0e-e& 0e 'an sa$ t!at t!e -a&et$ o/ s7e'/' e"e2ents t!at #o nto t!e sto&e o/&eso%&'es o/ ea'! nd-d%a" s 2o&e !e"7/%" and ad-anta#eo%s t!an !a&2/%" as a/a'to& n t!e "ea&nn# 7&o'ess.To s%2 %7 t!e "ea&ne& /a'to& 0e !a-e ds'%ssed a+o-e s a !#!"$ /"e@+"e and'!an#n# one. It s 7e&sona" +%t t s on"$ 2ana""$ &e"ated to sta+"e ?%a"tes ";ente""#en'e and 7e&sona"t$ t$7e. (T!ese ?%a"tes a77ea& to +e st&on#"$ n/"%en'ed +$!e&edt$ and so a&e 'onsde&ed to +e &e"at-e"$ %n'!an#n#). 4!at 2atte&s 2ost as /a&as e//e't on "ea&nn# s 'on'e&ned s t!e 0de (and e-e&=n'&easn#) &an#e o/ te2s M

a+"tes and attt%des M t!at !a-e +een "ea&nt. T!s n/"%en'e o/ 7ast "ea&nn# on ne0"ea&nn# s a 7&n'7"e t!at !e"7s %s to %nde&stand 0!$ !%2an "ea&ne&s a&e so -e&sat"e.In 2an$ ne0 and '!a""en#n# st%atons t!e "ea&nn# o/ ea'! nd-d%a" s s%77o&ted

+$ t!e sto&e o/ &eso%&'es +%"t %7 n t!e 7ast not on"$ +$ t!e n7%ts 7&o-ded. An27o&tant 'onse?%en'e o/ t!s s t!at an nd-d%a"s "ea&nn# 7atte&n s !#!"$

7e&sona"ed +%t t s a"so d$na2' as t!e &eso%&'es /o& "ea&nn# a&e 'onstant"$de-e"o7n#. T!s s so2et!n# 0e need to &e2e2+e& 0!"e 7"annn# a '%&&'%"%2.4!o a&e t!e Lea&ne&s o/ Lan#%a#e5

C!e'; Yo%& P&o#ess

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Notes: a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s.n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.3. 4!at s "ea&ned s not ?%te t!e sa2e as 0!at s ta%#!t. As a tea'!e& 0!at a&et!e "ea&ne& /a'to&s t!at $o% not'e t!at n/"%en'e "ea&nn#56. 4!at s &eadness5 4!at a&e t!e 0a$s n 0!'! t!s /a'to& 'an +e %sed e//e't-e"$

+$ t!e tea'!e& n t!e "ea&nn# 7&o'ess5Ho0 a&e t!e "ea&ne&s 7ast e@7e&en'es +ot! ad-anta#eo%s as 0e"" as dsad-anta#eo%sto t!e "ea&nn# 7&o'ess5**.6 DI11ERENT TYPES O1 LEARNERSAs 0e !a-e noted ea&"e& 2an$ "ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e a&e not n s'!oo" o& 'o""e#e. So ts not -e&$ %se/%" to 'ate#o&e t!e2 2an"$ n te&2s o/ t!e& '"ass o& "e-e" n t!e/o&2a" s$ste2 o/ ed%'aton. Rat!e& t!an t!s ad2nst&at-e as7e't /eat%&es 0!'! 'and&e't"$ a//e't t!e& attt%de and 2ot-aton a&e 2o&e &e"e-ant. T!ese a&e "sted +e"o0.

a) Sta#e o/ de-e"o72ent n 2aste&n# t!e "an#%a#eT!e&e 'an +e $o%n# "ea&ne&s 0!o a&e ?%te ad-an'ed o& s;""ed and o"de& "ea&ne&s0!o a&e on"$ +e#nne&s. Lea&nn# a "an#%a#e s a s"o0 and "on#=d&a0n=o%t 7&o'ess.Lea&ne&s 'an +e at 2an$ d//e&ent sta#es o/ 7&o#&ess to0a&ds !#! 7&o/'en'$ o&2aste&$. O+-o%s"$ t!e 0a$ o/ "ea&nn# t!e need /o& tea'!e& s%77o&t t!e 'a7a't$ and0""n#ness to do 'e&tan tas;s 0"" -a&$ 0t! t!e sta#e o/ 7&o#&ess. So a +&oad'ate#o&$ ";e $o%n# "ea&ne&s 'an n'"%de a -a&et$ o/ t$7es +ased on !o0 /a& t!e$!a-e 7&o#&essed.

+) T!e de#&ees o/ de7enden'e on e@te&na""$ 7"anned nst&%'tonT!e #ene&a" (/o&2a" -s. n/o&2a") 'onte@t o/ "ea&nn# a "an#%a#e s anot!e& /a'to& t!at!as a st&on# n/"%en'e on t!e "ea&ne&s 2ot-aton and n-o"-e2ent. 4!en "an#%a#e s

+en# "ea&nt n/o&2a""$ (es7e'a""$ t!&o%#! t!e 7&o'ess o/ so'a"saton) t!e "ea&ne&s2a$ not e-en +e a0a&e t!at s>!e s "ea&nn# t!e "an#%a#e. T!s s +e'a%se t!e /o'%s o/attenton 0!en t!e&e s nte&a'ton n nat%&a" o& &ea"="/e st%atons s 'o22%n'aton

M sendn# and &e'e-n# 2essa#es +$ %sn# "an#%a#e. Cons'o%s attenton to "ea&nn#t!e &%"es o/ "an#%a#e s not %s%a" o& t$7'a" !e&e. As 0e sa0 n Unt t!s 2ode o/"an#%a#e "ea&nn# s -e&$ e//e't-e. B%t 0e a&e /o&'ed to ad2t 2an$ 7&o'ed%&es and

7&n'7"es t!at 0e asso'ate 0t! "ea&nn# n '"ass do not see2 to +e &e"e-ant o& 2a;e2%'! sense n t!s nat%&a" settn#. T!e /a't t!at n/o&2a" "ea&nn# s ta;n# 7"a'e s27o&tant 0!en 0e a&e 'onsde&n# t!e tea'!n# o/ t!e LI (o& a "o'a""$ %sed L*).

A"on#sde t!e '"ass&oo2 +ased "ea&nn# o/ "an#%a#e t!e nat%&a" 7&o'esses o/ %sn# ta&e a"so #on# on. T!e /o&2a" s$""a+%s %s%a""$ &e'o#nes on"$ 0!at #oes on n '"ass.B%t "ea&ne&s es7e'a""$ $o%n#e& ones a&e -e&$ %n";e"$ to ;ee7 "an#%a#e %se n0ate&t#!t 'o27a&t2ents as t!e sa$n# #oes. As 0e 0"" see n Co%&se t!e tea'!e&'annot a//o&d to #no&e 0!at t!e "ea&ne&=%se& s don# !a77"$ and s%''ess/%""$ o%tsdet!e '"ass. T!e "ea&ne&s 'onta't 0t! &ea" and 2eann#/%" %se o/ t!e taet "an#%a#e (LIo& L*) &e7&esents a -a"%a+"e o77o&t%nt$ t!at s!o%"d te e@7"oted 2a#nat-e"$ +$ t!etea'!e&.') De#&ee o/ 'o27%"son n t!e st%d$ o/ "an#%a#eLet %s 'onsde& 7"anned and /o&2a" nst&%'ton n a taet "an#%a#e. T!s s 0!at 0e!a-e des'&+ed ea&"e& as t!e 'onte@t /o& st%d$n# n t!e &o"e o/ a 7%7". T0o +&oad

nstt%tona" 'onte@ts a&e 7oss+"e. In t!e /&st 'ase t!e st%dent s ta;n# a 7&es'&+ed"an#%a#e 'o%&se +e'a%se t s 7a&t o/ t!e /o&2a" s$""a+%s &e?%&e2ents /o& t!e

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2at&'%"aton o& nte&2edate 'e&t/'ate. He&e /na" e@a2naton 2a&;s 'an +e'o2e-e&$ 27o&tant to t!e st%dent and t!e e@a2naton s'!e2e 0"" %s%a""$ dete&2ne0!at s seen as s#n/'ant and 0o&t!0!"e a2on# t!e to7's and a't-tes o/ t!e'%&&'%"%2. T!e se'ond 'onte@t /o& /o&2a" st%d$ s t!e one n 0!'! t!e st%dent2a;es a 'ons'o%s de'son to ta;e a "an#%a#e 'o%&se e-en t!o%#! t s not &e?%&ed.

T!e +est e@a27"e o/ t!s /&ee '!o'e s en&o"2ent n a 7a&t=t2e "an#%a#e 'o%&se as anaddtona" a't-t$.*.6. T!e E//e't o/ Lea&nn# Conte@ts on Lea&ne&sIn t!e se'ton a+o-e 0e !a-e seen so2e o/ t!e d//e&ent 'onte@ts n 0!'! a 7e&son'o%"d +e n t!e &o"e o/ "ea&ne& (o/ a 7a&t'%"a& "an#%a#e). A"" t!ese 'onte@ts &e7&esent'ondtons o%tsde t!e "ea&ne&. T!e$ a&e not &e"ated n an$ 0a$ to t!e "ea&ne&s

7e&sona" ?%a"tes s%'! as !ea"t! and sta2na 2enta" a+"t$ o& ed%'atona"?%a"/'atons. An$one 'o%"d +e at an$ sta#e o/ 7&o#&ess to0a&ds 2aste&$ o/ t!e taet"an#%a#e an$one 'o%"d +e st%d$n# a /o&e#n "an#%a#e t!&o%#! a 7a&t=t2e e-enn#'o%&se. T!e nte&estn# 7ont a+o%t t!ese 'onte@ts s t!at t!e$ 'an n/"%en'e t!e#ene&a" attt%de and 2ot-aton o/ t!e nd-d%a" n !s>!e& &o"e as "ea&ne&. Ea'!

'onte@t n a -e&$ #ene&a" sense 'an +e "n;ed to a 'e&tan t$7e o/ "ea&ne& a77&oa'!. T!e'o2+naton o/ attt%des and 2ot-aton t!at #oes 0t! ea'! t$7e s &e"e-ant to o%&ds'%sson +e'a%se t!s 'an a//e't t!e "e-e" o/ e//o&t on t!e "ea&ne&s 7a&t and t!s 'anas 0e ;no0 n/"%en'e !o0 s%''ess/%" "ea&nn# s.It s eas$ to see t!at a 7e&son 0!o !as 2ade a 'ons'o%s de'son to t&$ and +e'o2e

7&o/'ent n %sn# a "an#%a#e (e-en t!o%#! t s not &e?%&ed) 0"" !a-e a /a-o%&a+"eattt%de and +e !#!"$ 2ot-ated. 4e 0o%"d a"" a#&ee 7e&!a7s t!at tea'!e&s o/ s%'!st%dents a&e -e&$ /o&t%nate.On t!e ot!e& !and t s t&%e t!at 2an$ st%dents a&e 'a%#!t %7 n st%atons (es7e'a""$n /o&2a" ed%'aton) 0!e&e t!e$ !a-e to st%d$ a "an#%a#e s27"$ +e'a%se t s a&e?%&e2ent n t!e * o& de#&ee s$""a+%s. T!e$ 2a$ not !a-e an$ #en%ne nte&est n"ea&nn# t!e "an#%a#e +e$ond 7assn# t!e e@a2naton. A tea'!e& 0t! 2an$ s%'!

7%7"s does /a'e a ds'o%&a#n# st%aton. Ho0e-e& t s 27o&tant to see t!s n t!e'onte@t o/ /o&2a" ed%'aton. He&e a 2a,o& 7a&t o/ an$ .7&o#&a22e s 2ade %7 o/'o27%"so&$ 'o%&ses = 0!'! a"" st%dents !a-e to st%d$ 0!et!e& t!e$ a&e &ea""$nte&ested n o& ";e a"" t!e s%+,e'ts and to7's. So t!s 7&o+"e2 s one t!at a"" tea'!e&s/a'e. T!e need s to 2a;e t!e '%&&'%"%2 n o7e&aton M t!e a't%a" a't-tes n t!e'"ass&oo2 M nte&estn# to t!e 7%7"s. In one sense t!e "an#%a#e tea'!e& es7e'a""$t!e tea'!e& o/ En#"s! n Inda !as 'e&tan ad-anta#es. Lan#%a#e s so2et!n# t!at'!"d&en a&e a"0a$s %sn#. 1%&t!e& En#"s! s /a&"$ 0de"$ seen as an asset +e'a%se o/

ts asso'aton 0t! ,o+ o77o&t%ntes and so'a" 7&est#e. So t!e En#"s! tea'!e& s+ette& o// t!an t!e tea'!e& o/ 'o27%"so&$ 2at!e2at's o& 'o27%"so&$ #eo#&a7!$.T!e #ene&a" 7&n'7"e 0e need to note !e&e s t!at t!e 'onte@t o/ "ea&nn# s "n;ed toe@7e'tatons. T!ose st%dents 0!o a&e 2an"$ 'on'e&ned a+o%t 2eetn# e@a2naton&e"ated &e?%&e2ents 0"" 0ant to see e-den'e o/ tea'!n# o& '"ass&oo2 a't-t$ t!att!e$ /ee" s #on# to +e %se/%" n t!s &es7e't. T!ese "ea&ne&s 2a$ not &ead"$ 7%t n a"ot o/ t2e and e//o&t &e"ated to e@t&a a't-tes e-en t!o%#! t!ese a&e seen +$ t!etea'!e& (and '%&&'%"%2 des#ne&) as des&a+"e. S2"a&"$ "ea&ne&s 0!o a&e -e&$ ;eenon "ea&nn# to s7ea; 0e"" and 0t! 'on/den'e 2a$ +e ?%te &esstant to #&a22a&e@e&'ses o& n de7t! ds'%ssons on t!e -e0s o/ so2e essa$st o& 7oet. T!e tea'!e&needs to +e a0a&e o/ t!e "ea&ne&s e@7e'tatons. B%t o/ 'o%&se a '%&&'%"%2 'annot +e

&ed%'ed to on"$ t!ose t!n#s "ea&ne&s '"ea&"$ 0ant. T!s s 0!e&e t!e tea'!e&s&eso%&'e/%"ness n 2ot-atn# st%dents +e'o2es 27o&tant.

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A't-t$. As a tea'!e& o/ En#"s! "st at "east t!&ee 0a$s n 0!'! $o% 'an %se t!e n/o&2a""an#%a#e "ea&nn# 'onte@t o/ t!e "ea&ne&s /o& tea'!n# n t!e '"ass&oo2.4!o a&e t!e Lea&ne&s o/ Lan#%a#e5

))*. I/ $o% 0e&e to des#n a s$""a+%s !o0 0o%"d $o% n'"%de "ea&ne& e@7e'tatons nt5*.6.* Pe&sona" %a"tes o/ Lea&ne&sIn t!e se'ton a+o-e 0e !a-e /o'%sed on t!e 'onte@ts n 0!'! a 7e&son &e"ates to ataet "an#%a#e as a "ea&ne& and seen !o0 t!s /a'to& n/"%en'es t!e attt%des and2ot-aton o/ "ea&ne&s. T!e sa2e 7e&son 'an +e a "ea&ne& o/ t0o d//e&ent "an#%a#es att!e sa2e t2e and !a-e a d//e&ent #ene&a" a77&oa'! n ea'! 'onte@t. He&e 0e see t!ata #ene&a" &%"e a+o%t t!e "ea&ne& need not a"0a$s +e a77"'a+"e e-en to t!e sa2end-d%a". 4e s!a"" no0 t%&n to "oo; at so2e o/ t!e 2o&e 7e&sona" ?%a"tes o/

nd-d%a"s t!at see2 to +e &e"e-ant to t!e& +e!a-o%& as "ea&ne&s o/ "an#%a#e.a) Gene&a" s'!o"ast' a+"t$D//e&en'e a2on# 7%7"s n t!e s7eed and e//e't-eness o/ "ea&nn# s'!oo" s%+,e'ts sso2et!n# 0e a&e a"" /a2"a& 0t!. T!e #ene&a" 2enta" a+"t$ t!at %nde&"es s'!o"ast's%''ess s "oose"$ 'a""ed nte""#en'e. T!e te&2s +!t and '"e-e& a&e a"so %sed tond'ate a !#! "e-e" o/ 2enta" .a+"t$. T!e noton o/ nte""#en'e s st&on#"$ "n;ed tot!e 'a7a't$ to t!n; to &eason "o#'a""$ and to so"-e a+st&a't 7&o+"e2s and so on.It s t&%e t!at t!s 'a7a't$ s -e&$ %se/%" n 'o7n# 0t! s'!oo" 0o&; and don# 0e"" n/o&2a" 0&tten e@a2natons. B%t 0e 2%st &e2e2+e& t!at nte""#en'e n t!s na&&o0sense s not a+so"%te"$ essenta" /o& #ann# 7&o/'en'$ n a taet "an#%a#e. T!s st!e s#n/'an'e o/ t!e /a't t!at 0e noted n Unt t!at 7e&sons 0!o ne-e& 0ent tos'!oo" and a&e ""te&ate 'an st"" +e ?%te s;""ed and /"%ent %se&s o/ a "an#%a#e n tss7o;en /o&2. S%'! 7e&sons 0o%"d not no&2a""$ do 0e"" n 'on-entona" nte""#en'etests. E-en so t!e& "an#%a#e de-e"o72ent see2s ?%te sats/a'to&$. T!e 7ont to +enoted !e&e s t!at t!e so='a""ed +!t 7%7"s 0!o #et !#! 2a&;s n 2oste@a2natons need not +e t!e +est "an#%a#e "ea&ne&s. Ot!e& 7%7"s 0!o a&e 7&o+a+"$'"ass/ed as a-e&a#e +$ tea'!e&s 2#!t 7&o-e to +e -e&$ #ood at "an#%a#e "ea&nn#0e 2%st +e 'a&e/%" not to %nde&est2ate t!e& a+"t$.

+) Co#nt-e st$"eOne o/ t!e nte&estn# /ndn#s o/ &esea&'! nto !%2an 2enta" o& 'o#nt-e 7&o'esses

s t!at nd-d%a"s !a-e 'e&tan t$7'a" o& 7&e/e&&ed st$"es o/ 7e&'e-n# t!een-&on2ent t!n;n# and 7&o+"e2 so"-n#. T!ese nd-d%a" d//e&en'es a&e notd//e&en'es n t!e "e-e" o/ 'o#nt-e a+"t$ 0!'! 0o%"d 2a;e so2e 7e&sons 2o&es%''ess/%" n "ea&nn# t!an ot!e&s. T!ese st$"es a&e #en%ne"$ a"te&nat-e 7atte&ns Mso2et!n# ";e +en# "e/t=!anded o& !t=!anded. T!e &esea&'! done n t!e a&ea o/'o#nt-e st$"e and ts 27a't on "an#%a#e a'?%ston>"ea&nn# s ds'%ssed n Unt 3o/ t!s +"o';. A /e0 o/ t!ese 7oss+"e st$"e -a&atons 0"" +e noted !e&e:) Re/"e'ton -s. 27%"s-enessSo2e 7e&sons a&e &e"at-e"$ ?%'; n 'o2n# to a 'on'"%son o& ta;n# a de'son0!en /a'ed 0t! an o7en=ended st%aton. Ot!e&s tend to 7a%se and &e/"e't and'onsde& -a&o%s 7oss+"tes /a&"$ t!o&o%#!"$ +e/o&e 'o2n# to a de'son.

O+-o%s"$ +ot! st$"es !a-e ad-anta#es and dsad-anta#es. E@a27"es o/ '"ass&oo2st%atons 0!e&e t!ese d//e&en'es 2#!t s!o0 %7 a&e:

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se"e'tn# a ?%eston o& an essa$ to7' 0!en a '!o'e s 7&o-deds%##estn# so"%tons o& a77&oa'!es d%&n# t!e ds'%sson o/ so2e 7&o+"e2.

An$ '"ass 0"" !a-e a /e0 7%7"s o/ +ot! t$7es. P%7"s 0!o a&e 27%"s-e &at!e& t!an&e/"e't-e 0"" 7&o+a+"$ 2a;e 2o&e 2sta;es. B%t t!e$ 2a$ a"so "ea&n 2o&e +e'a%set!e$ a&e 2o&e a't-e.

) Rs;=ta;n# -s. 'a%to%snessT!s d2enson s &e"ated to !o0 2%'! 'on/den'e a+o%t 0nnn# o& +en# 'o&&e't a

7e&son needs n o&de& to a't de's-e"$. Rs; ta;e&s a&e t!ose 0!o a&e 7&e7a&ed to ta;ea '!an'e e-en 0!en t!e$ a&e not -e&$ s%&e t!e$ a&e #on# to +e 'o&&e't. T!e$ a&e not-e&$ an@o%s a+o%t +en# 0&on# so2et2es. Pe&sons 0!o a&e 'a%to%s on t!e ot!e&!and 0"" not a't o& 2o-e /o&0a&d %n"ess t!e$ a&e ?%te s%&e t!e$ 0"" +e 'o&&e't o&s%''ess/%" n don# so2et!n#. T!e$ see2 to +e 2o&e 'on'e&ned a+o%t a-odn#/a"%&e o& de/eat t!an n #ann# so2e s%''esses at "east. P%7"s o/ +ot! t$7es a&e/o%nd n t!e t$7'a" '"ass. O+-o%s"$ t!e 0a$s n 0!'! t!e$ ta';"e t!e sa2est%atons and 7&o+"e2s 0"" +e d//e&ent.) 1e"d=nde7enden'e -s. /e"d=de7enden'e

T!s d2enson o/ d//e&en'e a2on# nd-d%a"s s "n;ed to t!e& 0a$ o/ 7e&'e-n#and &es7ondn# to t!e st%atons 0!'! t!e$ !a-e to attend to. So2e 7e&sons ta;e nt!e 0!o"e st2%"%s st%aton (o& /e"d) and &es7ond to t!s o-e&a"" 27&esson 0t!o%t

7a$n# 2%'! attenton to 'o27onents and deta"s. T!e$ a"so tend to +e senst-e to t!eattt%des and o7nons o/ t!e 7eo7"e a&o%nd t!e2. S%'! 7e&sons a&e 'a""ed /e"d=de7endent. T!ose 0!o2 0e 'a"" /e"d=nde7endent a&e 2o&e ";e"$ to ana"$e a #-enst%aton and see 7a&ts and &e"atons!7s a2on# 7a&ts. T!e$ 7a$ "ess attenton to t!eo-e&a"" 7't%&e o& /e"d. T!e$ a&e ";e"$ to +e 2o&e nte&ested n t!e 7&a't'a" andte'!n'a" as7e'ts o/ 7&o+"e2s to +e ta';"ed t!an n 0o&;n# 0t! ot!e&s and 2a;n#tea20o&; t!e& 7&o&t$.P%7"s 0!o a&e 2o&e /e"d=de7endent %s%a""$ need 2o&e st&%'t%&n# and #%dan'e/&o2 t!e tea'!e&. T!e &e"at-e"$ /e"d=nde7endent ones a&e 2o&e a+"e to +&ea; do0n a#ene&a" &e?%&e2ent o& ,o+ nto s2a""e& 7a&ts and sta&t 0o&;n# to0a&ds t!ese s!o&tte&2 #oa"s. 1o& nstan'e 0!en a 7&o,e't o& ass#n2ent s s%##ested t!e "atte& t$7e2a$ +e a+"e to 7'; %7 a #ene&a" dea and +e#n to de-e"o7 a 7"an 2o&e o& "ess ont!e& o0n. T!e ot!e&s 2a$ need 2o&e #%dan'e /&o2 t!e tea'!e& a+o%t s%'! a 7"an o/a'ton t!e$ 2a$ a"so need 2o&e s%77o&t and &eass%&an'e /&o2 t!e tea'!e& 0!"e0o&;n# on t!e 7"an. It s 27o&tant to note !e&e t!at t!ese 7%7"s a&e not 0ea;"ea&ne&s 0!o need a "ot o/ s7oon /eedn#. T!e$ too 'an t!n; on t!e& o0n and

7&od%'e !#! ?%a"t$ 0o&; ";e t!e& 2o&e /e"d=nde7endent 7ee&s. It s on"$ t!e&st$"e o/ #ettn# sta&ted and 0o&;n# t!at s d//e&ent.

-) D-eent t!n;n# -s. 'on-eent t!n;n#T!s d2enson s +ased on t!e dstn'ton t!at s so2et2e 2ade +et0een nte""#en'eand '&eat-t$. So2e 7s$'!o"o#sts !a-e s%##ested t!at t!e&e s a s#n/'ant d//e&en'e

+et0een so"-n# #-en 7&o+"e2s d&e't"$ n an e@7e'ted o& &e'o22ended 2anne& andta;n# a /&es! "oo; at t!e nat%&e o/ t!e 7&o+"e2 tse"/. In t!e /o&2e& 'ase t!e/&a2e0o&; o/ t!e 7&o+"e2 as #-en (o& 'o22on"$ %nde&stood) s a''e7ted and t!e'o&&e't o& +est so"%ton s 7%&s%ed n a "o#'a" and s$ste2at' 0a$. T!s t$7e o/

7&o+"e2 so"-n# s 0!at 0e asso'ate 0t! nte""#en'e. T!e st$"e s 'a""ed 'on-eentt!n;n# +e'a%se t!e 7&o'ess see2s to +e one o/ na&&o0n# do0n and #&ad%a""$&ea'!n# t!e 'o&&e't so"%ton. T!e se'ond st$"e n-o"-es &asn# ?%estons a+o%t t!e

7&o+"e2 tse"/ and t!e 0a$ t !as +een 7&esented. T!s a77&oa'! 2a$ "ead to &e/&ann#

and &e/o&2%"atn# t!e 7&o+"e2 and t!s 2a;es %ne@7e'ted o& %n'on-entona" = o&'&eat-e =so"%tons o& a77&oa'!es 7oss+"e. T!e te&2 d-eent t!n;n# s %sed

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"an#%a#e. T!s o%t7%t +e#an to +e 'a""ed t&anstona" 'o27eten'e (Co&de& )a77&o@2ate s$ste2 (Ne2se& ) and nte&"an#%a#e (Se"n;e& *).T!s s!/t /&o2 t!e tea'!e& and t!e tea'!n# 2ate&a"s to t!e "ea&ne& !s>!e& needs and!s>!e& "n#%st' o%t7%t !as a"so "ed so2e &esea&'!e&s to "oo; nto t!e "ea&ne&'!a&a'te&st's n #&eate& deta" and dent/$ t!ose '!a&a'te&st's t!at a77ea& to +e

2o&e &es7ons+"e /o& s%''ess o& /a"%&e n se'ond>/o&e#n "an#%a#e "ea&nn#.S#n/'ant a2on# t!e "ea&ne& '!a&a'te&st's dent/ed so /a& n'"%de t!e "ea&ne&sa#e nte""#en'e a7tt%de 2ot-aton attt%de 7e&sona"t$ and 'o#nt-e st$"e.*.8. A#eost 7eo7"e n'"%dn# so2e 7s$'!o"o#sts and "n#%sts +e"e-e t!at '!"d&en a&e

+ette& at "ea&nn# se'ond "an#%a#es t!an ad%"ts. Pen/e"d (6) a%ed t!at t!e !%2an+&an "oses ts 7"ast't$ a/te& 7%+e&t$. He st&essed t!at '!"d&en &e"ea&n t!e& "an#%a#ea/te& n,%&$ o& dsease. Lenne+e (8) s%##ested t!at "ate&a"aton 2ade t!e +&an/%n'tons +e'o2e s7e'a"ed n t!e ea&"$ teens. Anot!e& e@7"anaton /o& t!s a77a&entde'"ne n ad%"t "an#%a#e a'?%ston 0as t!at t!e ad%"ts a+st&a't 2ode o/ t!n;n#nte&/e&ed 0t! nat%&a" "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 7&o'ess. Yet anot!e& e@7"anaton /o& t!e

de'"ne n ad%"t "ea&ne&s s t!at t!e$ #ene&a""$ do not !a-e t!e sa2e 7ee& #&o%77&ess%&e t!e ntenst$ o/ 2ot-aton and attt%de to0a&ds t!e taet "an#%a#e and'%"t%&e t!at '!"d&en !a-e. Se"#e& (

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Ho0e-e& n t!e /e"d o/ /o&2a" /o&e#n "an#%a#e "ea&nn# t!e&e a&e on"$ a /e0 st%desn-est#atn# se@ as a -a&a+"e. E-en n t!ese st%des se-e&a" n-est#ato&s #ene&a""$/o%nd #&"s to +e +ette& "ea&ne&s. B%&sta"" (6) 7onted to an nte&estn# 7oss+"e&e"atons!7 +et0een se@ d//e&en'es and so'o=e'ono2' stat%s. N1ER st%d$ &e-ea"edt!at t!e 2ost 2a&;ed se@ d//e&en'es o''%&&ed n t!e se'onda&$ s'!oo"s 0!e&e t!e

st%dents 0e&e 7&edo2nant"$ /&o2 t!e "o0e& so'o=e'ono2' st&ata.4!o a&e t!e Lea&ne&s o/ Lan#%a#e5

C!e'; Yo%& P&o#&ess

Notes: a) 4&te $o%& ans0e&s n t!e s7a'e #-en +e"o0.+) Co27a&e $o%& ans0e&s 0t! t!ose #-en at t!e end o/ t!e %nt.. 4!o a''o&dn# to &esea&'! a&e +e"te& "an#%a#e "ea&ne&s +o$s o& #&"s5 4!$5

A't-t$. Ha-e $o% e-e& 'ons'o%s"$ t&ed to not'e an$ d//e&en'e n "an#%a#e "ea&nn#

!a+ts o/ #&"s and +o$s5 a;e a "st o/ t!e d//e&en'es. I/ $o% !a-e not not'ed t!eset!n#s +e/o&e o+se&-e *= +o$s and *= #&"s n $o%& '"ass /o& a 2ont! o& so and2a;e a "st o/ d//e&en'es n t!e& "ea&nn# !a+ts. A"so ta;e a note o/ 0!at "an#%a#e/eat%&es ea'! o/ t!e se@es t&es to "ea&n /aste& t!an t!e ot!e&.)))-)-)

*.8. Inte""#en'e

4!at s nte""#en'e5

Inte""#en'e s %s%a""$ 'on'e-ed o/ as t!e a+"t$ to %nde&stand to "ea&n and t!n;t!n#s o%t ?%';"$ es7e'a""$ 'o27a&ed 0t! ot!e& 7eo7"e and 'onssts o/ -e&+a"a+"t$ &easonn# a+"t$ 'on'e7t /o&2aton a+"t$ et'. Ca&&o"" (86) 'on'e-ed o/nte""#en'e as t!e "ea&ne&s 'a7a't$ to %nde&stand nst&%'tons and to %nde&stand0!at s &e?%&ed o/ !2>!e& n t!e "ea&nn# st%aton. It s a ta"ent /o& not #ettn#sdet&a';ed o& 0astn# ones e//o&ts.Inte""#en'e Tests

ost o/ t!e nte""#en'e tests 2eas%&e a n%2+e& o/ a+"tes s2%"taneo%s"$. T!e 2ost'o22on"$ %sed nd-d%a" nte""#en'e tests n'"%de Stan/o&d=Bnet test 4e'!s"e&Ad%"t Inte""#en'e S'a"e (4AIS) and 4e'!s"e& Inte""#en'e S'a"e /o& C!"d&en(4ISC). So2e o/ t!e #&o%7 tests o/ nte""#en'e a&e A&2$ Beta Test A&2$ A"7!aTest A&2$ Gene&a" C"ass/'aton Test (AGCT) et'. T!e Stan/o&d=Bnet test s %sed/o& '!"d&en /&o2 t0o to s@teen $ea&s o/ a#e and 7%ts !ea-$ st&ess %7on -e&+a"a+"t$. It 'ant +e %sed 0t! '!"d&en 0!o a&e ""te&ate. 4e'!s"e& Ad%"t Inte""#en'eS'a"e (4AIS) 'onssts o/ t!e /o""o0n# -e&+a" and 7e&/o&2an'e (non=-e&+a") s%+tests.Ve&+a" S%+testsIn/o&2aton

Gene&a" Co27&e!enson

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Pe&/o&2an'e (non=-e&+a") S%+testsP't%&e a&&an#e2ent P't%&e Co27"eton

Inst&%'ton:Q P"annn# n Tea'!n# e2o&$Q S7an

/ En#"s! . A&t!2et' &easonn#S2"a&tesVo'a+%"a&$B"o'; des#nO+,e't asse2+"$D#t s$2+o"

T!e #&o%7 te@t T!e A&2$ Beta Test 2eant 2an"$ /o& ""te&ates and /o&e#ne&s not7&o/'ent n En#"s! e27!ases non=-e&+a" 7&o+"e2s /o& 0!'! s27"e nst&%'tons'an +e #-en o&a""$.

T!e A&2$ A"7!a Test des#nated /o& t!e t$7'a" nd-d%a" 0!o 'an &ead and 0&ten'"%de so2e o/ t!e 7&o+"e2s ";e t!e /o""o0n#:A. I/ 6 >* tons o/ +a&; 'ost 0!at 0"" >* 'ost5 ( )B. A t&an s !a&de& to sto7 t!an an a%to2o+"e +e'a%se( ) t s "on#e& ( ) t s !ea-e& ( ) t!e +&a;es a&e not so #ood.C. I/ t!e t0o 0o&ds o/ a 7a& 2ean t!e sa2e o& nea&"$ t!e sa2e t!n# d&a0 a "ne%nde& sa2e. I/ t!e$ 2ean t!e o77oste o& nea&"$ t!e o77oste d&a0 a "ne %nde&o77oste.'o27&e!ens-e &est&'ted sa2e o77ostea""%&e att&a't sa2e o77osteta"ent !dden sa2e o77ostede&de &d'%"e sa2e o77osteRo"e o/ Inte""#en'e D. I/ 0!en $o% !a-e a&&an#ed t!e /o""o0n# 0o&ds to2a;e a senten'e t!e senten'e s t&%e%nde&"ne t&%e / t s /a"se %nde&"ne /a"se.

7eo7"e ene2es a&&o#ant 2an$ 2a;e t&%e>/a"se ne-e& 0!o !eed"ess t!ose st%2+"e a&e t&%e>/a"se Qne-e& 2an t!e s!o0 t!e deeds t&%e>/a"seE. Unde&"ne 0!'! 0o&d s a77&o7&ate.T!e 7t'!e& !as an 27o&tant 7"a'e n tenns /oot+a""

+ase+a"" !and+a""

1. Unde&"ne 0!'! 0o&d s a77&o7&ate.Dsna" s to da&; as '!ee&/%" s to "a%#!+!t !o%se #"oo2$

A"" t!ese tests 2a$ +e %se/%" as 2eas%&es o/ 2enta" a+"t$ o/ et!e& an nd-d%a" o& a#&o%7 o/ nd-d%a"s. B%t t!ese s'o&es 'annot +e t&eated as s%&e 7&ed'to&s o/ s%''essn a /o&e#n> se'ond "an#%a#e. No& 'an t!e$ +e 'onsde&ed as a &e/"e'ton o/ a+"tes toa'?%&e "an#%a#e. P2s"e%& et. a". (8*) &e7o&ted on a "ae n%2+e& o/ st%dese@a2nn# t!e Re"atons!7 o/ nte""#en'e 0t! /o&e#n "an#%a#e "ea&nn#. T!o%#!so2e o/ t!e st%des #a-e e-den'e /o& t!e 7ost-e &e"atons!7 +et0een nte""#en'eand s%''ess n a /o&e#n "an#%a#e 2ost o/ t!e st%des 0e&e s;e7t'a" o/ s%'!

&e"atons!7. Ca&&o"" and Sa7on (6) noted t!at -e&$ /e0 o/ t!e a+"tes 2eas%&ed nan nte""#en'e test 0e&e /o%nd &e"e-ant to /o&e#n "an#%a#e "ea&nn# and t 0as /o&

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t!s &eason t!at t!e&e 0as -e&$ ns#n/'ant &e"atons!7 +et0een t!e s'o&es on annte""#en'e te@t and a /o&e#n "an#%a#e test. o&e &esea&'! s needed to dent/$ t!osea+"tes t!at 2at'! s#n/'ant"$ 0t! /o&e#n "an#%a#e s'o&es. In'denta""$ t!esea+"tes !a-e +een 'a""ed +$ 2an$ &esea&'!e&s as "an#%a#e a7tt%de a+"tes. 4e s!a"""oo; nto t!ese a+"tes n t!e ne@t se'ton.

*.8.3 A7tt%de4!at s A7tt%de5A7tt%de /o& a 7a&t'%"a& ,o+ o& s;"" s t!e a+"t$ to "ea&n t ?%';"$ and eas"$ and todo t 0e"". 4!at 7eo7"e #ene&a""$ 'a"" a ;na'; /o& "an#%a#es s not!n# +%t a7tt%de/o& "an#%a#es. B%t t s -e&$ d//'%"t to dete&2ne 0!at t!s ;na'; s. It s 'e&tan"$2o&e t!an !a-n# an ea& /o& "an#%a#es +e'a%se e-e&$one "ea&ns !s>!e& /&st "an#%a#e.It s 7o7%"a&"$ +e"e-ed t!at so2e 7eo7"e !a-e 2o&e a7tt%de /o& "ea&nn# se'ond"an#%a#es t!an ot!e&s. T!s o+se&-aton !as #ene&a""$ +een 2ade n 'onne'ton 0t!'"ass&oo2 "ea&nn# and not "ea&nn# n &ea"="/e st%atons.A7tt%de eas%&esT!e t0o +est ;no0n 2eas%&es o/ 1L (/o&e#n "an#%a#e) a7tt%de /o& nat-e s7ea;e&s o/

En#"s! a&e t!e ode&n Lan#%a#e A7tt%de Test (LAT) de-e"o7ed +$ Ca&&o"" andSa7on (6) and t!e P2s"e%& Lan#%a#e A7tt%de Batte&$ (LAB) (88). LATn'o&7o&ates /o%& 2an /a'to&s t!at 7&ed't a st%dents s%''ess n t!e '"ass&oo2. T!s'onssts o/:) 7!one2' 'odn# a+"t$: st%dents a+"t$ to %se 7!onet' s'&7ts to dstn#%s!

7!one2es n t!e "an#%a#e.) #&a22at'a" senst-t$: st%dents a+"t$ to 7'; o%t #&a22at'a" /%n'tons n asenten'e.) nd%'t-e "an#%a#e "ea&nn# a+"t$: st%dents a+"t$ to #ene&a"se 7atte&ns /&o2one senten'e to anot!e&.-) &ote "ea&nn#: st%dents a+"t$ to &e2e2+e& -o'a+%"a&$ "sts o/ /o&e#n 0o&ds

7a&ed 0t! t&ans"atons.T!ese 'o27onents 0e&e e-ent%a""$ 2eas%&ed n t!e /o""o0n# /-e s%+tests o/ LAT:Pa&t one: N%2+e& Lea&nn#: T!e &es7ondent s ta%#!t on ta7e t!e 9%&ds! n%2+e&s$ste2 /&o2 to 3 7"%s t!e tens and !%nd&ed /o&2s o/ t!ese n%2+e&s t!en tested

+$ !ea&n# n%2+e&s 0!'! a&e 'o2+natons o/ t!ese e"e2ents e.#. * ** 3 et'.T!e test a2s at 2eas%&n# asso'at-e 2e2o&$.Pa&t t0o: P!onet' S'&7t: T!s s%+test 2eas%&es 7!one2' 'odn# a+"t$. T!e&es7ondent "ea&ns a s$ste2 o/ 7!onet' notaton o/ so2e En#"s! 7!one2es. S>!e st!en tested on t!s e.#. Unde&"ne t!e 0o&d $o% !ea&: T; T$; Ts T$s.Pa&t t!&ee: S7e""n# C"%es: T!s s a s7eed test t!at 2eas%&es +ot! nat-e "an#%a#e

-o'a+%"a&$ and 7!one2' 'odn# a+"t$. T!e &es7ondent s #-en '"%es to t!e7&on%n'aton o/ a 0o&d e.#. "%- /o& "o-e and s t!en as;ed to '!oose a s$non$2/&o2 a "st o/ a"te&nat-es:A. 'a&&$B. e@stC. a//e'tonD. 0as!E. s7$In t!s 'ase C. a//e'ton 'o&&es7onds 2ost nea&"$ n 2eann# to "%-.Pa&t /o%& : 4o&ds n a senten'e: T!s tests #&a22at'a" senst-t$. T!e &es7ondent s#-en 7a&s o/ senten'es. In t!e /&st senten'e (;e$ senten'e) n ea'! 7a& a 'e&tan

0o&d o& a 7!&ase s %nde&"ned and t!e &es7ondent s as;ed to t'; (V ) one o/ t!e /-e%nde&"ned 0o&ds o& 7!&ases n t!e se'ond senten'e t!at /%n'tons 2ost nea&"$ ";e t!e

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0o&d o& 7!&ase n t!e ;e$ senten'e n t!e 7a&. As $o% 'an see n t!e /o""o0n# 7a&so/ senten'e:London s t!e 'a7ta" o/ En#"andHe ";ed to #o /s!n# n anet!e 0o&d !e n t!e se'ond senten'e 7e&/o&2s t!e sa2e /%n'ton as London n t!e ;e$

senten'e.Pa&t /-e : Pa&ed Asso'ates: T!e &es7ondent st%des a 0&tten 9%&ds! = En#"s!-o'a+%"a&$ "st 7&a't'es t!e st2%"%s = &es7onse 7a&s seen and s t!en tested +$2eans o/ 2%"t7"e='!o'e te2s. T!s s a test o/ asso'at-e 2e2o&$. 1o& nstan'e t!e&es7ondent s as;ed to de'de 0!'! 0o&d o/ En#"s! !as t!e sa2e 2eann# as t!e9%&ds! 0o&d &oo.E@a27"e&ooa) a&t

+) d&a0') &%n

d) as; e) 'a2e"T!e 'o&&e't '!o'e s aT!e&e a&e se-e&a" s"#!t"$ d//e&ent /o&2s o/ LAT a-a"a+"e. T!e LAT tse"/ s /o&%se 0t! 7eo7"e o/ 3 $ea&s o/ a#e and a+o-e. T!e&e s a"so an e"e2enta&$ /o&2(ELAT) /o& %se 0t! '!"d&en +et0een t!e a#es o/ e#!t and e"e-en. T!e&e s a"so as!o&t /o&2 o/ t!e test /o& %se 0!en t!e t2e s "2ted.P2s"e%& Lan#%a#e A7tt%de Batte&$ (LAB) s a77&o7&ate /o& '!"d&en a#ed to .It e27!asses nd%'t-e "an#%a#e "ea&nn# 'a7a't$ and a%dto&$ a+"t$. P2s"e%& et.a". (88) s%##ested t!at * to 7e& 'ent o/ '!"&en %nde&a'!e-e n /o&e#n "an#%a#e"ea&nn# +e'a%se t!e$ !a-e 7oo& a%dto&$ a+"t$.Re-e0 o/ Resea&'! on A7tt%deost &esea&'! n "an#%a#e a7tt%de sn'e t!en !as +een et!e& n -a"daton o/ t!ee@stn# tests o& de-e"o7n# a7tt%de +atte&es /o& %se n 7a&t'%"a& 'o%nt&es. 1o&nstan'e t!e Yo&; Lan#%a#e Ana"$ss Test !as +een de-e"o7ed and !as +een 0de"$%sed n B&tan. T!e 2ost 27o&tant &esea&'! a2ed at t!e 7&od%'ton o/ a ne0 test

+atte&$ !as +een 'a&&ed o%t +$ t!e A2e&'an A&2ed 1o&'es. T!s 0as t!e &es%"t o/dssats/a'ton /e"t 0t! LAT /o& not +en# a+"e to ds'&2nate at !#!e& "e-e"s.Anot!e& t$7e o/ &esea&'! !as e@a2ned t!e 'o27onent /o& a7tt%de n #&eate& de7t!.S;e!an (!e& 7e&sona"t$ o& 7&e/e&en'e and not !s>!e& a+"t$ o& nte""#en'e. 1o& e@a27"e

t0o +o$s An0a& and 9an0a" "oo; at t0o d//e&ent ;nds o/ 'a&s +%t t!e& &es7onsesa&e ?%te d//e&ent. An0a& t!n;s o/ !o0 'o2/o&ta+"e ea'! 'a& s 0!e&eas 9an0a"

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'o22ents on ea'! 'a&s en#ne ts 'a7a't$ and !o0 ea'! 'a& s des#ned d//e&ent"$.T!ese &es7onses o/ An0a& and 9an0a" s!o0 t!at An0a& /o'%ses on t!e %se/%"ness o/t!e 'a& and 9an0a" on t!e te'!n'a" as7e'ts. T!e /o&2e& t!e&e/o&e s a /%n'tona"stand t!e "atte& an ana"$e&. Bot! t!e &es7onses &e/"e't d//e&ent st$"es o/ "ea&nn# o&'o#nt-e st$"es.

T$7es o/ Co#nt-e St$"esa) 1e"d=nde7enden'e = 1e"d=de7enden'eResea&'!e&s !a-e +&oad"$ dent/ed t!&ee d//e&ent 'o#nt-e st$"es 0!'! t!e$ 'a""/e"d=nde7enden'e>/e"d=de7enden'e &e/"e'ton=27%"s-t$ and 'ate#o&atonst$"es. T!e 'o#nt-e st$"e 'a""ed /e"d=de7enden'e s de/ned +$ a 7e&son 0!o 'annot'onsde& an o+,e't o& e-ent se7a&ate"$ /&o2 t!e 'onte@t n 0!'! t a77ea&s. T!e'onte@t n 0!'! an o+,e't a77ea&s s ts /e"d. On t!e ot!e& !and t!e /e"d=nde7endent 7e&sons !a-e t!e 'a7a't$ to 7&o'ess n/o&2aton o& 'onsde& an o+,e't o&e-ent nde7endent o/ t!e 'onte@t. 1o& e@a27"e 0!en a 7e&son 0t! a /e"d=nde7endent 'o#nt-e st$"e "oo;s at a 7antn# !e !as no d//'%"t$ n /ndn# t!e'ent&a" 2ot/ o/ t!e 7antn# and &e"atn# t!e deta"s to t!e 'ent&a" 2ot/.

Resea&'!e&s !a-e &e"ated t!s 'on'e7t o/ /e"d=nde7enden'e>/e"d=de7enden'e tose'ond "an#%a#e "ea&nn#. S;e!an (

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) des'&7t-e = ana"$t' st$"e) 'ate#o&'a" = n/e&enta" st$"e) &e"atona" = 'onte@t%a" st$"eA des'&7t-e = ana"$t' 'o#nt-e st$"e 'on'ent&ates on a sn#"e deta" 'o22on to a""o+,e'ts. A 'ate#o&'a" = n/e&enta" st$"e /o'%ses on t!e '"ass o/ o+,e'ts 0!e&eas a

&e"atona" ='onte@t%a" /o'%ses on a 'o22on t!e2e o& /%n'ton.Ea'! o/ t!ese 'o#nt-e st$"es 2a$ !a-e ts e//e't on se'ond "an#%a#e "ea&nn#.T!o%#! t!e /e"d=nde7endent>/e"d=de7endent 'o#nt-e st$"e !as +een e@7"o&ed ndeta" n &e"aton to se'ond "an#%a#e "ea&nn# ot!e& 'o#nt-e st$"es need to +e st%dedn deta" n t!s 'onte@t. It s /e"t t!at a d//e&en'e n t!e 'o#nt-e st$"e o/ a "ea&ne&2a$ 2a;e a s#n/'ant d//e&en'e n s%''ess n se'ond "an#%a#e "ea&nn#. It s a"so27o&tant to &e2e2+e& t!at sn'e t!ese d//e&en'es a&e !#!"$ nd-d%a" t!e$ s!o%"d

+e ;e7t n 2nd at t!e t2e o/ se"e'tn# tea'!n# st&