b d chaurasia's human anatomy edition fourth - medical books
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for Dental Students
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FourthEditionFourthEdition
9 789389 396362
ISBN: 978-93-89396-36-2
4819/XI, Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India [email protected], [email protected]; www.cbspd.comE-mail: Website:
New Delhi Bengaluru Chennai Kochi Kolkata Mumbai | | | | |Bhopal Bhubaneswar Hyderabad Jharkhand Nagpur Patna Pune Uttarakhand Dhaka (Bangladesh) Kathmandu (Nepal)| | | | | | | | |
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd
De
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GargGargGargGargGargGargEdited by
These would help in better preparation of both theory and practical examinations.
has been thoroughly revised, especially and sections, as per Dental Council of India’s Head and Neck Brainrecommendations. Many new diagrams have been added and the previous ones modified. Some selected diagrams from the first edition have been adapted and incorporated.
• A few further reading for inquisitive students has been provided at the end of the chapters in Head and Necksection.
• Molecular control of development of various organs has been given in this edition.• Flowcharts of all cranial nerves have been provided in the Brain section • For testing the knowledge acquired after understanding the main topics of Head, Neck and Brain, Frequently
Asked Questions and Viva Voce questions have been added in all the chapters of these two regions.
• • • Clinicoanatomical Problems Multiple Choice Questions Mnemonics
The and sections of the book colorfully present the following inherent salient features:Head and Neck Brain
• • Frequently Asked Questions Viva Voce
• • • • Regional and Applied Anatomy Clinical Anatomy Dissection Facts to Remember
Section 1 covers in Chapters 1–8, including the terminology, features of bones, joints, muscles, general anatomyblood vessels, skin, fasciae, etc.
Section 4 effectively covers (Chapters 38–41), i.e. upper limb, thorax, abdomen, other regions of human body pelvis and lower limb. Each region is discussed in one chapter only giving clinically relevant details.Section 5 includes (Chapters 42–45), i.e. clinical procedures, genetics, topics of importance in human anatomyembryology and histology. Embryology includes mentioned briefly and general embryology embryology of head and neck described adequately. Histology covers microscopic structures of basic tissues and important systems necessary for the dental students.
Section 2 deals with in Chapters 9–28. Gross anatomy of head and neck has been given in detail. head and neckSteps of dissection have been put in blue boxes marked . Illustrated clinical anatomy is given along with Dissectioneach concerned topic to increase the book’s utility during the clinical years. Appendix with it comprises parasympathetic ganglia, tables of arteries, clinical terms, etc.
Organisation of the text chapters/sections:
Section 3 deals with in Chapters 29–37. Chapter 32 exclusively deals with cranial nerves and their clinical brainanatomy. New flowcharts for all the cranial nerves have been added. Various surfaces, lobes, sulci, gyri and important areas are also delineated in the audiovisual presentation available to the readers on .CBSiCentral App
Krishna Garg MBBS, MS, PhD, FIMSA, FIAMS, FAMS, FASI is ex-Professor and Head, Department of Anatomy, Lady Hardinge Medical College (LHMC), New Delhi. She joined LHMC in 1964 where she completed her MS and PhD, and taught anatomy till 1996. She has received fellowships of the Indian Medical Association, Academy of Medical Specialists, and the International Medical Science Academy. She was elected fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FAMS) in 2005. She was honoured with Excellence Award in Anatomy in 2004 by Delhi Medical Association. She has received Life Time Achievement Award, Fellowship of Anatomical Society of India, and DMA Distinguished Services Award, in 2015. She is visiting faculty of DNB, MDS and a PhD examiner. She is Chief editor of BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy 8/e (Vols 1–4); author of Companion Pocketbook—BDC Human Anatomy (Vols 1–3) and coauthor of Textbook of Histology 5/e, Textbook of Neuroanatomy 6/e, Anatomy and Physiology for Nurses, Anatomy and Physiology for Allied Health Sciences, Practical Anatomy Workbook, Practical Histology Workbook and Practical Anatomy Workbook for Dental Students; and editor of Human Embryology 2/e and Handbook of General Anatomy 6/e. Another book she has written is Anatomy and Physiology for Diploma in Pharmacy Students.
Editor
Salient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient Features• Regional and Applied Anatomy• Dissection and Clinical Anatomy
• Facts to Remember• Clinicoanatomical Problems• Multiple Choice Questions
• Mnemonics• General Anatomy
• Clinical Procedures• Genetics
• Embryology• Histology
HumanAnatomy
BD Chaurasia’sFourth Edition
New TNew TNew TNew TNew Topicsopicsopicsopicsopics• Frequently Asked Questions• Viva Voce• Further Reading• Molecular Basis of Development• Flowcharts of Cranial Nerves
for Dental Students
Other CBS Bestsellers in Human Anatomy
BD Chaurasia’s Human Anatomy: Regional and Applied Dissection and Clinical 8th ednVolume 1: Upper Limb and ThoraxVolume 2: Lower Limb, Abdomen and PelvisVolume 3: Head–NeckVolume 4: Brain–Neuroanatomy
Companion Pocketbook for Quick Review BD Chaurasia’s Human AnatomyVolume 1: Upper Limb and ThoraxVolume 2: Lower Limb, Abdomen and PelvisVolume 3: Head, Neck and Brain
BD Chaurasia’s Handbook of General Anatomy 6th edn
BD Chaurasia’s dream Human Embryology 2nd edn
Textbook of Histology 5th edn
Textbook of Neuroanatomy with Clinical Orientation 6th edn
Practical Anatomy Workbook revised 2nd edn
Practical Histology Workbook revised 2nd edn
Practical Anatomy Workbook for Dental Students
Edited by
Krishna Garg MBBS, MS, PhD, FIAMS, FAMS, FIMSA
Ex-Professor and HeadDepartment of Anatomy
Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi
Visiting Faculty of AnatomyKalka Dental College, Meerut, UP
Salient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient FeaturesSalient Features• Regional and Applied Anatomy• Dissection and Clinical Anatomy
• Facts to Remember• Clinicoanatomical Problems• Multiple Choice Questions
• Mnemonics• General Anatomy
• Clinical Procedures• Genetics
• Embryology• Histology
New TNew TNew TNew TNew Topicsopicsopicsopicsopics• Frequently Asked Questions• Viva Voce• Further Reading• Molecular Basis of Development• Flowcharts of Cranial Nerves
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt LtdNew Delhi • Bengaluru • Chennai • Kochi • Kolkata • Mumbai
Bhopal • Bhubaneswar • Hyderabad • Jharkhand • Nagpur • Patna • Pune • Uttarakhand • Dhaka (Bangladesh) • Kathmandu (Nepal)
HumanAnatomy
BD Chaurasia’sFourth Edition
for Dental Students
ISBN: 978-93-89396-36-2
Copyright © Editor and Publisher
Fourth Edition: 2020First Edition: 2007
Second Edition: 2012
Third Edition: 2016
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the author andthe publisher.
Published by Satish Kumar Jain and produced by Varun Jain forCBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt Ltd4819/XI Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India.Ph: 011-23289259, 23266861, 23266867 Fax: 011-23243014 Website: www.cbspd.com
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Printed at Nutech Print Services, Faridabad, Haryana, India
Disclaimer
Science and technology are constantly changing fields. New research andexperience broaden the scope of information and knowledge. The editorhas tried her best in giving information available to her while preparing thematerial for this book. Although all efforts have been made to ensureoptimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quite possible some errors mighthave been left uncorrected. The publisher, the printer and the editor willnot be held responsible for any inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies.
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Human anatomy for dental students had asuccessful inning in its third edition. Since change
for keeping in sync with the newer developments isnecessary, the fourth edition is being published.
The text has been updated and diagrams havebeen corrected and improved. Some important linediagrams of first edition of BD Chaurasia’s HumanAnatomy have been put in Head and Neck section.
Molecular basis of development of various organshas been initiated as most of the diseases have agenetic origin.
Some references as “Further Reading” are given atthe end of all chapters of head, neck and brain forinquisitive students. Hallmark of this edition is theinclusion of Viva Voce questions at the end of Headand Neck and Brain sections. Learning their answerswill prepare the students for their numerous practicalexaminations. These would even give themconfidence for their postgraduate medical entranceexaminations and the interviews for their jobs.
Accordingly, the various sections in this book are asfollows:
Section I General Anatomy contains 8 chapters.
Section II Head and Neck comprises, the mostimportant component of anatomy for BDS students.It contains description of all the bones, dissection,illustrated gross anatomy and clinical anatomy. Themuscles of various parts have been given in tabularform. Revision can be done by facts to remember,frequently asked questions, MCQ and viva voce atthe end of all chapters.
Section III Brain highlights of this section areflowcharts of the cranial nerves.
Section IV Other Regions of Human Body coversupper limb, thorax, abdomen and pelvis and lowerlimb, very briefly, giving important clinical anatomypoints.
Section V Topics of Importance in Human Anatomycontains clinical procedures, genetics, embryologyand histology.
Chapter on embryology gives a bird’s eye view ofthe general embryology. Emphasis has been given onthe molecular development and congenitalanomalies of structures in head and neck, namely,tongue, thyroid, parathyroid, pharyngeal arches,pouches, clefts, skull, face, teeth, eye, ear, etc.
Chapter on histology is in two parts. Generalhistology is given with relevant drawings. As far assystemic histology is concerned, only the partsnecessary for BDS students are given, such as histologyof salivary glands, trachea, oesophagus and generalplan of gastrointestinal tract with diagrams. Inaddition, the endocrine system and special senses aredescribed to complete the organs studied by BDSstudents.
Obligations are due to Mr SK Jain, Chairman andManaging Director; Mr Varun Jain, Director; Mr YNArjuna, Senior Vice President (Publishing, Editorial andPublicity); Ms Ritu Chawla, Production Manager; andthe entire editorial and production teams at CBSPD.Thanks to Ms Jyoti Kaur who has done the formattingpart very efficiently, Mr Sanjay Chauhan for doingbeautiful graphic work and Mr Kshirod who hasproficiently done the proofreading.
I shall be obliged to the readers for any constructivecriticism and suggestions for improvement of thebook.
Krishna [email protected]
Preface to the First Edition
With an ever-increasing number of students pursing dentistry as a profession, an urgent need was
felt for a comprehensive book on human anatomy fordental students. The books presently available fordental students have a large number of lacunaewhich require appropriate rectification. With thisbroad objective in mind, this book has been plannedto provide gross anatomy of the whole body withdetailed anatomy of the head and neck accordingto the syllabus prescribed by the Dental Council ofIndia. I am grateful to the Almighty for providing methis unique opportunity.
The fourth edition of BD Chaurasia’s HumanAnatomy published in 2004 and edited by me hasbeen widely accepted as the base-line book on thesubject for dental students. In this book the textmaterial of Volume 3 (Head and Neck section) hasbeen revised and included. Dissection as perrequirement of BDS students have been given in blueboxes. Multiple Choice Questions and Clinico-anatomical Problems of head and neck region havealso been incorporated.
The other regions, namely, brain, upper limb, thorax,abdomen, pelvis and lower limb, have beencondensed in description, however, without anycompromise on the illustrations which have beenrevised and improved substantially. It is thus acontinuous, well illustrated study of each region.Muscles of all the regions have been tabulated.Besides, at the end of each section the entire courseof all the nerves with clinical terms has beenincorporated from the viewpoint of revision andretention. Similarly, the brief course of arteries and theirbranches have been tabulated to aid quickmemorization.
The clinical anatomy has also been illustratedprofusely with relevant photographs to provide a
glimpse of the future to the first year students of BDScourse.
I am obliged to Prof Ved Prakash, Prof Mohini Kaul,Prof Indira Bahl and Prof Kumkum Rana for providinghelp whenever required.
I am grateful to Dr Suvira Gupta, Ex-DirectorProfessor and Head, Department of Radiology, GBPant Hospital, New Delhi, for her expert guidance onvarious radiographs, CT, ultrasound and MRI scans inhead and neck sections of the book. Thanks are dueto Dr Neeta Agarwal and Dr Dalvinder Singh forconstantly encouraging me.
Mr Ankur Mittal and Mr Ajit Kumar, students of BPT2004 batch from Banarasidas Chandiwala Institute ofPhysiotherapy, New Delhi, have diligently read theentire text and helped me in correcting the errors ofomission. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.
I am obliged to Mr YN Arjuna, Publishing Director ofCBS Publishers & Distributors, for providing exemplaryguidance and constructive critism for this book in spiteof his extremely busy schedule. His team comprisingMr Karzan Lal Prasher, Mr. Mukesh Kumar Sharma, MsNeelam, Mr Akhilesh Kumar Dubey and MsMehjabeen, has given the best technical support ingetting the book in its present format which isattractive and appealing.
Mr SK Jain, Managing Director, CBS Publishers &Distributors, has been constantly monitoring theprogress of the book so that it is released at theappropriate time.
I wish to thank all my family members for theircooperation. It is my fervent hope that prayer and thededication put in this book proves to be useful for BDSand MDS students. I earnestly welcome the teachersand the students in all the colleges to providesuggestions that would help make furtherimprovements in this book.
Krishna Garg
1. Introduction 3Language of Anatomy 4
Positions 4Planes 4Terms Used in Relation to Trunk, Neck and
Face 5Terms Used in Relation to Upper Limb 6Terms Used in Relation to Lower Limb 6Terms of Relation Commonly Used in
Embryology 6Terms Related to Body Movements 6
In the Neck 7In Upper Limb 7In Lower Limb 8Terms Used for Describing Bone Features 9
Clinical Anatomy 10Facts to Remember 10Multiple Choice Questions 10
2. Skeleton 11Bones 11
Definition 11Functions 11
Classification of Bones 11According to Shape 11Developmental Classification 12Regional Classification 13Structural Classification 13
Gross Structure of an Adult Long Bone 13Parts of a Young Growing Bone 14
Epiphysis 14Diaphysis 14Metaphysis 14Epiphysial Plate of Cartilage 15
Blood Supply of Bones 15Arterial Supply 15Venous Drainge 15Lymphatic Drainage 15
Nerve Supply of Bones 15Growth of a Long Bone 15
Factors Affecting Growth 15Cartilage 16
General Features of Cartilage 16
Clinical Anatomy 17Facts to Remember 17Multiple Choice Questions 17
3. Joints 18Classification of Joints 18
Structural Classification 18Fibrous Joints 18Cartilaginous Joints 18Synovial Joints 18Functional Classification 18Regional Classification 19According to Number of Articulating
Bones 19Fibrous Joints 19Cartilaginous Joints 21Synovial Joints 22
Characters 22Classification of Synovial Joints 22Plane Synovial Joints 22Hinge Joints (Ginglymi) 22Pivot (Trochoid) Joints 22Condylar (Bicondylar) Joints 22Ellipsoid Joints 23Saddle (Sellar) Joints 23Ball-and-socket (Spheroidal) Joints 23Mechanism of Lubrication of a Synovial
Joint 23Blood Supply 23Nerve Supply 24Lymphatic Drainage 24Stability 24
Clinical Anatomy 24Facts to Remember 24Multiple Choice Questions 24
4. Muscles 25Derivation of Name 25
Types of Muscles 25Skeletal Muscles 25
Parts of a Muscle 25Two Ends 25Two Parts 26
Section I GENERAL ANATOMY
Contents
vPreface to the Fourth Edition Preface to the First Edition vii
Structure of Striated Muscle 26Contractile Tissue 26Supporting Tissue 26
Fascicular Architecture of Muscles 27Parallel Fasciculi 27Oblique Fasciculi 27Spiral or Twisted Fasciculi 28
Naming the Muscles 28Features Used in Naming Muscles 28Shape 28Size 28Number of Heads 28Attachment 28Depth 28Position 28Action 29
Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle 29Nerve Supply of Smooth Muscle 29Nerve Supply of Cardiac Muscle 30
Actions of Muscles 30Clinical Anatomy 30Facts to Remember 31Multiple Choice Questions 31
5. Circulatory System 32Components 32
Types of Circulation of Blood 33Arteries 33
Characteristic Features 33Types of Arteries and Structure 33Palpable Arteries 34
Veins 35Characteristic Features 35Structure of Veins 35
Capillaries 35Size 35Sinusoids 35
Anastomoses 35Definition 35Types 35
End Arteries 36Clinical Anatomy 37Facts to Remember 37Multiple Choice Questions 38
6. Lymphatic System 39Components 39
Lymph Capillaries and Lymph Vessels 39Central Lymphoid Tissues 40Bone marrow 40Thymus 40Peripheral Lymphoid Organs 41
Lymph Nodes 41Spleen 43Circulating Pool of Lymphocytes 43Growth Pattern of Lymphoid Tissue 43
Clinical Anatomy 44Facts to Remember 44Multiple Choice Questions 44
7. Nervous System 45Parts of Nervous System 45Cell Types of Nervous System 46
Neuron 46Neuroglia 48
Functions of Glial and Ependymal Cells 48Reflex Arc 48Peripheral Nerves 49Spinal Nerves 49
Nerve Plexuses for Limbs 50Blood and Nerve Supply of Peripheral
Nerves 51Nerve Fibres 51
Myelinated Fibres 51Nonmyelinated Fibres 52Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibres 52
Autonomic Nervous System 53Sympathetic Nervous System 53Parasympathetic Nervous System 55
Neurotransmitters 56Clinical Anatomy 56Facts to Remember 57Multiple Choice Questions 57
8. Skin, Fasciae and Ligaments 58Skin 58Surface Area 58Pigmentation of Skin 58
Thickness 59Structure of Skin 59
Epidermis 59Dermis or Corium 59
Surface Irregularities of the Skin 59Appendages of Skin 160
Nails 60Hair 61Sweat Glands 61Sebaceous Glands 62
Functions of Skin 63Fasciae 63Superficial Fascia 63
Distribution of Fat in this Fascia 63Types of Fats 63Important Features 64
Deep Fascia 64Definition 64Distribution 64Important Features 64
Modifications of Deep Fascia 65Ligaments 66
Types of Ligaments 66Raphe 66Clinical Anatomy 66Facts to Remember 67Multiple Choice Questions 67
viii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
9. Introduction and Osteology 71Skull 72Bones of the Skull 72Exterior of the Skull 74Norma Verticalis 74Clinical Anatomy 74Norma Occipitalis 75Norma Frontalis 76Clinical Anatomy 78Norma Lateralis 78Clinical Anatomy 81Norma Basalis 81Interior of the Skull 89Clinical Anatomy 93, 94The Orbit 96Foetal Skull/Neonatal Skull 98Ossification 98Clinical Anatomy 99Craniometry 99Mandible 100
Age Chnges in the Mandible 103Structure Related to Mandible 103
Clinical Anatomy 104Maxilla 104Parietal Bone 108Occipital Bone 108Frontal Bone 109Temporal Bone 110Sphenoid Bone 113Ethmoid Bone 115Vomer 116Inferior Nasal Concha 116Zygomatic Bone 116Nasal Bones 117Lacrimal Bone 117Palatine Bone 118Hyoid Bone 118Clinical Anatomy 119Cervical Vertebrae 119Typical Cervical Vertebra 119First Cervical Vertebra 121Second Cervical Vertebra 122Seventh Cervical Vertebra 123Clinical Anatomy 123Ossification of Cranial Bones 124Development of neurocranium 125Development of skull bones 125, 127Foramina of Skull Bones and their Contents 126Mnemonics 127Facts to Remember 128Clinicoanatomical Problem 128Multiple Choice Questions 129
10. Scalp, Temple and Face 130Scalp and Superficial Temporal Region 130Dissection 131
Clinical Anatomy 134Face 135The Facial Muscles 136Clinical Anatomy 141
Sensory Nerve Supply 142Clinical Anatomy 142Arteries of the Face 143
Facial Artery 139Dissection 143Clinical Anatomy 144Eyelids on Palpebrae 146Dissection 146Clinical Anatomy 147Lacrimal Apparatus 147Dissection 147Clinical Anatomy 147Development of Face 148Mnemonics 149Facts to Remember 149Clinicoanatomical Problems 149Frequently asked Questions 151Multiple Choice Questions 151Viva Voce 151
11. Side of the Neck 152The Neck 152Dissection 153Clinical Anatomy 154Deep Cervical Fascia 154Investing Layer 154Clinical Anatomy 156Pretracheal Fascia 157Clinical Anatomy 157Prevertebral Fascia 157Clinical Anatomy 157Carotid Sheath 158Pharyngeal spaces 158Sternocleidomastoid 159Clinical anatomy 160Posterior Triangle 161Dissection 161Clinical Anatomy 162Contents of the Posterior Triangle 162Clinical Anatomy 164Mnemonic 165Facts to Remember 165Clinicoanatomical Problem 165Further Reading 165Frequently asked Questions 166Multiple Choice Questions 166Viva Voce 166
12. Anterior Triangle of the Neck 167Structure in the Anterior Median Region
of the Neck 168Dissection 169
Section II HEAD AND NECK
ixCONTENTS
Clinical Anatomy 170Anterior Triangle 171Submental and Digastric Triangle 171Dissection 172Carotid Triangle 173Dissection 173Muscular Triangle 175Dissection 175Ansa Cervicalis 175Common Carotid Artery 177Clinical Anatomy 177
External Carotid Artery 177Potential Tissue Spaces 180Mnemonics 180Facts to Remember 180Clinicoanatomical Problem 180Further Reading 181Frequently Asked Questions 181Multiple Choice Questions 181Viva Voce 181
13. Parotid Region 182Parotid Gland 182Dissection 182Clinical Anatomy 183
Parotid Duct/Stenson’s Duct 187Clinical Anatomy 188Development 188Facts to Remember 188Clinicoanatomical Problem 188Further Reading 189Frequently Asked Questions 190Multiple Choice Questions 190Viva Voce 190
14. Temporal and Infratemporal Regions 191Temporal Fossa 191Infratemporal Fossa 191Landmarks on the Lateral Side of the Head 192Muscles of Mastication 192Dissection 192Maxillary Artery 195Dissection 195Temporomandibular Joint 198Dissection 198Clinical Anatomy 202Mandibular Nerve 202Otic Ganglion 205Clinical Anatomy 206Mnemonics 207Facts to Remember 207Clinicoanatomical Problem 207Futher Reading 208Frequently Asked Questions 208Multiple Choice Questions 209Viva Voce 209
15. Submandibular Region 210Suprahyoid Muscles 210Dissection 212
Submandibular Salivary Gland 214Dissection 214Comparison of the Three Salivary Glands 217Clinical Anatomy 218Facts to Remember 219Clinicoanatomical Problem 219Further Reading 219Frequently Asked Questions 220Multiple Choice Questions 220Viva Voce 220
16. Structures in the Neck 221Glands 221Dissection 221Thyroid Gland 221Clinical Anatomy 225Histology 226Development 226Parathyroid Glands 227Clinical Anatomy 228Thymus 228Clinical Anatomy 229Development of Thymus and Parathyroid 229Blood Vessels 230Dissection 230Subclavian Artery 230Clinical Anatomy 233Common Carotid Artery 233Dissection 233Clinical Anatomy 234Internal Carotid Artery 234Internal Jugular Vein 236Clinical Anatomy 237Nerves of the neck 237Glossopharyngeal 237Vagus 237Accessory 237Cervical Part of Sympathetic Trunk 239Dissection 239Clinical Anatomy 240Lymphatic Drainage of Head and Neck 241Dissection 241Clinical Anatomy 244Styloid Apparatus 244Development of Arteries 245Mnemonics 246Facts to Remember 246Clinicoanatomical Problem 246Further Reading 246Frequently Asked Questions 246Multiple Choice Questions 247Viva Voce 247
17. Prevertebral and ParavertebralRegions 248Vertebral Artery 248Dissection 248Scalenovertebral Triangle 249Trachea 251
x HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
Clinical Anatomy 252Oesophagus 252Clinical Anatomy 252Joints of the Neck 252Clinical Anatomy 255Scalene Muscles 256Dissection 256Cervical Pleura 258Cervical Plexus 258Phrenic Nerve 260Clinical Anatomy 261Facts to Remember 261Clinicoanatomical Problems 261Frequently Asked Questions 262Multiple Choice Questions 262Viva Voce 263
18. Back of the Neck 264Introduction 264Dissection 264Muscles of the Back 265Suboccipital Region 269Dissection 269Clinical Anatomy 271Mnemonics 272Facts to Remember 272Clinicoanatomical Problem 272Further Reading 272Frequently Asked Questions 273Multiple Choice Questions 250Viva Voce 273
19. Contents of Vertebral Canal 274Introduction 274Dissection 274Clinical Anatomy 276Spinal Nerves 277Clinical Anatomy 278Vertebral System of Veins 278Facts to Remember 279Clinicoanatomical Problem 279Frequently Asked Questions 279Multiple Choice Questions 279Viva Voce 279
20. Cranial Cavity 280Introduction 280Contents 280Dissection 280
Cerebral Dura Mater 281Clinical Anatomy 284Cavernous Sinus 284Dissection 284Clinical Anatomy 286
Superior Sagittal Sinus 287Clinical Anatomy 288
Sigmoid Sinuses 288Clinical Anatomy 288Hypophysis Cerebri (Pituitary Gland) 289
Dissection 289Clinical Anatomy 291Trigeminal Ganglion 292Dissection 292Clinical Anatomy 293Middle Meningeal Artery 293Clinical Anatomy 294Other Structures Seen in Cranial Fossae after
Removal of Brain 294Dissection 294
Internal Carotid Artery 294Petrosal Nerves 295
Mnemonics 296Facts to Remember 296Clinicoanatomical Problems 296Further Reading 297Frequently Asked Questions 297Multiple Choice Questions 298Viva Voce 298
21. Contents of the Orbit 299Orbits 299Dissection 299Extraocular Muscles 300Dissection 300Clinical Anatomy 304Vessels of the Orbit 305Dissection 305Clinical Anatomy 307Nerves of the Orbit 307Optic Nerve 307Clinical Anatomy 308Ciliary Ganglion 308Oculomotor Nerve 308Trochlear Nerve 309Abducent Nerve 309Ophthalmic Division of V 309Mnemonics 312Facts to Remember 312Clinicoanatomical Problem 312Further Reading 312Frequently Asked Questions 312Multiple Choice Questions 313Viva Voce 313
22. Mouth and Pharynx 314Oral Cavity 314
Clinical Anatomy 314Oral Cavity Proper 315
Clinical Anatomy 316Teeth 316
Clinical Anatomy 317Stages of Development of Deciduous Teeth 318Molecular Regulation 319Hard and Soft Palates 320Dissection 320
Muscles of the Soft Palate 322Clinical Anatomy 325Development of Palate 325
xiCONTENTS
Pharynx 325Dissection 326
Parts of the Pharynx 326Waldeyer’s Lymphatic Ring 326Clinical Anatomy 326
Palatine Tonsils 327Clinical Anatomy 329
Structure of Pharynx 330Muscles of Pharynx 331Structures in between Pharyngeal
Muscles 332Dissection 333
Killians’ Dehiscence 333Clinical Anatomy 333
Deglutition 334Auditory Tube 334Clinical Anatomy 336Mnemonics 336Facts to Remember 336Clinicoanatomical Problem 336Further Reading 336Frequently Asked Questions 337Multiple Choice Questions 337Viva Voce 338
23. Nose, Deep Paranasal Sinuses andPterygopalatine Fossa 339Nose 339Clinical Anatomy 340Nasal Septum 341Dissection 341Clinical Anatomy 342Lateral Wall of Nose 342Dissection 343Conchae and Meatuses 343Dissection 344Clinical Anatomy 345Olfactor Nerve 345Clinical Anatomy 345Paranasal Sinuses 345Dissection 345Clinical Anatomy 347Pterygopalatine Fossa 348
Maxillary Nerve 348Pterygopalatine Ganglion 349Dissection 350Clinical Anatomy 351Facts to Remember 351Clinicoanatomical Problem 352Further Reading 352Frequently Asked Questions 353Multiple Choice Questions 353Viva Voce 353
24. Larynx 354Constitution of Larynx 354Dissection 354
Cartilages of Larynx 355Cavity of Larynx 358
Clinical Anatomy 359Intrinsic Muscles of Larynx 359
Clinical Anatomy 362Movements of Vocal Fold 363Mechanism of Speech 364Facts to Remember 364Clinicoanatomical Problem 364Further Reading 365Frequently Asked Questions 366Multiple Choice Questions 366Viva Voce 366
25. Tongue 367Introduction 367Dissection 367Clinical Anatomy 368Muscles of the Tongue 369Hypoglossal Nerve 371Clinical Anatomy 371Histology 372Development of Tongue 373Taste Pathway 374Clinical Anatomy 374Facts to Remember 374Clinicoanatomical Problem 375Further Reading 375Frequently Asked Questions 376Multiple Choice Questions 376Viva Voce 376
26. Ear 377External Ear 377External Acoustic Meatus 378Dissection 379Tympanic Membrane 379Clinical Anatomy 380Middle Ear 382Dissection 382Tympanic or Mastoid Antrum 386Dissection 386Clinical Anatomy 387Internal Ear 388Blood Supply of Labyrinth 391Vestibulocochlear Nerve 391Clinical Anatomy 392Development 392Molecular Regulation 392Reasons of Earache 392Mnemonics 392Facts to Remember 392Clinicoanatomical Problem 393Noise Pollution 393Further Reading 393Frequently Asked Questions 394Multiple Choice Questions 394Viva Voce 394
27. Eyeball 395Outer Coat 395Dissection 396
xii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
Cornea 397Dissection 397Clinical Anatomy 397Middle Coat 398Clinical Anatomy 399Inner Coat/Retina 399Clinical Anatomy 400Aqueous Humour 401Clinical Anatomy 401Lens 401Dissection 402Clinical Anatomy 402Vitreous Body 402Development 403Molecular Regulation 403Facts to Remember 403Clinicoanatomical Problem 403Further Reading 403Frequently Asked Questions 404Multiple Choice Questions 404Viva Voce 404
28. Surface Marking and RadiologicalAnatomy 405Surface Landmarks 405
Landmarks on the Face 405Surface Marking of Various Structures 410Arteries 410Veins/Sinuses 411Nerves 412Glands 413Paranasal Sinuses 414Radiological Anatomy 415
Appendix: Parasympathetic Ganglia,Arteries, Pharyngeal Arches andClinical Terms 418Cervical Plexus 418Phrenic Nerve 418Sympathetic Trunk 418Parasympathetic Ganglia 418Arteries of Head and Neck 422Structures Derived From/Derivatives of
Pharyngeal Arches 424Endodermal Pouches 424Ectodermal Clefts 424
Molecular Regulation 425Clinical Terms 425Spots 427
xiiiCONTENTS
Section III BRAIN
29. Introduction 431Divisions of Nervous System 431
Anatomical 431Functional 431
Cellular Architecture 431Neuron 432Neuroglial Cells 432Reflex Arc 433
Parts of the Nervous System 433Central Nervous System (CNS) 433Peripheral Nervous System 433
Clinical Anatomy 435Facts to Remember 435Frequently Asked Questions 436Multiple Choice Questions 436
30. Meninges of the Brain andCerebrospinal Fluidm 437Introduction 437Dura Mater 437Arachnoid Mater 437
Prolongations 437Pia Mater 437
Prolongations 437Extradural (Epidural) and Subdural Spaces 438Subarachnoid Space 438
Cisterns 438Communications 439
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) 439Formation 439
Circulation 439Absorption 439Functions of CSF 439
Clinical Anatomy 441Facts to Remember 442Frequently Asked Questions 442Multiple Choice Questions 442Viva Voce 442
31. Spinal Cord 443Introduction 443Spinal Nerves 444Nuclei of Spinal Cord 444
Nuclei in Anterior Grey Column or Horn 444Nuclei in Lateral Horn 445Nuclei in Posterior Grey Column 445
Sensory Receptors 446Tracts of the Spinal Cord 446
Descending Tracts 446Ascending Tracts 447
Clinical Anatomy 450Facts to Remember 450Frequently Asked Questions 450Multiple Choice Questions 451Viva Voce 451
32. Crainal Nerves 452Cranial Nerves 452Embryology 452
Nuclei 453
First Cranial Nerve/Olfactory Nerve 457Clinical Anatomy 458Second Cranial Nerve/Optic Nerve 458
Field of Vision 458Visual (Optic) Pathway 459
Structures in Visual Pathway 459Structures Concerned with Visual
Reflexes 459Clinical Anatomy 460Third Cranial Nerve/Oculomotor Nerve 463Clinical Anatomy 464Fourth Cranial Nerve/Trochlear Nerve 465
Functional Components 465Nucleus 465Course and Distribution 465
Clinical Anatomy 465Sixth Cranial Nerve/Abducent Nerve 466
Functional Components 466Nucleus 467Course and Distribution 465
Clinical Anatomy 465Fifth Cranial Nerve/Trigeminal Nerve 468
Sensory Components of V Nerve 468Motor Component 469
Clinical Anatomy 471Seventh Cranial Nerve/Facial Nerve 472
Functional Components 472Nuclei 472Course and Relations 472Branches and Distribution 473Ganglia 475
Clinical Anatomy 475Eighth Cranial Nerve/Vestibulocochlear
Nerve 477Pathway of Hearing 477Vestibular Pathway 477
Clinical Anatomy 480Last Four Cranial Nerves 480Ninth Cranial Nerve/Glossopharyngeal
Nerve 480Functional Components 480Nuclei 481Course and Relations 481Branches and Distribution 482
Clinical Anatomy 482Tenth Cranial Nerve/Vagus Nerve 483
Functional Components 484Nuclei 485Course and Relations in Head and Neck 485Branches in Head and Neck 485
Clinical Anatomy 487Eleventh Cranial Nerve/Accessory Nerve 488
Functional Components 488Nuclei 488Course and Distribution of the Cranial Root
and Spinal Root 488Clinical Anatomy 489Twelfth Cranial Nerve/Hypoglossal Nerve 490
Functional Components 490Nucleus 490
Course and Relations 490Branches and Distribution 491
Clinical Anatomy 491Facts To Remember 492Frequently Asked Questions 492Multiple Choice Questions 492Viva Voce 492
33. Brainstem 494Introduction 494Medulla Oblongata 494
External Features 494Internal Structure 495
Pons 497External Features 497Internal Structure of Pons 498
Midbrain 499Subdivisions 499Internal Structure of Midbrain 499
Clinical Anatomy 501Facts to Remember 501Frequently Asked Questions 502Multiple Choice Questions 502Viva Voce 502
34. Cerebellum 503Introduction 503
Relations 503External Features 503Parts of Cerebellum 504
Morphological Divisions of Cerebellum 504Connections of Cerebellum 505Grey Matter of Cerebellum 505Functions of Cerebellum 506
Clinical Anatomy 506Facts to Remember 507Frequently Asked Questions 507Multiple Choice Questions 507Viva Voce 507
35. Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Basal Nucleiand White Matter 508Cerebral Hemisphere 508
External Features 508Lobes of Cerebral Hemisphere 509Functions of Cerebral Cortex 510
Diencephalon 510Dorsal Part of Diencephalon 511Ventral Part of Diencephalon 511
Thalamus 511Structure and Nuclei of Thalamus 516
Metathalamus (Part of Thalamus) 516Medial Geniculate Body 516Lateral Geniculate Body 516
Epithalamus 516Pineal Body/Gland 517
Hypothalamus 517Boundaries 517
Subthalamus 518
xiv HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
Basal Nuclei 518Corpus Striatum 518
Caudate Nucleus 518Lentiform Nucleus 519
White Matter of Cerebrum 520Association (Arcuate) Fibres 520Projection Fibres 520Commissural Fibres 520
Corpus Callosum 520Internal Capsule 521
Gross Anatomy 521Fibres of Internal Capsule 522Blood Supply 522
Clinical Anatomy 523Facts to Remember 524Frequently Asked Questions 525Multiple Choice Questions 525Viva Voce 525
36. Blood Supply of Spinal Cord andBrain 526Blood Supply of Spinal Cord 526Arteries of Brain 526
Vertebral Arteries 526Intracranial Branches 527Basilar Artery 527Internal Carotid Artery 527
Circulus Arteriosus or Circle of Willis 528
Posterior Compartment 550Triceps Brachii Muscle 550Clinical Anatomy 551Forearm and Hand 551
Front of Forearm 551Superficial Muscles 551Deep Muscles 551Palmar Aspect of Wrist and Hand 551Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand 551
Dorsal Aspect of Wrist 553Clinical Anatomy 553Superficial Veins 553Clinical Anatomy 554Joints of Upper Limb 554
Shoulder Girdle 555Shoulder Joint 555Elbow Joint 556Radioulnar Joints 556Wrist (Radiocarpal) Joint 556First Carpometacarpal Joint 556
Nerves of Upper Limb 556Musculocutaneous Nerve 556Axillary or Circumflex Nerve 557Radial Nerve 557Median Nerve 557Ulnar Nerve 558
Branches 529Arterial Supply of Different Areas 530Clinical Anatomy 531Facts to Remember 531Frequently Asked Questions 532Multiple Choice Questions 532Viva Voce 532
37. Miscellaneous 533Summary of the Ventricles of the Brain 533Lateral Ventricle 533Third Ventricle 533Fourth Ventricle 533Nuclear Components of Cranial Nerves 533
Olfactory 533Optic 533Oculomotor 533Trochlear 533Trigeminal 534Abducent 534Facial 534Vestibulocochlear 534Glossopharyngeal 534Vagus and Cranial Part of CN XI 535Spinal Part of Accessory Nerve 535Hypoglossal 535
Efferent Pathways of Cranial Part ofParasympathetic Nervous System 535
Arteries of the Brain 535
Section IV OTHER REGIONS OF HUMAN BODY
38. Upper Limb 539Bones of Upper Limb 539
Clavicle 539Scapula 540Humerus 541Radius 542Ulna 543Carpal Bones 544Metacarpal Bones 544Phalanges 544
Muscles of the Pectoral Region 544Mnemonics 544Axilla 545
Contents of Axilla 545Brachial Plexus 545Axillary Vein 546
Back 546Skin and Fasciae of the Back 546
Muscles Connecting the Upper Limb withthe Vertebral Column 546
Scapular Region 547Muscles of the Scapular Region 547
Clinical Anatomy 549Compartments of the Arm 549Anterior Compartment 549Cubital Fossa 549
xvCONTENTS
Arteries of Upper Limb 559The Breast/Mammary Gland 559
39. Thorax 563Bones of Thorax 563Sternum 563Clinical Anatomy 563Thoracic Wall 568The Pleura 569Lungs 570Mediastinum 572Pericardium 574Heart 575Trachea 580Oesophagus 581Thoracic Duct 582Typical Intercostal Nerve 582Arteries of Thorax 583Atypical Intercostal Nerve 584
40. Abdomen and Pelvis 585Rectus Sheath 585
Definition 585Abdominal Cavity 587The Peritoneum 588Digestive System 590
Liver 593Extrahepatic Biliary Apparatus 595
Clinical Anatomy 596Spleen 596Portal Vein 597
Formation 597Course 597Termination 598Branches of Portal Vein 598Tributaries 598
Portosystemic Communications(Portocaval Anastomoses) 598
Urinary System 598Female Reproductive System 602Male Reproductive System 605Arteries and Nerves 608Abdominal Part of Sympathetic Trunk 612
Branches 612Aortic Plexus 612Pelvic Part of Sympathetic Trunk 613Collateral or Prevertebral Ganglia and
Plexuses 613
Gastrointestinal Tract 613Genitourinary Tract 614
41. Lower Limb 616Bones of Lower Limb 616
Hip Bone 616Femur 617Patella 618Tibia 618Fibula 619
Bones of the Foot 619Front of Thigh 620
Femoral Triangle 620Muscles of front of the Thigh 621Adductor Canal 621
Clinical Anatomy 622Medial Side of Thigh 623Gluteal Region 623
Structures under Cover ofGluteus Maximus 623
Important Muscles 624Clinical Anatomy 624Politeal Fossa 625Clinical Anatomy 625Back of Thigh 626
Muscles of Back of the Thigh 626Front, Lateral and Medial Sides of Leg
and Dorsum of Foot 626Muscles of Anterior Compartment
of Leg 627Lateral Side of Leg 627Medial Side of Leg 627
Back of Leg 627Flexor Retinaculum 628Superficial Muscles 628Deep Muscles 629
Sole of Foot 629Venous Drainage 631Clinical Anatomy 631Joints of Lower Limb 631
Hip Joint 631Knee Joint 632Ankle Joint 634Tibiofibular Joint 634Joints of the Foot 634Gait 634Arches of Foot 634
Nerves and Arteries of Lower Limb 635Arteries of Lower Limb 641
xvi HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
Section V TOPICS OF IMPORTANCE IN HUMAN ANATOMY
42. Clinical Procedures 645Intramuscular Injections 645
Procedure 645Intravenous Injection 645Saphenous Cut-open or Cut-down 646Palpating the Pulse 646
Measurement of Blood Pressure 647Lumbar Puncture 647Dental Procedures 647
43. Genetics 648The Genes 648
Properties of Genes 648
Functions of Genes 648Sites of Genes 648Types of Genes 648
Some Important Terms 648Modes of Inheritance (Mendel’s
Laws of Inheritance) 649The Chromosomes 649
Structure of Chromosomes 649Groups of Chromosomes 649Classification of Chromosomes 650Chemistry of Chromosomes 650Barr Body (Sex Chromatin) 650Karyotyping 650
Mitochondrial DNA 651Mitochondrial Inheritance 651
Chromosomal Aberrations 651Disease due to Autosomal Numerical
Chromosomal Aberration 651Disease due to Autosomal Structural
Chromosomal Aberration 652Diseases due to Numerical Aberration of
Sex Chromosomes 652Single Gene Inherited Diseases 653
Prenatal Diagnosis 654Prenatal Diagnosis Therapy 654
Indications of Prenatal Diagnosis 654Methods of Diagnosis 655Genetic Counselling 656
44. Embryology 657Scope of Embryology 657Gametogenesis 657
Chromosomal Changes duringMaturation of Germ Cells 657
First Meiotic Division 657Second Meiotic Division 658
Male Reproductive System 658Spermatogenesis 658Spermiogenesis 658Maturation of Spermatozoon 660
Female Reproductive System 660Oogenesis 661Structure of Oocyte at Ovulation 661
Cyclical Changes in Female Genital Tract 661Proliferative Phase 661Secretory Phase 662Menstrual Phase 662
Fertilization 662Bilaminar Disc 663Trilaminar Disc 665Derivatives of Ectoderm 666Derivatives of Mesoderm 666Derivatives of Endoderm 666Fetal Membranes and Placenta 666
Morphology of Placenta 666Functions of Placenta 667Yolk Sac 667Umbilical Cord 667Allantois 668Amnion 668
Amniotic Fluid 668Development of Arteries 668
Development of IntraembryonicArteries 668
The Pharyngeal or Branchial Arches 670Components of Each Arch 670
Pharyngeal Pouches 671First Pharyngeal Pouch 671Second Pharyngeal Pouch 671Third Pharyngeal Pouch 671Fourth Pharyngeal Pouch 672Fifth Pharyngeal Pouch 672
Ectodermal Clefts 673Anomalies of Pharyngeal Pouches
and Clefts 673Development of Tongue 673
Anterior Two-thirds 673Posterior One-third 674Posterior Most Part 674Congenital Anomalies 674
Development of Thyroid Gland 674Anomalies of Thyroid Gland 675
The Skull, Face, Nose, Palate and Teeth 676The Skull 676Chondrocranium 676Viscerocranium 676Anomalies of Skull 676
Face 678Nasolacrimal Duct 680Salivary Glands 680
Nose 680Nasal Cavities 680Lateral Wall 680Paranasal Sinuses 680Anomalies of Nose 680
Palate 681Soft Palate 681
Anomalies of Face and Palate 681Mouth 681
Structures Derived from Ectoderm andEndoderm Lined Stomatodaeum 681, 682
Development of Teeth 682Permanent Teeth 682Anomalies of Teeth 682
Summary of Skull, Face and Nose 683Development of Eye 684
Optic Vesicle 684Retina, Iris and Ciliary Body 685Lens 685Choroid, Sclera and Cornea 685Accessory Structures of Eyeball 686Eyelids 686Lacrimal Gland 686
Anomalies of Eye 686Summary of Development of Eye 686Development of Ear 687
Introduction 687Membranous Labyrinth 687Middle Ear 688Ossicles 688
xviiCONTENTS
Muscles 688External Ear 689Pinna or Auricle 689Tympanic Membrane or Ear Drum 689Congenital Anomalies of Ear 689
Summary of Development of Ear 689
45. Histology 690Introduction 690Epithelial Tissue 690
Simple Epithelium 690Pseudostratified Epithelium 692Compound Epithelium 692
Membranes 694Connective Tissue 694
Cells 694Fibres 695Ground Substance 696
Classification of Connective Tissue 696Loose Connective Tissue 696Dense Connective Tissue 697
Cartilage 698Cells of the Cartilage 698Fibres 698Ground Substance 698
Classification of Cartilage 698Hyaline Cartilage 698Elastic Cartilage 699Fibrocartilage 699
Bone 700Functions 700Characteristic Features 700Cells of Bone 700
Intercellular Substances/Matrix 700Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone 701Microscopic Structure of Cancellous/Spongy
Bone 701Muscular Tissue 701
Skeletal Muscle 702Smooth Muscle 702Cardiac Muscle 703
Nervous Tissue 703Neuron 704Neuroglia 704Nerve Fibres 705Nerve Trunk 705
Parts of the Nervous System 706Spinal Cord 706Ganglia 706Cerebrum 706Cerebellum 708
Blood Vessles 709Arteries 709Capillaries 711Shunt Vessels or Arteriovenous
Anastomoses (AV Anastomoses) 711Sinusoids 711Veins 711
Lymphatic System 712
Lymph Node 712Lymph Flow 713Structure of Lymph Node 713Spleen 713
Thymus 714Structure 714
Palatine Tonsil 715The Glands 716Salivary Glands 717
Parotid Gland 717Submandibular Gland and
Tracheal Gland 717Sublingual Gland 718
Skin 718Epidermis 718Dermis 719Types of Skin—Thick and Thin 719
Upper Respiratory System 719Histology of Nose, Nasopharynx
and Larynx 719Nose 719Nasopharynx 720Larynx/Voice Box 720
Trachea and Conducting Part 720Digestive System up to Oesophagus 720
Oral Cavity 720Teeth 721
General Plan of Gastrointestinal Tract 721Oesophagus 722Endocrine System 723Hypophysis Cerebri 723Thyroid Gland 724Parathyroid Gland 725Suprarenal or Adrenal Gland 725Pineal Gland 726Pancreas 726Testis and Ovary 726Organs of Special Senses 726Olfactory Epithelium 726Taste Buds of Tongue 727
Tongue 727Papillae 727Taste Buds 728
Structure of the Eyeball 729Outer Corneoscleral Coat 729
Cornea 729Sclera 730Corneoscleral Junction 730
Middle Vascular Coat: Choroid,Ciliary Body and Iris Choroid 730
Inner Coat—Retina 731Lens 731Lacrimal Gland 731Structure of Eyelid 731Internal Ear 732Cochlea 732Scala Media or Cochlear Duct 733Components of Various Layers of GIT 733
Index 735
xviii HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students
Syllabus for Undergraduate (BDS)as Prescribed by Dental Council of India
HUMAN ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY,HISTOLOGY AND MEDICAL GENETICS
1. Introduction
1. Anatomical terms.2. Skin, superficial fascia and deep fascia.3. Cardiovascular system, portal system collateral
circulation and arteries.4. Lymphatic system, regional lymph nodes.5. Osteology—including ossification and growth of bones.6. Myology—including types of muscle tissue and
innervation.7. Syndesmology—including classification of Joints.8. Nervous system.
2. Head and Neck
1. Scalp, face and temple, lacrimal apparatus2. Neck—deep fascia of neck, posterior triangle,
suboccipital triangle, anterior triangle, anterior medianregion of the neck, deep structures in the neck.
3. Cranial cavity—meninges, parts of brain, ventricles ofbrain, dural venous sinuses, cranial nerves attached tothe brain, pituitary gland.
4. Cranial nerves—III, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, XII in detail.5. Orbital cavity—muscles of the eyeball, supports of the
eyeball, nerves and vessels in the orbit.6. Parotid gland.7. Temporomandibular joint, muscles of mastication,
infratemporal fossa, pterygo-palatine fossa.8. Submandibular region9. Walls of the nasal cavity, paranasal air sinuses
10. Palate11. Oral cavity, tongue12. Pharynx (palatine tonsil and the auditory tube) Larynx.
Osteology—foetal skull, adult skull, individual bonesof the skull, hyoid bone and cervical vertebrae.
3. Thorax
Demonstration on a dissected specimen of:1. Thoracic wall2. Heart chambers3. Coronary arteries4. Pericardium5. Lungs—surfaces; pleural cavity6. Diaphragm
4. Abdomen
Demonstration on a dissected specimen of:1. Peritoneal cavity2. Organs in the abdominal and pelvic cavity.
5. Clinical Procedures
a. Intramuscular injections: Demonstration on a dissectedspecimen and on a living person of the following sites ofinjection.1. Deltoid muscle and its relation to the axillary nerve
and radial nerve.2. Gluteal region and the relation of the sciatic nerve.3. Vastus lateralis muscle.
b. Intravenous injections and venesection: Demonstration ofveins in the dissected specimen and on a living person.1. Median cubital vein2. Cephalic vein3. Basilic vein4. Long saphenous vein
c. Arterial pulsations: Demonstration of arteries on adissected specimen and feeling of pulsation of thefollowing arteries on a living person.
1. Superficial temporal2. Facial3. Carotid4. Axillary5. Brachial6. Radial7. Ulnar8. Femoral9. Popliteal
10. Dorsalispedisd. Lumbar puncture: Demonstration on a dissected specimen
of the spinal cord, cauda equina and epidural space andthe inter vertebral space between L4 and L5.
6. Embryology
Oogenesis, spermatogenesis, fertilisation, placenta,primitive streak, neural crest, bilaminar and trilaminarembryonic disc, intra embryonic mesoderm—formation andfate, notochord formation and fate, pharyngeal arches,pouches and clefts, development of face, tongue, palate,thyroid gland, pituitary gland, salivary glands, andanomalies in their development, tooth development in brief.
7. Histology
The cell: Basic tissues—epithelium, connective tissueincluding cartilage and bone, muscle tissue.
Nervous tissue: Peripheral nerve, optic nerve, sensoryganglion, motor ganglion, skin.
Classification of glands: Salivary glands (serous, mucous andmixed gland), blood vessels, lymphoid tissue tooth, lip,
tongue, hard palate, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum,ileum, colon, vermiform appendix, liver, pancreas, lung,trachea , epiglottis, thyroid gland, para thyroid gland,supra-renal gland and pituitary gland, kidney, ureter,urinary bladder, ovary and testis.
8. Medical Genetics
Mitosis, meiosis, chromosomes, gene structure, mendelism,modes of inheritance.
xx HUMAN ANATOMY for Dental Students