Rongfang Liu

AutomatedTransit

Planning, Operation, AND Applications

AUTOMATED TRANSIT

IEEE Press445 Hoes Lane

Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial BoardTariq Samad, Editor in Chief

George W. Arnold Xiaoou Li Ray PerezGiancarlo Fortino Vladimir Lumelsky Linda ShaferDmitry Goldgof Pui-In Mak Zidong WangEkram Hossain Jeffrey Nanzer MengChu Zhou

Kenneth Moore, Director of IEEE Book and Information Services (BIS)

AUTOMATED TRANSITPlanning, Operation, and Applications

RONGFANG (RACHEL) LIU

Copyright © 2017 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. All rights reserved.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.

ISBN: 978-1-118-89100-1

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is dedicated to the three men in my life:

ZHONG:My rock, who supports anything I am willing to explore;

LYNDALL:My conscious, who shows me that there might be

another side to any story;

CHARLIE:My lucky star, who makes me believe thatthere are always roads under my feet …

CONTENTS

FOREWORD xi

PREFACE xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

ABBREVIATIONS xvii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Automated Transportation / 2

1.2 Automated Transit / 4

1.3 Individual Modes of Automated Transit Family / 8

1.3.1 Automated Guideway Transit / 8

1.3.2 Automated Bus / 14

1.3.3 Automated Personal Transit / 15

References / 18

2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 23

2.1 Conceptual Initiations: 1960s and Prior / 23

2.2 Pilot Demonstrations: 1970s–1980s / 27

2.3 Applications in Confined Environments: 1990s–2000s / 32

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viii CONTENTS

2.4 Multipolar Development: New Millennium and Beyond / 36

2.4.1 Exponential Growth of Driverless Metros / 36

2.4.2 Steady Expansion of APM Systems / 39

2.4.3 Emergence of PRT Applications / 39

References / 44

3 TECHNOLOGY SPECIFICATIONS 47

3.1 Vehicles / 48

3.2 Guideway / 51

3.3 Propulsion and System Power / 52

3.4 Communications and Control / 53

3.5 Stations and Platforms / 55

3.6 Maintenance and Storage Facilities / 58

References / 61

4 APPLICATIONS 63

4.1 Driverless Metro in Paris / 64

4.1.1 Clean Slate of Automation: Line No. 14 / 64

4.1.2 Conversion from Manual to DLM: Paris MetroLine No. 1 / 67

4.2 Automated LRT in Singapore / 70

4.3 Detroit Downtown People Mover / 72

4.4 Automated People Movers in Las Vegas / 74

4.5 Dallas-Fort Worth Airport APM / 79

4.6 AirTrain at JFK Airport / 80

4.7 Morgantown Group Rapid Transit / 81

4.8 Ultra PRT at Heathrow International Airport / 84

References / 86

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF AUTOMATED TRANSITAPPLICATIONS 89

5.1 System Characteristics / 89

5.1.1 Physical Layouts / 90

5.1.2 Scale of Systems / 94

CONTENTS ix

5.2 Operating Characteristics / 96

5.2.1 Operating Strategies / 97

5.2.2 Station Operations / 99

5.2.3 System Capacity / 101

5.3 Financial Characteristics / 103

5.3.1 Capital Investment / 104

5.3.2 Operating Expenses / 107

5.3.3 Life Cycle Cost / 110

References / 111

6 ASSESSMENT OF AUTOMATED TRANSITPERFORMANCES 115

6.1 System Performance / 115

6.2 Reliability / 119

6.3 Safety and Security / 126

6.3.1 Safety Records for Automated Guideway Transit / 126

6.3.2 Comparison with Other Guideway Transit / 129

6.4 Cost-Effective Analysis / 133

References / 136

7 PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS 139

7.1 Public Policy / 142

7.1.1 Research / 142

7.1.2 Design Standards / 143

7.1.3 National Policy / 144

7.2 Long-Range Transportation Planning / 145

7.2.1 Trip Generation / 147

7.2.2 Trip Distribution or Destination Choice Module / 148

7.2.3 Mode and Occupancy Choice Module / 149

7.2.4 Trip Assignment Module / 150

7.3 Operations Planning / 151

References / 154

8 BUSINESS MODELS FOR AUTOMATED TRANSITAPPLICATIONS 157

8.1 Public Owner and Operator / 159

8.2 Private Owner and Operator / 162

x CONTENTS

8.3 Public and Private Partners / 166

References / 170

9 LESSONS LEARNED 173

9.1 Driving Can Be Replaced / 174

9.2 Public Policy: A Double-Edged Sword / 175

9.3 Design Matters / 177

9.4 Demonstration Projects are Needed / 178

References / 180

10 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 181

10.1 Grow Automated Transit Applications / 182

10.2 Create New Mode / 183

10.3 Conduct Further Research / 185

10.4 Sponsor Demonstration Projects / 187

10.5 Develop Performance Measures / 188

10.6 Encourage Diverse Business Models / 189

10.7 Gather Public Support / 191

References / 194

INDEX 197

FOREWORD

The science of automated transit is relatively young. Although people haveexplored travel options since the early days of history, it is only in the last 50years or so that engineers and scientists have unveiled transportation optionsthat are fully automated. From driverless autos to personal rapid transit designsto full-functioning extended people mover systems, we are learning to giveup the driver’s seat and trust the power of smart technology.

When we began Lea+Elliott in the 1970s, specializing in automated peoplemovers was an anomaly. Some engineers could not understand why we wouldfocus on such a niche market. At that time, the industry was mostly focused ontransporting passengers quickly, safely, and efficiently between terminals inlarge airports. Today, as we work on nearly every people mover system in theworld, we know that the early technology provided the impetus for systemsthat are literally changing how we think about travel. For example, considerHonolulu, HI. Today, the City and County of Honolulu, in cooperation withthe Federal Transit Administration (FTA), is implementing a 20-mile-longautomated metro rail system that will serve 21 passenger stations. It will bethe first automated metro light rail system in the United States since JFKAirTrain and will truly change lives for people within its reach.

In such a rapidly changing transit environment, Dr. Rongfang (Rachel) Liuis the logical person to create this book on the state of automated transit—and to show where it will lead us in the days to come. As a professionalengineer, licensed planner, and professor in the Department of Civil andEnvironmental Engineering at New Jersey Institute of Technology, Dr. Liubrings so much more to the transit discussion. Her vast research has been

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published in many books, book chapters, and transportation journals. Heradditional skills in modeling and expertise in intermodal research furtherround out her understanding of this complex and multi-faceted transportationtechnology. I trust that her knowledge and perspective, provided in thesepages, will offer insights to help you better understand the sophisticatedsystems that make automated transit so fascinating. Her thoughts may wellspur your thoughts which just might take automated transit technology to thenext level. Enjoy!

Jack Norton

President/CEOLea+Elliott, Inc.

Dallas/Fort Worth, TX

PREFACE

The idea for this book was conceived a few years ago when I wrote a bookchapter titled “The Spectrum of Automated Guideway Transit and Its Appli-cations,” which is published in the Handbook of Transportation Engineering(Kutz, 2011). I have accumulated a large amount of information and felt thatthere are so much more can be said but has not been included in the chapter dueto the length limit. In fact, so much was misunderstood or misconstrued forautomated guideway transit (AGT) all together for the past half of a century.

As the Committee Chair for AP040: Automated Transit Systems (ATS),Transportation Research Board (TRB), I have been working with my commit-tee members and an array of stakeholders, which include transit and AirportAutomated People Mover (AAPM) operators, local and federal governmentagencies, and private entities such as Google, CarShare Inc., and Ride Scott.Continuing dialogs among the automated transit community made the criticalneeds paramount. I felt strongly that it is time to have a thorough examinationof the automated transit technology development and its applications.

Furthermore, the promises and expectations created by the “future trans-portation” starting in 1970s need to be evaluated after more than four decades.The successful implementations of automated transit in various internationallocations, such as Paris, Toronto, London, and Kuala Lumpur, and the appar-ent lack of automated transit applications in the urban environment in theUnited States warrant in-depth analyses. The ultimate lessons learnt via vari-ous not so successful concepts, ideas, and programs are also valuable for anemerging new paradigm, such as automated transit or driverless vehicles, togrow and prosper.

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The rapid development of driverless cars by Google and others not onlygrabbed the attention of the US Congress, which held a hearing on “the futurerole of autonomous vehicles in US transportation” in October 2013, but alsocreated a perfect opportunity to have a thorough examination of automatedtransit applications and their impact and implications for our society. Aspointed out by an anonymous proposal reviewer, “It is the right time tohave a book on automated transit system (ATS). There are many differentautomated transit systems worldwide. A book on this topic will be of interestto transportation professionals, researchers, and some graduate students tolearn basic concepts, technologies and successful examples related to ATS.”

The basic structure of this book follows typical technology developmentdocument that begins with a brief definition of the automated transit, Chapter1, and their historical development in Chapter 2. After a thorough descrip-tion of the technical specifications in Chapter 3, the manuscript highlightsa few representative applications from each sub-group of automated transitspectrum in Chapter 4. The case studies around the world not only showcasedifferent technologies and their applications but also identify the vital factorsthat affect each system and performance evaluations of existing applicationsin Chapters 5 and 6. Chapters 7 and 8 of the the book is devoted to planningand operation of automated transit applications in both macro and micro lev-els. The last two chapters of the book highlight the lessons learnt from thepast experiences and try to project the new paradigm shift from the current,conventional transportation systems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My sincere appreciation goes to many people who contributed directly andindirectly to the fruition of this book. First, I am indebted to many membersand friends of Automated Transit Systems (ATS – AP040) Committee, pre-viously Major Activity Center Circulation Systems, Transportation ResearchBoard. During my 6-year term as the committee chair starting in 2008, somein-depth discussions and dialogs on the directions and structure of the com-mittee have propelled me to explore the historical development of automatedtransit technology and engage wide ranges of stakeholders, which provided arich background to shape my general view of automated transit development.

Second, I would like to express my gratitude to the visionary leaders whoorganized the Automated Vehicle Symposium (AVS), especially those whocontributed to the Automated Transit and Shared Mobility Track (ATSM),which are co-sponsored by the same TRB ATS committee. The exponentialgrowth in AVS attendees during the past 5 years and pointed discussionsand/or arguments have instigated further research, clarification, and selectionof book contents.

Next, my appreciation goes to the few selected colleagues and friends whohave painstakingly reviewed the manuscript and provided valuable sugges-tions and improvements: Stanley E. Young, University of Maryland; WilliamJ. Sproule, Michigan Technological University; Gary Hsue, Arup, Inc.; Ing-mar Andreasson, Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden; Wayne Cottrell, Cal-ifornia State University at Pomona; Sam Lott, Kimbley Horn and Associates,Inc.; Naderah Moini, University of Illinois at Chicago; Jerry Lutin, New JerseyTransit, retired; Larry Fabian, Trans.21, Inc.; Peter Muller, PRT Consultant,

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LLC; Alex Lu, New York City Metropolitan Transportation Authority; WalterKulyk, Federal Transit Administration, retired; Ruben Juster, University ofMaryland; and Matthew Lash, Noblis Inc.

Last but not least, I wish to thank my colleagues in New Jersey Institute ofTechnology (NJIT), who granted me a 1-year paid sabbatical leave. The sab-batical leave not only shielded me from regular teaching load, daily commute,and trivia administrative duties but also liberated my mind and spirit to thinkdeeply, reach widely, and explore freely. My sincere appreciation goes tomy former students, Zhaodong (Tony) Huang, now with Ningbo University,and Hongmei Cao, now with Inner Mongolia University, who helped a greatdeal in compiling graphs, tables, and glossaries in conjunction with tediousdocument review and edit.

I have accumulated a large number of photographs, tables, and figures viaprevious research and project experiences and have tried to provide appropri-ate credit to the maximum extent possible. I regret any errors or oversightsin crediting any material, if any. Of course, any other errors, omissions, andoversights are my responsibility and will be corrected once known.

Rongfang (Rachel) Liu

ABBREVIATIONS

AA alternative analysis (7)AADT annual average daily traffic (6.3)AAPM airport automated people mover (2.1)AB automated bus (1.2)AC alternating current (2.4.1)ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program (10.5)AG automated guideway (6.1)AGRT advanced group rapid transit (2.2)AGT automated guideway transit (1.2)AGTS automated guideway transit systems (6.3)AHS automated highway systems (8.3)AIP Airport Improvement Program (8.1)ALRT automated light rail transit (4.2)APM automated people mover (1.2)APT automated personal transit (1.3)APTA American Public Transportation Association (1.2)ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers (3)

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xviii ABBREVIATIONS

ATC automatic train control (3.4)ATSM Automated Transit and Shared Mobility (Front Matters)ATN automated transit network (1.3.1)ATO automatic train operation (3.4)ATP automatic train protection (3.4)ATS automated transit systems (1.2)ATS automatic train supervision (3.4)AV automated vehicle (1.3.2)AVS Automated vehicles symposium (front matters)

BAA British Airport Authority (8.2)BOT build operate and transfer (8.3)BPMT billion passenger mile travelled (6.3)BRT bus rapid transit (1.3)BTS Bureau of Transportation Statistics (1.2)BTRM billion train revenue miles (6.3)BUPT billion unlinked passenger trips (6.3)BVRM billion vehicle revenue miles (6.3)

CBTC communication-based train control (4.1.2)CBD central business district (4.3)CCF central control facility (3.4)CEA cost-effectiveness analysis (6.5)CES Consumer Electronics Show (8.2)CFC consumer facility charge (8.1)CCVS computer-controlled vehicle system (2.1)CL Circle Line (4.2)CVG Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (5.1.1)

DB design build (8.3)DBFO design, build, finance, and operate (8.3)DBO design-build-operation (8.3)DBOM design, build, operate and maintainDBOT design-build-operate-transfer (8.3)DC direct current (3.2)

ABBREVIATIONS xix

DC destination choice (7.2)DFW Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport (4.5)DLB driverless bus (1.3.2)DLLRT driverless LRT (4.2)DLM driverless metro (1.2)DPM downtown people mover (2.2)

EIS environmental impact statement (7)

FAA Federal Aviation Administration (8.1)FRA Federal Railroad Administration (3.0)FRR farebox recovery ratio (8.1)FPS feet per second (3.1)FPS2 feet per second/second (5.1)FTA Federal Transit Administration (1.3.2)

GAO General Accounting Office (1.3.1.2)GN guideway network (7.3)GO general obligation (8.2)GPS Global Positioning System (1.1)GRT group rapid transit (1.2)

HR heavy rail (6.3)

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission (1.3.1)IVTT in vehicle travel time (7.2)

JFK John F. Kennedy (4.6)

KMPH kilometers per hour

LCC life cycle cost (5.3.3)LHR London Heathrow Airport (2.4.2)

xx ABBREVIATIONS

LIMs linear induction motors (3.3)LIRR Long Island Railroad (4.6)LPA locally preferred alternatives (7.1.3)LRT light rail transit (6.3)LRTP long range transportation planning (7.2)LVM Las Vegas Monorail (4.4)

MAC major activity centers (2.3)MDBF mean distance between failures (6.2)MDT Miami-Dade Transit (6.3)MG Monorail and Automated Guideway (6.1)MPH miles per hour (1.3.1)MPMT million passenger miles travelled (6.3)MPO metropolitan planning organization (7.2)MR monorail (6.1)MRT mass rapid transit (4.2)MSF maintenance and storage facility (3.6)MTA Maryland Transit Administration (8.1)MTBF mean time between failures (6.2)MTKM million train kilometers (6.2)MTRM million train revenue miles (6.3)MTTR mean time to repair (6.2)MUPT million unlinked passenger trips (6.3)MVRM million vehicle revenue miles (6.3)

NEL North East Line (4.2)NEPA National Environmental Policy Act (7)NFPC National Fire Protection Code (3.4)NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (1.1)NJ TRANSIT New Jersey Transit (8.1)NTD National Transit Database (2.3)NTSB National Transportation Safety Board (3.0)

OAK Oakland International Airport (3.2)OCC operational control centers (4.1.2)

ABBREVIATIONS xxi

O-D origin and destination (5.2.3)O&M operation and maintenance (3.4)OVTT out-of-vehicle travel times (6.2)

PA public address (3.1)PANYNJ Port Authority of New York and New Jersey (4.6)PATH Partners for Advanced Transit and Highway (1.3)PCM passenger car miles (6.1)PFC passenger facility charge (8.1)PFI private finance initiative (8.3)PHX Phoenix International Airport (3.6)PLMT place miles traveled (6.5)PMT passenger miles travelled (6.1)PPHPD passengers per hour per direction (5.2.3)PPP public-private partnerships (8.3)PRT personal rapid transit (1.2)

RATP Regie Autonome Des Transports Parisiens (4.1.1)R & D research and development (8.3)RER Reseau Express Regional (4.1.1)ROI return on investment (8.3)RP revealed preference (10.3)RTA Regional Transit Authority (2.4.2)

SAE Society of Automotive Engineers (1.1)SAV shared autonomous vehicle (7.3)SBT Singapore Bus Transit (4.2)SEA Seattle–Tacoma International Airport (6.2)SFO San Francisco (3.2)SMRT Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (4.2)SOV single occupancy vehicle (3.0)SP stated preference (10.3)SS&PS Systems Safety and Passenger Security (6.3)