AUTOMATED ANALYSIS OF LEGAL TEXTS

Logic, Informatics, Law Edited versions of selected papers from the

Second International Conference on 'Logic, Informatics, Law' Florence, Italy, September 1985

Edited by

ANTONIO A. MARTINO Professor of P o l i t i c a l Science

University of Pisa, I t a l y D i r e c t o r

Istituto per l a Documentazione G i u r i d i c a o f the Consiglio N a z i o n a l e delle R i c e r c h e - I t a l y

FIORENZA SOCCI NATALI Research W o r k e r

Istituto p e r l a Documentazione G i u r i d i c a o f the Consiglio N a z i o n a l e delle Ricerche - I t a l y

E d i t o r i a l Assistant

SIMONA BINAZZI Istituto p e r l a Documentazione G i u r i d i c a

o f the Consiglio N a z i o n a l e delle Ricerche - I t a l y

N H

p 1986

N O R T H - H O L L A N D A M S T E R D A M - N E W Y O R K • O X F O R D » T O K Y O

® E L S E V I E R SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V., 1986

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

International Conference on "Logic, Informatics, Law" (2nd : 1985 : Florence, Italy) Automated analysis of legal texts.

Includes index. 1. Information storage and retrieval Systems—Law.

2. Law—Methodology—Data processing. 3. Judicial process—Data processing. I4. A r t i f i c i a l intelligence. I. Martino, Antonio Anselmo. II. Socci Natali, Fiorenza. III. Binazzi, Simona. IV. T i t l e . KOT.I5Ü 19Ö5 31+Ot.02ö,5 86-19037 ISEN O-W-70111-7

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V

I I INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS LOGICA INFORMATICA DIRITTO Automated A n a l y s i s of Legal Texts

F l o r e n c e , P a l a z z o d e i Congressi, September 3-6, 1985

Committee of Honour P r e s i d e n t of CNR, President of the Comitato per l e scienze g i u r i d i c h e e p o l i t i c h e of CNR, P r e s i d e n t of the Gruppo erogatore d i c a l c o l o of CNR, M i n i s t e r of J u s t i c e , M i n i s t e r of S c i e n t i f i c Research, P r e s i d e n t of the Regione Toscana, Mayor of Florence, P r e s i d e n t of the P r o v i n c i a d i F i r e n z e , D i r e c t o r of IBI

Board of S e s s i o n Chairmen V. F r o s i n i ( P r e s i d e n t ) G. B i o r c i , E. B u l y g i n , H. F i e d l e r , V. N o v e l l i , G.H. Von Wright, J . Wröblewski

Session C o - o r d i n a t o r s L. Abba G i a n n i , G. C a r c a t e r r a , G. D i n i , E. Fameli, A.A. Martino, P. M e r c a t a l i , F. Socci N a t a l i , P.L. Spinosa

S c i e n t i f i c S e c r e t a r i a t S. B i n a z z i , P. E d i g a t i

O r g a n i z i n g Committee A.A. M a r t i n o , F. S o c c i N a t a l i

Press Agency R. Nannucci

Under the Auspices of: C o n s i g l i o Nazionale d e l l e Ricerche Intergovernmental Bureau f o r Informatics

t * * * * * * f

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I n t r o d u c t i o n XV

PART ONE: MODELLING OF LEGAL REASONING 1

Ca u s a t i o n i n the Law of Torts and C r i m i n a l Law L. ÄQVIST 3

Toward M o d e l l i n g Legal Argument K.D. ASHLEY, E.L. RISSLAND 19

A s p e c t u a l Actions and the Deepest "Paradox" of Deontic Logic

H.-N. CASTANEDA 31 Is I t P o s s i b l e to Program an E t h i c a l System? Foundation of S o c i a l Impact Assessment i n the Theory of Informatics

A. CORNELIS 51 H e u r i s t i c s

A. DAVID 63 Sequences and Levels i n the Legal System

R.A. GUIBOURG 69 A C o n t r a r i o Argument, Use and I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

C A . LERTORA MENDOZA 89 Logic and the Procedure of Equity

V. LUIZZI 99 Legal T h i n k i n g and Automation

A. OSKAMP, G.P.V. VANDENBERGHE 105 A N o n - c l a s s i c a l Logic f o r Based on the Stru c t u r e s of Behaviour

R. STAMPER 115 Remarks on Representational Models of Legal Systems

R. TOKARCZYK 141 Representation Models of Legal Systems and the Problems of The i r Computerization

J . WROBLEWSKI 153

PART TWO: LOGIC AND LEGAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES 173

C o n d i t i o n a l i t y and the Representation of Legal Norms

C.E. ALCHOURRÖN 175

viii T a b l e o f Contents

A Prototype ADP System to A s s i s t J u d i c i a l D e c i s i o n Making

F. BODARD, M. HELLA, Y. POULLET, P. STENNE 187

Permissive Norms and Normative Systems E. BULYGIN 211

Conceptual R e t r i e v a l and Legal Decision-making CG. DeBESSONET, C R . CROSS 219

The A p p l i c a b i l i t y of an E v i d e n t i a r y Value Model to J u d i c i a l and P r o s e c u t o r i a l D e c i s i o n Making

R.W. GOLDSMITH 229 Meta-logic Programming i n METALOG

M.T. HARANDI, M.J. SCHOPPERS 247 Logic f o r Problem S o l v i n g

E. JACOBSEN 257 Legal Models, R a t i o n a l i t y and Informatics

A.A. MARTINO 269 Knowledge Base i n the Automated A n a l y s i s of L e g i s l a t i o n

A.A. MARTINO, L. ABBA, P. ASIRELLI, A. CAMMELLI, P. MARIANI, M. MARTELLI, F. SOCCI, D. TISCORNIA 281

Permissions and O b l i g a t i o n s . An Informal I n t r o d u c t i o n

L.T. McCARTY 307 Deontic Logic and N a t u r a l Law

D. SANCHEZ GARCIA 339

PART THREE: ANALYSIS AND FORMAL REPRESENTATION OF LEGAL LANGUAGE 347

The SIGNER System: A S e m i - i n t e l l i g e n t System f o r the Formal C o n t r o l of Legal Texts

L. ABBA, C. BIAGIOLI, P. MERCATALI 349 THES GIUR: D e f i n i t i o n of an Experimental Thesaurus i n TLS (Thesaurus and L i n g u i s t i c I n t e g r a t e d System)

L. ABBA, A. CAMMELLI, G.A. ROMANO, C TADDEI ELMI 361 A n a l y s i s of the L o g i c a l S t r u c t u r e of Legal Rules by a Modernized and Formalized Version of Hohfeld Fundamental Le g a l Conceptions

L.E. ALLEN, C S . SAXON 385 Temporal Aspects on the F o r m a l i z a t i o n and Computerization of Law

H. BAUER-BERNET 451 Semantic A n a l y s i s i n Le g a l Text Information R e t r i e v a l

D. DAVIS 473

T a b l e o f Contents i x

P r i n c i p l e s f o r the Formal Representation of L e g i s l a t i v e Statements

G. FERRARI, C. BIAGIOLI 483 A Theory of Derogation (With S p e c i a l Reference to I t a l i a n Law)

R. GUASTINI 495 C h i l d r e n and the Semantic Representation of the Verbs of Contract

J.G. HOOK 515 Legal D r a f t i n g : An A n a l y s i s of the Process of Ambiguity R e s o l u t i o n (Disambiguation) i n Sentence P r o c e s s i n g

W.R. LOEFFLER 527 The Thesaurus as a R e l a t i o n a l Data Model

P. PETRUCCI 539 The System of Headings i n S t a t u t o r y Texts

F. STUDNICKI 549 F o r m a l i z a t i o n i n Legal Languages

R.J. VERNENGO 555

PART FOUR: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERT SYSTEMS IN LAW: METHODOLOGY AND APPLICATIONS 565

System Design f o r a Computer-aided J u r i d i c a l Expert System

B. ALSCHWEE, S. GRUNDMANN 567 A Model f o r Legal D e c i s i o n Making by Computer

R.V. de MULDER 581 Expert Systems and Legal Decision-making Models

E. FAMELI, P. MERCATALI 593 Expert Systems as a Tool f o r D r a f t i n g Legal Decisions

H. FIEDLER 607 Problems of Applying Legal Expert System i n Legal P r a c t i c e

J.W. GOEBEL, R. SCHMALZ 613 Expert Systems i n Law. A J u r i s p r u d e n t i a l and Formal S p e c i f i c a t i o n Approach

D.I. GOLD, R.E. SUSSKIND 625 Future Generation Computer Systems i n the Service of the Law

M.A. HEATHER 643 Clear Rules and Legal Expert Systems

P. LEITH 661

Microcomputers and J u d i c i a l P r e d i c t i o n S.S. NAGEL

Using an Expert System i n T e s t i n g Legal Rules L. PHILIPPS

Using Purposes of the Law i n Legal Expert Systems J . THORNE, M. UGARTE

Teleogenic Behavior Based on Granulär Con t r o l C.F. WALTER

PART FIVE: MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR LEGAL ANALYSIS

Images of the Lexicon U. BERNI CANANI

Computer Indexing to Legal Testimony: The Royal Commission 1983-1984

A. GILMOUR-BRYSON Approach to a Theory of "Soft Algorithms"

L. REISINGER The 'Ars J u d i c a n d i ' Programme

M. SANCHEZ-MAZAS F i s c a l L e g i s l a t i o n Planner

D. STRIPINIS The Use of Models i n Planning L e g i s l a t i o n

W.R. SVOBODA On Some Methods of Complex Mathematical and L o g i c a l Modelling i n Law

V. VRECION

PART SIX: DATA BASE AND CONCEPTUAL INFORMATION PROCESSING

Legal Information Science, an I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i s c i p l i n e : Prospects f o r Cooperation between I t a l y and Argentina

C. BIAGIOLI, P. MERCATALI, S. TOSCANO DQL The Deductive Augmentation of R e l a t i o n a l Database Query Language QUEL

J . HAN, Z. LI Law, Logic and Automation

G. MASSA Pace t o Peace. A p p l i c a t i o n to Law of the "Pacemaker ( c) Program"

R.P. MERTENS

T a b l e o f Contents

L e g a l Data Bases on Micro-Computers G. PIRELLI

Füll Text Data Base Management Systems: A Model and Implementation f o r Law

B.N. ROSSITER The Use of Inference Mechanisms i n the I n t e r r o g a t i o n of R e l a t i o n a l Databases

G.P. ZARRI

Author Index

AUTOMATED ANALYSIS O F L E G A L TEXTS Logic, Informatics, Law A.A. Martino, F. Socci Natali (eds.) © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland), 1986

703

USING AN EXPERT SYSTEM IN TESTING LEGAL RULES

Lothar P h i l i p p s I n s t i t u t für

Rechtsphilosophie und Rechtsinformatik Universität München

Ludwigstraße 29/I+IV 8000 MÜNCHEN 22 (West Germany)

Every expert system has an inf e r e n c e machine t h a t draws conclusions from a set of r u l e s . Normally, the user of the expert system w i l l be i n t e r e s t e d i n a c o n c l u s i o n , not a r u l e , at l e a s t not at the beginning. However, you can a l s o use the system the other way around: using c o n c l u s i o n s to t e s t r u l e s . I f a con c l u s i o n i s t o be r e j e c t e d , at l e a s t one r u l e has to be r e j e c t e d a l s o .

Every expert system has to be used i n t h i s reverse way f o r as long as i t i s i n progress. Only, w i t h l e g a l Systems, t h i s way of u s i n g i t should be permanent.

F i r s t , the law i s a set of r u l e s that i s c o n s t a n t l y i n the making. Lawmakers, c o u r t s , and l e g a l s c h o l a r s never stop c o n s t r u c t i n g i t .

Second, l e g a l r u l e s are more than instruments t o produce d e c i s i o n s . They are a l s o d i r e c t i v e s f o r human behaviour and as such have t o be considered f o r ri g h t n e s s and a l s o c o m p r e h e n s i b i l i t y .

Considering t h i s , I would l i k e t o suggest some po s t u l a t e s f o r l e g a l expert Systems. (a) The set of r u l e s should be s t r i c t l y separated from the Computer program. Such a Separation i s adv i s a b l e anyway f o r an expert system but w i t h a l e g a l system i t i s imperative. Again, the reason i s p a r t l y p r a c t i c a l , p a r t l y e t h i c a l : you do not need to i n t e r f e r e w i t h the Computer program to a l t e r the r u l e s e t , as w i l l f r e q u e n t l y be necessary. A l s o , the r u l e set i s not as transparent as i t should be i f i t i s mixed up w i t h the program. (b) The people e n t e r i n g r u l e s i n a l e g a l expert system should be the same people who handle these r u l e s i n t h e i r d a i l y work. Ordinary lawyers should do t h i s , not a few s p e c i a l i s t s . The need for s p e c i a l i s t s would hinder the p r o f i t a b i l i t y of a seperate program and r u l e s e t . (c) This means th a t the "normal form" i n which a r u l e has to be put should be as p i a i n as p o s s i b l e and as c l o s e t o n a t u r a l language as p o s s i b l e .

The MUnich Legal Expert system MULE t r i e s to match these P o s t u l a t e s i n the most simple way 1: i t s i n f e r e n c e machine i s r e s t r i c t e d to p r o p o s i t i o n a l l o g i c . To put a r u l e i n i t s "normal form" only means t o break i t down to simple l i n g u i s t i c components

704 L . Philipps

so that the Computer can check them s y s t e m a t i c a l l y . Even so i t requires a c e r t a i n amount of stubborness to analyse l e g a l r u l e s . But the d i f f i c u l t i e s are l e g a l ones. They become v i s i b l e because the warm mist of common sense i l l u s i o n s about understanding what was s a i d by the lawmaker must be blown away a l i t t l e .

Who needs MULE? Anyone who wants to c l a r i f y h i s ideas about a set of r u l e s or to improve on t h e i r formulation. This can be a l e g a l d r a f t e r who wants h i s products to be comprehensible, a law Student who wants to understand a r u l e , or a l e g a l scholar whose job i t i s to systematise the law and to teach i t .

Let me give an example. The German C i v i l Code provided f o r an assignment of a claim as follows.

§ 398. A Claim may, by contract with another person, be assigned by the c r e d i t o r to him (assignment). ...

§ 399. A Claim i s not assignable ... i f assignment i s excluded by agreement with the debtor.

§ 405. I f the debtor has executed a document of indebtedness, and i f the claim i s assigned along with production of the document, he may not, as against the assignee maintain that the i n c u r r i n g or acknowledgement of the O b l i g a t i o n was only a sham, or that the assignment was exluded by agreement with the assigner unless the assignee, at the time of the assignment, knew or should have known of the circumstances.

The t r a n s l a t i o n by Ian Forrester et a l matches l e t t e r and s p i r i t or the o r i g i n a l p e r f e c t l y w e l l . Do not b e l i e v e that the German version i s e a s i e r to understand.

To make a Computer run on t h i s , one has to c l a r i f y the Statement considerably. A c l a r i f i e d version would be structured as follows:

(a) Rule: A claim may, by contract with another person ... (assignment).

(b) Exception to (a): . . . i f assignment i s excluded by agreement with the debtor.

(c) Counter-exception to (b): (Exception (b) w i l l not work) i f the debtor has executed a document of indebtedness.

(d) Counter-counter-exception to ( c ) : (The production of the document i s i n e f f i c i e n t i f ) the assignee, at the time of the assignment, knew or should have known of the circumstances.

We now see the g i s t : a sequence of rules and exceptions, s u r p r i s i n g l y long but p i a i n i n i t s structure. With t h i s i n mind i t i s easy to formulate the Statements i n a way the Computer can handle. I t i s also easy to teach or learn them or to compare them with other examples of the estoppel p r i n c i p l e , be i t i n the German l e g a l system or i n another one.

MULE's Computer program i s written i n FÖRTH. Therefore, the expert system S h e l l i s remarkably f l e x i b l e (Expert2, Mountain View Press). Besides, FÖRTH runs on small micros that any Student can a f f o r d . We run MULE on an ATARI 800XL as well as one an IBM

Testing L e g a l Rules 705

PC c o m p a t i b l e .

Note (1) Mules have two f e a t u r e s which I t h i n k are p a r t i c u l a r f o r

MULE, too: (a) those animals are not too s o p h i s t i c a t e d and (b) they are u s e f u l .

706 L . Philipps

APPENDIX Here are two samples of a r u l e set (shortened) and a

dialogue. Please note t h a t the r u l e s should be read s t a r t i n g from the end (Rule #20). Not th a t the order makes a b i g d i f f e r e n c e to the Computer, which connects the r u l e s l o g i c a l l y , but i f two e n t r i e s are on the same l o g i c a l l e v e l , the l a t e r one w i l l be considered f i r s t . You would not change anything i f you placed Rule #17 wherever e i s e you l i k e . Rule #17 i s only l o g i c a l l y completing Rule #18. But i f you switched the order of Rule #11 and Rule #12, the Computer would ask f o r the c o n d i t i o n s of r u l e #11 - then the l a t e r one - f i r s t .

As f o r the d i a l o g u e s , i t i s the Computer that asks the questions. You can r e p l y w i t h Y, N, or W (Yes, No, Why) . Fo l l o w i n g general p r a c t i c e i n German jurisprudence, the debtor i s c a l l e d A, the c r e d i t o r B, the assignee C.

Prove: B CAN ENFORCE B->A CLAIM B->A

?- Y,N,W: Y CONTRACT OF ASSIGNMENT B,C

?- Y,N,W: Y ASSIGNMENT IS EXCLUDED BY A,B

?- Y,N,W: Y A HAS DOCUMENTED INDEBTEDNESS

?- Y,N,W: W I'm t r y i n g t o prove:

B CAN ENFORCE B->A I'm t e s t i n g r u l e #16: I f A HAS DOCUMENTED INDEBTEDNESS I f not EXCEPTION TO PRESUMPTION then EXCEPTION TO EXCLUSION because OF § 405

A HAS DOCUMENTED INDEBTEDNESS ?- Y,N,W: Y

C KNEW OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES ?- Y,N,W: N

C SHOULD HAVE KNOWN ... ?- Y,N,W: Y

I deduce EXCEPTION TO PRESUMPTION

I deduce EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT

Testing L e g a l Rules 707

PERFORMANCE A=>C ?- Y,N,W: W

I'm t r y i n g t o prove: B CAN ENFORCE B->A

I'm t e s t i n g r u l e # 3: I f PERFORMANCE A=>C I f B NOTIFIED A OF ASSIGNMENT then DEFENCE TO B->A because OF § 409

PERFORMANCE A=>C ?- Y,N,W: Y

B NOTIFIED A OF ASSIGNMENT ?- Y,N,W: N

B DOCUMENTED ASSIGNMENT TO C ?- Y,N,W: W

I'm t r y i n g t o prove: B CAN ENFORCE B->A

I'm t e s t i n g r u l e # 2: I f PERFORMANCE A=>C I f B DOCUMENTED ASSIGNMENT TO C then DEFENCE TO B->A because OF § 409

B DOCUMENTED ASSIGNMENT TO C ?- Y,N,W: N

OTHER DEFENCES TO B->A ?- Y,N,W: N

I deduce B CAN ENFORCE B->A

I deduce B ->>A

I conclude B CAN ENFORCE B->A

708 L . Philipps

Rule # 0: I f B->A IS AQUIRED BY C then C->B (DOC. OF ASSIGNMENT) then DOC. then C->>B then C SHALL BEAR THE COSTS then AND THIS IN ADVANCE because OF § 403

Rule # 1: I f A DEMANDS *DOC. OF ASSIGNMENT I f not C PRODUCES THE DOCUMENT I f not B NOTIFIED A IN WRITING then DEFENCE TO C->A because OF § 410

Rule # 2: I f PERFORMANCE A=>C I f B DOCUMENTED ASSIGNMENT TO C then DEFENCE TO B->A because OF § 409

Rule # 3: I f PERFORMANCE A=>C I f B NOTIFIED A OF ASSIGNMENT then DEFENCE TO B->A because OF § 409

Rule # 4: I f CLAIM B->A I f not B->A IS ASSIGNED TO C I f not DEFENCE TO B->A I f not OTHER DEFENCES TO B->A then B CAN ENFORCE TO B->A then B->>A because (B->> IS ABBREVIATION)

Rule # 5: I f B->A IS REASSIGNED TO D I f PERFORMANCE A=>D I f not A KNEW OF ASSIGNMENT TO C then DEFENCE TO C->A because OF § 408

Rule # 6: I f PERFORMANCE A=>B I f not A KNEW OF ASSIGNMENT TO C then DEFENCE TO C->A because OF § 407

Rule # 7: I f A->B IS DUE LATER THAN C->A then DEFENCE TO SET OFF because OF § 406

Rule # 8: I f A KNEW OF ASSIGNMENT I f WHEN HE AQUIRED A->B then DEFENCE TO SET OFF

Testing L e g a l Rules 709

because OF § 406 Rule # 9:

I f A SETS OFF A->B AGAINST C I f not A DEFENCE TO SET OFF then DEFENCE TO C->A because OF § 406

Rule # 10: I f "ORIGINAL" DEFENCE TO B->A then DEFENCE TO C->A because OF § 404

Rule # 11: I f CLAIM CANNOT BE ATTACHED then EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT because OF § 400

Rule # 12: I f ASSIGNMENT WOULD ALTER CLAIM then EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT because OF § 309

Rule # 13: I f A'S DEBT WAS ONLY A SHAM I f not EXCEPTION TO EXCLUSION then EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT because OF §§ 117, 405

Rule # 14: I f C SHOULD HAVE KNOWN ... then EXCEPTION TO PRESUMPTION because OF § 405

Rule # 15: I f C KNEW OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES then EXCEPTION TO PRESUMPTION because OF § 405

Rule # 16: I f A HAS DOCUMENTED INDEBTEDNESS I f not EXCEPTION TO PRESUMPTION then EXCEPTION TO EXCLUSION because OF § 405

Rule # 17: I f ASSIGNMENT IS EXCLUDED BY A,B I f not EXCEPTION TO EXCLUSION then EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT because OF § 399

Rule # 18: I f CLAIM B->A I f CONTRACT OF ASSIGNMENT B,C I f not EXCEPTION TO ASSIGNMENT then B->A IS ASSIGNED TO C because OF § 398

Rule # 19: I f B->A IS ASSIGNED TO C

710 L . Philipps

then CLAIM C->A Rule # 20:

I f CLAIM C->A I f not DEFENCE TO C->A then C CAN ENFORCE C->A then C->>A because (C->>A IS ABBREVIATION)

931

AUTHOR INDEX

Abba, L., 281-306, 349-360, 361-384

Adams, J.S., 515 Adiba, M., 546 A g o s t i , M., 908 Ajzen, I . , 239 Alchourrön, C.E., 175-186, 71,

83, 89, 215, 272, 310, 774, 780, 781, 783, 784

A l l e n , L.E., 385-450, 119, 272, 289, 318, 532, 801

Alschwee, B., 567-579, 598, 603 Anderson, A.R., 385 Anderson, N., 515 Andersson, S.I., 229, 231, 232,

234, 235, 239 Aquinas, 668 Äqvist, L., 3-17, 3, 5, 13 A r i s t o t e l e , 148, 269 Arwas, R., 528 Ashby, R., 68 Ashley, K.D., 19-30, 19, 21,

23, 25 A s i r e l l i , P., 281-306 A u s t i n , J.L., 668, 485 Bachman, C.W., 902, 906 Bacon, F., 258 B a l l , V.C., 230 Bandler, R., 535

B a r - H i l l e l , M., 239 Barwise, J . , 121, 311 Bauer-Bernet, H., 451-472 Becker, CA., 527 Becker, C , 339 B e l l o r d , N.J., 627, 628 Belnap, N.W., 385 Benci, R., 192 Benjamin, 529 Bentham, J . , 63 0 Berman, H.J., 19 B e r n i Canani, U., 737-743 Bever, T.L., 527, 529, 532 B i a g i o l i , C , 349-360, 483-493,

857-859 Birnbaum, L., 27 B l o o r , D., 121 Bobbio, N., 284, 285 Bock, M., 529 Bodard, F., 187-210, 192 Bogen, J.E., 718 Bo l d i n g , P.O., 230 B o r k i n , S.A., 906 Boukema, H.I.M., 149 Brodie, M.L., 861, 912 Bruce, B., 919 Buchanan, B.G., 626 B u l y g i n , C.E., 211-218, 71, 83,

272, 310, 774, 780, 781,

932 Authör I n d e x

783, 784 C a i r n s , 528 Cammelli, A., 281-306, 361-384 Campbell, C , 678 Cardozo, B., 728, 729, 730 Carey, 529 Carnap, R., 269, 273, 556, 557 Carpenter, P., 528 Carriö, G., 31 Castaneda, H.-N., 31-50, 310,

397 Chakravarthy, U., 867 Chamberlin, D., 869 Chang, C , 861 Charniak, E., 919 Chen, P.P.S., 192, 862, 906,

907, 914 Chisholm, R.M., 307, 329 Church, 762, 763 Chwarismi, A., 762 Ciampi, C , 627 C l a r k , K., 869 Codd, E.F., 902, 903, 906 Cohen, R., 27 Conrad, 528 Cook, H., 515 Cory, H.T., 661, 662, 667 C o r n e l i s , A., 51-61 Cortäzar, J . , 555 C o u f f i g n a l , L., 68 C o u l t e r , N.A., 720

Cross, CR., 219-228 Dahl, V., 861 Daneman, M., 528 Date, C.J., 196, 899, 901, 902,

903, 906 David, R., 199 Davidson, D., 31, 32, 44 David, A., 63-68 Davis, D., 473-481 Davis, R., 24 Day, M., 902, 906 DeBessonet, CG. , 219-228, 626 D e l o b e l , C , 546 De Mulder, R.V., 581-592, 597,

602 Descartes, R., 51 Dreyfus, H.L., 719 Du Feu, D., 647 Dworkin, R., 628, 629, 631 Edman, M., 229, 234, 235, 236 E i n s t e i n , A., 52 Ekelöf, P.O., 229, 231, 234,

235

F a i r l e y , W.B., 230 Fameli, E., 593-606 F a r i b a u l t , M., 918 Farke, M., 198 Feigenbaum, E.A., 110 F e r r a r i , G., 483-493 F i e d l e r , H., 607-612, 603, 628 F i l l m o r e , C.J., 919

Authör I n d e x 933

Finan, J . , 532 F i n i n , T . , 917 F i n k e l s t e i n , M., 230 F i t c h , F.B., 385 Flowers, M., 27

F o r r e s t e r , J.V., 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 845

Foss, D. J . , 527, 528 Fost e r , A. , 678 F r e e l i n g , A.N.S., 229 Frege, G., 559 Freud, S., 52 Füller, L., 148 Furukawa, K., 656 Gärdenfors, P., 229 Gödel, 657, 762 G a l l a i r e , H., 861, 865 Gardner, A., 19, 626 G a r r e t t , M.F., 527, 528, 529 Gazzaniga, M., 718 Gentner, D., 525 Gil b u r n e , M.R., 21 Gilmour-Bryson, A., 745-759,

756 Goebel, J.W., 613-623, 598, 842 Gold, D.I., 625-642, 594, 598,

602 Goldsmith, R.W., 229-245, 229,

231, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239

Gordon, T., 609 Gouldner A., 52, 515 Grange, S.G.M., 746, 756 Gr i n d e r , J . , 535 Gr i s w o l d , R.E., 247 Groshong, C., 529 Gross, M., 922

Grundmann, S., 567-579, 598, 603

G u a s t i n i , R., 495-514, 289 Guibourg R.A., 69-88 Haber, A., 532 Hafner, C , 626 Hafner, C D . , 647 Hakes, D., 528, 529 Ha l l d e n , S., 229, 235, 245 Han, J . , 861-874 Hansen, J . , 308 Hanson, O., 900 Hansson, B., 180, 182 Harandi, M.T., 247-256 Hardy, S., 247 Hare, D., 311 Harman, G., 557 Hart, H.L.A., 13, 628, 631,

663, 664, 668 Headrick, T.E., 626 Heather, M.A., 643-660, 915 Hegel, G.W.F., 260, 269 H e l l a , M., 187-210 H e l l a w e l l , 627, 628

934

Henschen, L., 869 Herbrand, 762 H i l p i n e n , R., 180 Hobbes, T., 148, 258 Hohfeld, W.N., 413, 415, 417,

445

Ho l i n g e r , 529 Holme, O.W., 711 Holmes, V.M., 528 Homans, G., 515 Honore, A.M., 13 Hook, J.G., 515-526, 515 Hoppe, R., 529 Horn, A., 119

H o r o v i t z , J . , 91, 92, 93, 94 Horty, J . , 645, 647 Howe, 910 Hulsman, 584 H u r t i g , R., 529 Jacobsen, E., 257-267 Ja r k e , M., 861 Je n k i n s , C., 528 Johnston, R.L., 21 Jones, A., 329, 331 Jones, S., 131 Kahneman, D., 239 K a l i n o w s k i , G., 89, 90, 91, 92,

93, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344

Kamp, H., 312, 556, 557 Kant, E., XV, XIX, 51, 56

Authör I n d e x

Kaplan, S.J., 230, 917 Kelsen, H., 70, 71, 629 Kess, J . , 529 King, J . , 867 King , M., 626 K i r b y , J . , 529 K i t t r e d g e , R.I., 917 Kleen, 762

Klug , U., 89, 90, 91, 92, 93 Kowalski, R., 117, 869 Krecht, J . , 850 Kuhn, T., 58 Ku s t r a , E., 148 Lacan, 52 Lackner, J.R., 528 L a v e l l e , L., 258, 265 Lawlor, R.C., 678 L e i b n i z , G.W., 258, 264 L e i t h , P., 661-679 L e r t o r a Mendoza, CA., 89-98 L o e f f l e r , W.R., 527-538 L u i z z i , V., 99-103 Kant, E., 258, 260, 264, 265 L e i t h , P., 599, 604, 626, 628,

661, 662, 665, 666 Lenat, D.B., 24 L e v i , E.H., 19 Lewis, D., 178, 212 L i , Z., 861-874 L i n , 529 L i n d l e y , D.V., 230

Authör I n d e x 935

Locke, J . , 258 L o r i e , R.A., 912 Lukasiewicz, J . , 385, 562 Mac Cormick, N., 631, 664, 665,

667, 668, 674 Mac Kay, D., 527, 532, 534 Makinson, D., 215 Mal i k , R., 675 M a r i a n i , P., 281-306 Markov, A.A., 763, 764 Marlen-Wilson, 529 M a r t e l l i , M., 281-306 M a r t i n , A.W., 230 Martino, A.A., 269-279, 281-

306, 257, 439, 443, 561 Marx, C , 52, 148, 269 Massa, G., 875-884 Mason, P., 131 Mauss, M., 516 McCarty, L.T., 307-337, 272,

609, 626, 670, 671 McDonald, D.D., 27 McGuire, R., 27 McKeachie, 529 Mehler, 529 Meldman, J.A., 626 M e l l i s h , C , 247 M e r c a t a l i , P., 349-360, 593-

606, 857-859 M e r c i e r , D., 258, 265 Mertens, R.P., 885-888

Meyer, D.E., 527 Michaelsen, R.H., 19, 626 Miers, D., 663 Minsky, N., XX, 308 Moles, R.N., 668, 669, 672 Montesquieu, 607 M u l l e r , C , 351 Mullock, P.H., 3, 5, 13 Nagel, S.S., 681-702, 230, 597,

602, 678, 686, 688, 694, 698

Neef, M.G., 230 Newell, A., 600 Newton, I . , 52 N i b l e t t , B., 628, 649, 676 Norman, D., 515, 519 Normier, B., 928 Oden, 529, 533 Osgood, 534 Oskamp, A., 105-114 Pörn, I . , 330, 331 Parks, M.S., 717, 719, 720,

721, 729, 731 P a s c a l , B., 844 Pattee, H., 717 Pa t t e r s o n , A.A., 674 P e r e i r a , F., 568 Perelman, C., 27 Perry, J . , 121, 312 Perry, R.B., 258, 265 Peterson, M., 19, 626

936 A u thor I n d e x

P e t r u c c i , P., 539-547 P h i l i p p s , L., 703-710 Pigneur, Y., 192 P i r e l l i , G., 889-897 Piatone, 269 Popp, W., 626 Popper, K., 58 P o u l l e t , Y., 187-210 Powers, L., 31 P r a t t , V.R., 311 P u s t e j o v s k i , J . , 27 Pylyshyn, Z.W., 917 Quine, W.V.O., 47, 559, 562 Raz, J . , 628, 629 Reichman-Adar, R., 27 R e i d e l , D., 180 R e i s i n g e r , L., 761-772 R e i t e r , R., 871

R i s s l a n d , E.L., 19-30, 19, 20, 21, 25, 28

Robinson, J.A., XX, 601 Romano, G.A., 361-384 Rosenschein, S.J., 311 Rosner, M., 919 Ross, A., 630 Ross, D., 177 R o s s i t e r , B.N., 899-916, 900,

901 Rumelhart, D., 515, 519 Runyon, R., 532 Rüssel, B., XVII, 46, 259, 600,

657, 668 S a c e r d o t i , E.D., 308 Sanchez Garcia, D., 339-345 Sänchez-Mazas M. , 773-819, 272,

281, 439, 443 S a h l i n , N.E., 229 Sauvan, 68 Saxon, C , 385-450, 529 S c h a u e r t , D. , 534 S c h l i n k , B., 626 Schmalz, R., 613-623, 598 Schmid, H.A., 906 Schmidt, J.W., 912 Schoppers, M.J., 247-256 Schum, D.A., 230 Schvaneveldt, R., 527, 528, 534 Schwind, C.B., 539 S c i o r e , E., 861 S e a r l e , J.R., 485, 486 Seidenberg, M.S., 533 Sergot, M., 117, 131 Shaw, J.C., 600 Shmueli, O., 866 S i l v e r , M., 527 Simon, H., 600 Simpson, G., 529 S i n d a h l , L., 310 Sjöberg, M., 229, 235, 238 S k e l l y , S.J., 907 Smith, J . , 861 Smith, M., 728

Authör I n d e x 937

S o c c i , F., 281-306 S o l e t , M., 272, 469 Soloway, E.M., 19 Somers, H.L., 919 Sperry, R., 718 Sprowl, J.A., 626 Sridharan, N.S., 272 Stamper, R., 115-139, 117 Steinberg, E., 720 Stening, A., 229, 231, 235 Stenlund, H., 229, 235 Stenne, P., 187-210 S t i n g l e , S., 515 Stonebraker, M., 862, 867, 869 S t r i p i n i s , D., 821-829 S t u d n i c k i , F., 549-554 Susskind, R.E., 625-642, 594,

598, 602 Suwa, M., 654, 655 Svoboda, W.R., 831-840, 596 Swanson, J.R., 906 Swinney, D., 528, 529 Taddei E l m i , G., 361-384 Tammelo, I . , 344 Tanaka, H.O., 656 T a r s k i , A., 774 Thorne, J . , 711-716, 596, 598 Thue, 763 T i s c o r n i a , D., 281-306 Tohru Moto-oka, 657 Tokarczyk, R., 141-152

Toscano, S., 857-859 Turing A., XV, 763 Tversky, A., 239 Twining, W., 663 T y l e r , 529 Ugarte, M., 711-716, 596, 598 Ullman, J.D., 862 V a l c a r c e , E.M., 20, 21, 25 Vandenberghe, G.P.V., 105-114 Vernengo, R.J., 555-564 Von Wright, G.H. , XVII, 259,

309, 339, 340, 630 Vr e c i o n , V., 841-854 Wahlster, W., 917 Walker, A., 198 Wa l l , R.S., 19 Walter, C.F., 717-733, 68, 308,

604, 717, 719, 720, 721, 724, 729, 731, 850

Wang, H., 555, 556 Warren, D.H.D., 568, 861 Wasserstrom, R., 99 Waterman, D.A., 19, 626, 661 Webber, B.L., 917 Weiss, 529 Whitehead, A.N., 657 Wiener, N., 64 Windscheid, B., 260 Winograd, T., 349, 485 W i t t g e n s t e i n , L., 260, 265 Woods, W.A., 917

938

Wröblewski, J . , 153-171, 150, 773

Wronkowska, S., 149

Authör I n d e x

Zadeh, L.A., 121 Zani o l o , C , 861, 862 Z a r r i , G.P., 917-930, 918, 919

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