The The Commonwealth Commonwealth

of Australiaof Australia

Mikhail NokhovMikhail Nokhov

The Commonwealth The Commonwealth of Australia is a of Australia is a country in the country in the southern hemisphere southern hemisphere comprising the comprising the mainland of the mainland of the world's smallest world's smallest continent, the major continent, the major island of Tasmania island of Tasmania and a number of and a number of other islands in the other islands in the Southern, Indian and Southern, Indian and Pacific Oceans. The Pacific Oceans. The neighbouring neighbouring countries are countries are Indonesia, East Indonesia, East Timor and Papua Timor and Papua New Guinea to the New Guinea to the north, the Solomon north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the New Caledonia to the north-east, and New north-east, and New Zealand to the south-Zealand to the south-east.east.

The Australian The Australian mainland has been mainland has been inhabited for more inhabited for more than 42,000 years by than 42,000 years by Indigenous Indigenous Australians. After Australians. After sporadic visits by sporadic visits by fishermen from the fishermen from the north and by European north and by European explorers and explorers and merchants starting in merchants starting in the 17th century, the the 17th century, the eastern half of eastern half of Australia was claimed Australia was claimed by the British in 1770 by the British in 1770 and initially settled and initially settled through penal through penal transportation as part transportation as part of the colony of New of the colony of New South Wales on 26 South Wales on 26 January 1788. January 1788.

As the population grew and new areas As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-were explored, another five largely self-governing Crown Colonies were governing Crown Colonies were established during the 19th century.established during the 19th century.On 1 January 1901, the six colonies On 1 January 1901, the six colonies became a federation, and the became a federation, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and remains a political system and remains a Commonwealth Realm. The capital city is Commonwealth Realm. The capital city is Canberra, located in the Australian Canberra, located in the Australian Capital Territory. The population is 21 Capital Territory. The population is 21 million, and is concentrated in the million, and is concentrated in the mainland state capitals of Sydney, mainland state capitals of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide.Adelaide.

The name "Australia" is derived from the Latin The name "Australia" is derived from the Latin AustralisAustralis, meaning "of the South". Legends of , meaning "of the South". Legends of an "unknown land of the south" (an "unknown land of the south" (terra australis terra australis incognitaincognita) dating back to Roman times were ) dating back to Roman times were commonplace in mediæval geography, but were commonplace in mediæval geography, but were based on no actual knowledge of the continent. based on no actual knowledge of the continent. The name "Australia" was popularised by the The name "Australia" was popularised by the 1814 work 1814 work A Voyage to Terra AustralisA Voyage to Terra Australis by the by the navigator Matthew Flinders, the first recorded navigator Matthew Flinders, the first recorded person to circumnavigate Australia. Despite its person to circumnavigate Australia. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the British title, which reflected the view of the British Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in Admiralty, Flinders used the word "Australia" in the book, which was widely read and gave the the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor Lachlan term general currency. Governor Lachlan Macquarie of New South Wales subsequently Macquarie of New South Wales subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England, and used the word in his dispatches to England, and in 1817 recommended that it be officially in 1817 recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as continent should be known officially as "Australia"."Australia".

History of AustraliaHistory of Australia The first human habitation The first human habitation

of Australia is estimated of Australia is estimated to have occurred between to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. These first ago. These first Australians were the Australians were the ancestors of the current ancestors of the current Indigenous Australians; Indigenous Australians; they arrived via land they arrived via land bridges and short sea-bridges and short sea-crossings from present-crossings from present-day South-East Asia. Most day South-East Asia. Most of these people were of these people were hunter-gatherers, with a hunter-gatherers, with a complex oral culture and complex oral culture and spiritual values based on spiritual values based on reverence for the land and reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime. a belief in the Dreamtime. The Torres Strait The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, inhabited the Melanesian, inhabited the Torres Strait Islands and Torres Strait Islands and parts of far-north parts of far-north Queensland; their cultural Queensland; their cultural practices were and remain practices were and remain distinct from those of the distinct from those of the Aborigines.Aborigines.

The first undisputed The first undisputed recorded European recorded European sighting of the sighting of the Australian mainland Australian mainland was made by the was made by the Dutch navigator Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon, Willem Janszoon, who sighted the who sighted the coast of Cape York coast of Cape York Peninsula in 1606. Peninsula in 1606. During the 17th During the 17th century, the Dutch century, the Dutch charted the whole of charted the whole of the western and the western and northern coastlines northern coastlines of what they called of what they called New Holland, but New Holland, but made no attempt at made no attempt at settlement.settlement.

In 1770, James Cook In 1770, James Cook sailed along and sailed along and mapped the east mapped the east coast of Australia, coast of Australia, which he named which he named New South Wales on New South Wales on HM Bark HM Bark EndeavourEndeavour, claiming , claiming the land for Great the land for Great Britain in 1770. The Britain in 1770. The expedition's expedition's discoveries provided discoveries provided impetus for the impetus for the establishment of a establishment of a penal colony there.penal colony there.

The British Crown The British Crown Colony of New South Colony of New South Wales started with the Wales started with the establishment of a establishment of a settlement at Port settlement at Port Jackson by Captain Jackson by Captain Arthur Phillip on 26 Arthur Phillip on 26 January 1788. This January 1788. This date was later to date was later to become Australia's become Australia's national day, Australia national day, Australia Day. Van Diemen's Day. Van Diemen's Land, now known as Land, now known as Tasmania, was settled Tasmania, was settled in 1803 and became a in 1803 and became a separate colony in separate colony in 1825. The United 1825. The United Kingdom formally Kingdom formally claimed the western claimed the western part of Australia in part of Australia in 1829. 1829.

Separate colonies Separate colonies

were created from were created from parts of New South parts of New South Wales: South Australia Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria in in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded Territory was founded in 1911 when it was in 1911 when it was excised from South excised from South Australia. South Australia. South Australia was founded Australia was founded as a "free province" — as a "free province" — that is, it was never a that is, it was never a penal colony. Victoria penal colony. Victoria and Western Australia and Western Australia were also founded were also founded "free", but later "free", but later accepted transported accepted transported convicts. The convicts. The transportation of transportation of convicts to the colony convicts to the colony of New South Wales of New South Wales ceased in 1848 after a ceased in 1848 after a campaign by the campaign by the settlers.settlers.

The Indigenous Australian The Indigenous Australian population, estimated at 350,000 at population, estimated at 350,000 at the time of European settlement, the time of European settlement, declined steeply for 150 years declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly following settlement, mainly because of infectious diseases because of infectious diseases combined with forced re-settlement combined with forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration. The and cultural disintegration. The removal of children from their removal of children from their families, which some historians and families, which some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered to constitute could be considered to constitute genocide by some definitions, may genocide by some definitions, may have contributed to the decline in have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population. the indigenous population.

Such interpretations of Aboriginal Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. This debate is or ideological reasons. This debate is known within Australia as the History known within Australia as the History Wars. Following the 1967 referendum, Wars. Following the 1967 referendum, the Federal government gained the the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land — native Traditional ownership of land — native title — was not recognised until 1992, title — was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case when the High Court case Mabo v Mabo v Queensland (No 2)Queensland (No 2) overturned the overturned the notion of Australia as notion of Australia as terra nulliusterra nullius ("empty land") at the time of European ("empty land") at the time of European occupation.occupation.

A gold rush began in Australia in the A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade rebellion against mining licence fees in rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On 1 defence and international shipping. On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born as Commonwealth of Australia was born as a Dominion of the British Empire. a Dominion of the British Empire.

The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) was formed from a part of New South was formed from a part of New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra proposed new federal capital of Canberra (Melbourne was the temporary capital (Melbourne was the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed). The Northern being constructed). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in World War I. willingly participated in World War I. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation — its first major military action. nation — its first major military action. The Kokoda Track Campaign is regarded The Kokoda Track Campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War IIevent during World War II

The Commonwealth of The Commonwealth of Australia is a Australia is a constitutional monarchy constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary with a parliamentary system of government. system of government. Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of Australia, a role Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her that is distinct from her position as monarch of the position as monarch of the other Commonwealth other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is realms. The Queen is represented by the represented by the Governor-General at Governor-General at Federal level and by the Federal level and by the Governors at State level. Governors at State level. Although the Constitution Although the Constitution gives extensive executive gives extensive executive powers to the Governor-powers to the Governor-General, these are General, these are normally exercised only on normally exercised only on the advice of the Prime the advice of the Prime Minister. The most notable Minister. The most notable exercise of the Governor-exercise of the Governor-General's reserve powers General's reserve powers outside the Prime outside the Prime Minister's direction was Minister's direction was the dismissal of the the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of the constitutional crisis of 1975.1975.

Governor General His Excellency Major General Michael Jeffery, AC, CVO, MC

Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II

There are three branches of government:There are three branches of government:The legislature: the Commonwealth Parliament, comprising the Queen, the Senate, The legislature: the Commonwealth Parliament, comprising the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, whose powers are limited to assenting to laws. whose powers are limited to assenting to laws. The executive: the Federal Executive Council (the Governor-General as advised by the The executive: the Federal Executive Council (the Governor-General as advised by the Executive Councillors); in practice, the councillors are the Prime Minister and Executive Councillors); in practice, the councillors are the Prime Minister and Ministers of State. Ministers of State. The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts. The State courts The judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts. The State courts became formally independent from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council when became formally independent from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council when the the Australia ActAustralia Act was passed in 1986. was passed in 1986.

The Federal Executive Council The High Court of Australia

The SenateThe House of

Representatives

Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II

Governor General His Excellency Major General Michael Jeffery, AC, CVO, MC

The Commonwealth Parliament

Prime Minister

John Howard

The bicameral Commonwealth Parliament The bicameral Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the Senate (the upper consists of the Queen, the Senate (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a House of house) of 76 senators, and a House of Representatives (the lower house) of 150 Representatives (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Elections for both chambers are held every Elections for both chambers are held every three years; Senators have overlapping six-year three years; Senators have overlapping six-year terms, and only half of the seats are put to each terms, and only half of the seats are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution. The party with majority double dissolution. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms support in the House of Representatives forms government, and its leader becomes Prime government, and its leader becomes Prime Minister.Minister.There are three major political parties: the There are three major political parties: the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal arty and the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal arty and the National Party. Independent members and National Party. Independent members and several minor parties — including the Greens several minor parties — including the Greens and the Australian Democrats — have achieved and the Australian Democrats — have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. mostly in upper houses.

States and territoriesStates and territories

Australia consists of six states, two major Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. The two Victoria and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. In most respects, the territories Territory. In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. legislation of their parliaments. AAll residual ll residual legislative powers are retained by the state legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local roads, public transport and local government.government.

New South WalesNew South Wales

The Australian Capital The Australian Capital TerritoryTerritory

Canberra – the capital of AustraliaCanberra – the capital of Australia

The Parliament House

QueenslandQueensland

BrisbaneBrisbane

South AustraliaSouth Australia

AdelaideAdelaide

TasmaniaTasmania

HobartHobart

VictoriaVictoria

MelbourneMelbourne

Western AustraliaWestern Australia

PerthPerth

The Northern TerritoryThe Northern Territory

DarwinDarwin

Norfolk IslandNorfolk Island

Christmas Island Adelaide City Ashfield City

Beudesert City Brisbane City Dalby Town

Sidney Waggawagga City Westtorrens City

Aboriginal Australia Official Coat of Arms

Torrestrait Island

Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, and Drought in Australiaand Drought in Australia

Australia's 7,617,930 square kilometres Australia's 7,617,930 square kilometres (2,941,299 sq. mi) landmass is on the (2,941,299 sq. mi) landmass is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the Indian, Southern and Pacific oceans, Indian, Southern and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. Australia has a Arafura and Timor seas. Australia has a total 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of total 34,218 kilometres (21,262 mi) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands) coastline (excluding all offshore islands) and claims an extensive Exclusive and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057 sq. mi). This kilometres (3,146,057 sq. mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.the Australian Antarctic Territory.

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,250 mi). Mount Augustus claimed (1,250 mi). Mount Augustus claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At located in Western Australia. At 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006 ft).taller at 2,745 metres (9,006 ft).

By far the largest part of Australia is desert By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid. Australia is the flattest or semi-arid. Australia is the flattest continent, has the oldest and least fertile continent, has the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent. soils, and is the driest inhabited continent. Only the south-east and south-west corners Only the south-east and south-west corners of the continent have a temperate climate. of the continent have a temperate climate. Most of the population lives along the Most of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. The temperate south-eastern coastline. The landscapes of the northern part of the landscapes of the northern part of the country, with a tropical climate, consist of country, with a tropical climate, consist of rainforest, woodland, grassland, mangrove rainforest, woodland, grassland, mangrove swamps and desert. The climate is swamps and desert. The climate is significantly influenced by ocean currents, significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the El Niño southern oscillation, including the El Niño southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.Australia.

Flora of Australia and Fauna of Flora of Australia and Fauna of AustraliaAustralia

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Because of the great age and megadiverse country. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns, and its long-extremely variable weather patterns, and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85% of flowering plants, is unique and diverse. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Many of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species. The federal and introduced plant and animal species. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999Conservation Act 1999 is a legal framework for the is a legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the protected areas have been created under the national Biodiversity Action Plan to protect and national Biodiversity Action Plan to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 64 wetlands are preserve unique ecosystems; 64 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 registered under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 World Heritage Sites have been established. World Heritage Sites have been established.

Flora of Australia and Fauna of Flora of Australia and Fauna of AustraliaAustralia

Most Australian woody plant species are Most Australian woody plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including many eucalyptus and acacias. drought, including many eucalyptus and acacias. Australia has a rich variety of endemic legume Australia has a rich variety of endemic legume species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with Rhizobia bacteria and of their symbiosis with Rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. Well-known Australian fauna mycorrhizal fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a include monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, wombat; and birds such as the emu and wombat; and birds such as the emu and kookaburra. The dingo was introduced by kookaburra. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. Many plant and Australians around 3000 BCE. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after first animal species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have become extinct since megafauna; others have become extinct since European settlement, among them the Thylacine.European settlement, among them the Thylacine.

Australian KangarooAustralian Kangaroo

WombatWombat

KoalaKoala

Australian AntelopeAustralian Antelope

Tasmanian WolfeTasmanian Wolfe

Australian BandicootsAustralian Bandicoots

EchidnaEchidna

PlatypusPlatypus

DingoDingo

DingoesDingoes

A BatA Bat

Crimson RosellaCrimson Rosella

Crimson RosellaCrimson Rosella

Australian grebe wood Australian grebe wood duckduck

Azure KingfisherAzure Kingfisher

Blue Winged KookaburraBlue Winged Kookaburra

Brown Brown Falcon Falcon

Wild Turkey

Cassowary

Cockatoo

Common Bronzewing

Crested terns

Emu

Grey Curawong

Laughing Kookaburra

Lewin’s Honeyeater

Little Corellas

Little Pied Cormorant

Lyre Bird

Major Mitchell

Cockatoo

Pacific Gull

Pacific Herron

Pelican

Tawny Frogmouth

Penguins

Rainbow Lorikeet

Royal Spoonbills

Swallow

Eagle

Snakes

Lizards