atomic energy wjb& ltnergie atomique …(b) berenson's correlation for poo.l boiling 39 (c)...
TRANSCRIPT
AECU5543
ATOMIC ENERGY W j B & LTNERGIE ATOMIQUEOF CANADA LIMITED Y j f i j f DU CANADA LIMITEE
FORCED CONVECTIVE TRANSITION BOILING
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND COMPARISON
OF PREDICTION METHODS
by
D.C. GROENEVELD and K.K. FUNG
Cha'k River Nuclear Laboratories
Chalk River, Ontario
June 1976
FORCED CONVECTIVE TRANSITION BOILING
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND
COMPARISON OF PREDICTION METHODS
by
D.C. Groeneveld and K.K. Fung*
*Graduate s tudent , University of Toronto
Advance Engineering Branch
Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories
Chalk River, Ontario
June 1976
AECL-5543
Ebull i t ion de transit ion dans des conditions convectives
forcées: revue de la l i t té ra tu re et comparaison
des méthodes da prédiction
par
D.C. Groeneveld et K.K. Fung*
•'Etudiant gradué, Université de Toronto
Résumé
Ce rapport passe en revue les informations publiées concernant
le transfert de la chaleur en ebul l i t ion de transit ion dans des conditions
convectives forcées. On a constaté que les données relatives à 1 'ebul l i t ion
de transit ion n'ont été obtenues que dans une gamme limitée du conditions
et nombreuses sont celles considérées comme peu sûres. Ces données ne
permettent pas d'effectuer de corrélat ion; cependant, des tendances
paramétriques peuvent en être extrai tes.
Plusieurs auteurs ont proposé des corrélations valables dans la
région de 1'ebul l i t ion de t ransi t ion. Cependant, la plupart de ces
corrélations ne sont valables que dans une gamme étroi te de conditions.
Une comparaison avec ces données a montré, en générais un mauvais accord.
La corrélation de Hsu est provisoirement recommandée pour les faibles débits
et pressions.
L'Energie Atomique du Canada, LimitéeLaboratoires Nucléaires de Chalk River
Chalk River, Ontario
J'.iin 1976
AECL-5543
FORCED CONVECTIVE TRANSITION BOILING
REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND
COMPARISON OF PREDICTION METHODS
by
D.C. Groeneveld and K,K.. Fung*
ABSTRACT
This report reviews the published information on transition
boiling heat transfer under forced convective conditions. It was found
that transition boiling data have been obtained only within a limited
range of conditions and many data are considered unreliable. The data do
not permit the derivation of a correlation; however the parametric trends
can be isolated from the data.
Several authors have proposed correlations valid in the
transition boiling region. Most of the correlations are valid only
within a narrow range of conditions. A comparison with the data <shows
that in general agreement is poor. Hsu's correlation is tentatively
recommended for low flows and pressures.
^Graduate student, University of Toronto
Advance Engineering Branch
Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories
Chalk River, Ontario
June 1976 AECL-5543
CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION 1
MECHANISM OF TRANSITION BOILING 4
Pool Boiling 4
Forced Convective Boiling 7
PARAMETRIC EFFECTS 8
Effect of Mass Flux 8
(a) Subcooled or Low Quality Region 8
(b) High Quality Region 10
Effect of Quality 12
Effect of Pressure 14
Effect of Subcooling 14
Effect of Surface Condition 16
Effect of Transient 17
T"'-;--ST.TION BOILING EXPERIMENTS 18
General 18
Electronic Feedback 18
Forced Convective Heating 20
Stabilizing Fluid Technique 22
Transient Technique 24
Transient Boiling Results 26
TRANSITION BOILING CORRELATIOUS 26
General 26
Correlations Containing Boiling and Convective Components 27
(a) Tong's Correlation 29
(b) Mattson's Correlation 29
(c) Ramu and Weisman's Correlation 34
(d) Hsu's Correlation 34
Phenomenological Correlations 38
(a) Tong and Young's Correlation 38
(b) Iloeje's Model 39
Page
Empirical Correlations 39
(a) Ellion's Correlation 39
(b) Berenson's Correlation for Poo.l Boiling 39
(c) McDonough, Milich and King's Correlation 40
Comparison with'Data 40
(a) Ellion's IV. f a * 42
(b) Plumper's Data 42
(c) Peterson's Data 45
(d) Ramu's Data 45
(e) FLECHT Data ' 45
Discussion 48
CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS 50
REFERENCES 51
NOMENCLATURE 60
TABLES 63
INTRODUCTION
In heat transfer studies an increase in heated surface temperature
normally results in an increase in heat removal rate. There is however ane
exception: in transition boiling (the boiling mode occurring between
nucleate and film boiling) an increase in surface temperature usually results
in a decrease in surface heat flux. This is illustrated schematically in
figure 1 where the variation in surface heat flux is shown as a function of
heated surface temperature.
Nukiyama (1934) was the first one to postulate Lhe existence cf
the transition boiling mode. He gradually increased the heat flux of an
electrically heated platinum wire, submerged in a puol of stagnant water.
The. wire, after passing through the usual nucleate boiling region (BCD,
figure 1) experienced a sudden excursion in surface temperature, the so-
called boiling; crisis at the critical heat flux (D-F, figure 1). A subse-
quent reduction in surface heat flux showed the existence of a hysteresis
effect: the temperature reduced gradually to E where a subsequent reduction
in heat flux caused a jump back to the nucleate boiling region (EC, figure 1).
Since Nukiyama utilized a heat flux controlled system, he was unable to
observe the transition boiling curve*. Nevertheless he correctly postulated
the existence of such a curve.
As the name implies, transition boiling is an intermediate boiling
region. E .renson (1962) has provided a concise description of the transi-
tion boiling mechanism: Transition boiling is a combination of unstable
film boiling und unstable nucleate boiling alternately existing at
*Drew (1937) was the first one to observe the transition boiling curve.
CX.LxJ
:cLJJ
u_
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX
M I N SURFACE TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 1 BOILING CURVE
ami given location on a heating surface. The variation in beat transfer
rate with temperature is primarily a result of a change in the fraction of
time each boiling regime exists at a given location.
The transition boiling section of the. boiling curve is bounded by
the critical heat flux at D and the minimum heat flux at E. The critical
heat flux has been extensively studied and can be predicted by a variety of
correlations. The minimum heat flux has undergone less study; it is known
to be affected by flow, pressure, surface properties, fluid properties and
heated surface parameters.
In general, we can distinguish between three boiling processes:
i) pool boiling where boiling takes place on a submerged surface in a
stagnant pool of liquid; ii) flow boiling or forced convective boiling
where the flow can be either perpendicular to the heated surface (cross flow)
or parallel to the heated surface; and iii) transient boiling where a
transient in pressure, flow and/or heat flux takes place during pool boiling
or flow boiling. The system used in the boiling study can be either heat
flux controlled (electric or nuclear heating, no thermal inertia), tempera-
ture controlled (completely isothermal) or a combination of the above. In
practice, during a fast transient, the thermal inertia of the system becomes
important and the system's behaviour approaches that of a temperature
controlled system while during steady-state operation electrically or
nuclear heated systems behave like a heat flux controlled system (except for
operation at the critical heat tlux).
Although nuclear reactors normally operate at power levels well
below th£ critical power*, situations can be postulated where the critical
*The critical power is the power level corresponding to the firstindication of boiling crisis occurrence.
power is exceeded. In the thermal analysis of such postulated situations it
is usually assumed that, when the critical heat flux is exceeded, the heat
transfer mode will change from the very efficient nucleate boiling mode
directly to the inefficient film boiling mode. This assumption ignores the
contribution of the intermediate transition boiling mode. Also> in analyzing
the thermal behaviour of a hot surface which is being rewetted (such as may
occur during emergency core cooling of a nuclear reactor) it is often assumed
that film boiling is followed immediately by nucleate boiling, again ignoring
the transition boiling heat transfer mode. In both cases, the assumption that
film boiling rather than transition boiling occurs will result in an over-
prediction of the calculated temperature-time history. The purpose of this
report is to review the relevant transition boiling heat transfer literature "'
and present a comparison of available prediction methods with experimental data.
MECHANISM OF TRANSITION BOILING
In this section the physical mechanisms governing transition
boiling heat transfer are described. The mechanisms are illustrated in
figure 2a for pool boiling, in figure 2b for subcooled or low quality flow
boiling and in figure 2c for high quality flow boiling.
Pool Boiling (Figure 2a)
In a temperature controlled system the boiling crisis is reached
when the flow of vapour leaving the heated surface is so large that ii: pre-
vents a sufficient amount of liquid from reaching the surface to maintain the
heated surface in the wet condition. The phenomenon that limits the inflow
of liquid is the Helmholtz instability which occurs when a counterflow of
vapour and liquid becomes unstable. Zuber (1959) and Kutateladze (1966)
o
/V//7/////. /////.
( b ) FLOW BOILING (SUBCOOLED OR LOW <c) FLOW BOILING (HIGH QUALITY)(a) POOL BOILINGQUALITY)
FIG. 2 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF BOILING MODES
have derived equations for the CHF based on the Helmholtz instablity theory;
tlieir predictions agree with CHF values measured in pool boiling systems.
At surface temperatures in excess of the boiling crisis tempera-
ture, the heated surface will be partially covered with unstable vapour
patches (varying with space and time). The formation of such dry patches
will be accompanied by a drastic reduction in heat transfer coefficient; the
corresponding reduction in local vapour generation will permit t liquid to
momentarily rewet the heated surface. Liquid contact with the heated surfac2
will be frequent at low wall superheats but become less frequent at high wall
superheats (Ruckenstein (1964)). Bankoff (1962) and Stock (1960) have shown
that liquid-solid contact is of very short duration at high wall superheats:
an explosive formation of vapours occurred when the liquid contacted the
heated surface; the subsequent vapour thrust forced the liquid away trom the
surface*. There is no agreement in the literature regarding the question of
liquid-solid contact near the minimum of the boiling curve. Hesse (1973) and
Stock (1960) believed th^t the vapour film (that may be in violent motion)
will be maintained at wall superheats less than AT . while Berenson (1960)nun
and Ruckenstein (1964) believed that liquid-solid contact will occur up to
AT . .'<iin
Two mechanisms for liquid-solid separation at high wall superheat
ave postulated:
(a) thermodynamically contrclle.l separation (i.e., instantaneous
evaporation of the liquid at its maximum liquid superheat level) in which
case the pressure and the fluid properties govern the critical superheat level.
*Westwater (1955) did not believe that liquid-solid contact occurred intransition boiling; he did observe explosive formation of vapour whenthe liquid approached the heated surface.
(b) hydrodynarci.cally controlled separation (i.e. the vapour thrust is
greater than the forces directing the liquid towards the heated surface) in
which case the vapour superheat depends on properties or the fluid and the
heated surface.
During fast transients, where insufficient time is available to fully develop
the hydrodynamic forces, liquid-wall separation is expected to be thermo-
dynamically controlled while for low flows and low pressures, where suffi-
cient time is available and the volumetric expansion of the fluid near the
wall is large, liquid-wall separation is more likely to be hydrodynamically
controlled.
Forced Convective Boiling (Figures 2b and 2c)
In forced convective boiling the critical heat flux is no longer
controlled by Helmholtz instability; instead the. boiling crisis is due to an
agglomeration of bubble nucleation sites (Collier (1972), high subcooling),
bubble clouding (long (1965), slight subcooling or low quality) or film
depletion (Hewitt (1970), annular dispersed flow). Ellion (1954) studied
forced conve .tive transition boiling in subcooled water and observad
frequent raplacement of vapour patches by liquid. Although this may seem
similar to transition pool boiling as described previously, the introduction
of the cor.vective component v;ill improve the film boiling component by
reducing the vapour film thickness and changing the heat transfer mode from
free convection to forced convection. This will result in an increase in
<\> . and might also increase AT . (if AT . is hydrodynamicallym m -rim min
controlled).
8
In the high quality region (figure 2c) most of the heat transferred
during transition boiling will be d':e to droplet-wall interaction. Initially,
at surface temperatures just in excess of the boiling crisis temperature, a
significant fraction of the droplets will deposit on the heated surface but
at higher wall superheats the vapour repulsion forces vrould become signifi-
cant in repelling most of the droplets before they can contact the heated
surface. The repelled droplets will contribute to the heat transfer by
disturbing jhe boundary layer sufficiently to enhance the heat transfer to
the vapour. The heat transferred to the droplets was found to depend on
droplet size (Wachters (1965)), droplet impact velocity (Pedersen (1970)),
impact angle (McGinnis (1969)) and surface roughness (Wachters (1965)). These
variables also affect the minimum heat flux and corresponding surface temper-
ature.
PARAMETRIC EFFECTS
Effect of Mass Flux
(a) Subcooled or Low Quality Region
In the subcooled boiling region Ellion (1954) observed a shift in
the transition boiling curve upwards with an increase in flow (figure 3).
Note that $ was increased but that cj) . and AT . remained unchanged,max m m inxn
An increase in hmT, was also reported by Pramuk (Jordan (1968)) whoID
studied transition boiling in an agitated pool of water.
Kutateladze (1966) observed an increase in <f> and <b . with flowmax nun
for water (figure 4) and alcohol (figure 5). The ratio <j> /cb . for bothmax min
fluids remains approximately constant with an increase in flow, hence it seems
reasonable to expect h,n_ to increase at the same rate as d) or 6 . .TB max min
0 x 1 O " 5 10
5BTU
1..0
0 .5
5 FT/SEC
10 100
F I G , . 3 E F F E C T OF V E L O C I T Y ON B O I L I N G CURVE ( E L L I O N , 1 9 5 4 )P = 16 P S I A , A T S U B = 5 0 ° F
<p x 10
BTU
H - F T 2
- 5 15
5 -.
8 10
U, FT/SEC
FIG. 4 EFFECT OF FLOW VELOCITY ON 0 M A X AND 0 H | N; WATER BOILINGON GRAPHITE SURFACES (KUTATELADZE, 1966)
0
H
x 10
BTU
-FT
-5
T
4
3
2
5 10 15 20
U» FT/SEC
FIG 5 EFFECT OF FLOW VELOCITY ON 0 H A X FOR ISOPROPYL(KUTATELAOZE, 1966)
10
The increase in <j> was expected since a higher vpTocity penuits
more efficient removal of bubbles thus delaying the DNB phenomenon. A higher
velocity also improves filn boiling heat transfer and, because of a corres-
ponding higher turbulence level of the flow, is expected to improve wall-
liquid interaction in the rransition boiling region. From the above argu-
ments one would expect an increase in AT . as well as an increase in (f> . .
min m mThe expected effect is illustrated in figure 6.
(b) High Quality Region
Ramu (1975) studied forced convective transition p oiling at two
different flows; unfortunately at the higher flow, the quality tended to be
lower than at the lower flow. His results may be interpreted two ways:
i) there is no effect of mass flux on transition boiling, or ii) if there
is an effect of mass flux, it is compensated for by the difference in
qualities. It may well be that the velocity of the mixture is the important
——I as is the case in film boiling.
Pv Pz J
Toda (1972) studied transition boiling of a disc cooked by a spray
of droplets. He observed h to increase with droplet velocity. In an
analytical study Iloeje (1974) showed that at wall superheats typical of the
transition boiling region, the dominant heat flux is due to direct wall-
droplet interaction. At higher mass flows the droplet deposition flux is
higher resulting in an increase in h_D and <j> . with mass flow. Plummerla iuin
(1973) analyzed transient post-dryout data obtained in high quality steam-
water flow. For the low flows studied (G <. 105lb/h.fc2), uT . increasedmin
slightly with flow. The accuracy of the AT . value however is questionable*.
'•'private communication, General Electric Company
1.1
CD
oen
ccCJ
CJz—>oCD
zoX=31
| |
COCO
u_
°t—CJUJU_
O
oroC3UJ
ooCJmCO
UJ
1—CJUJ
zoCJ
aLLJCJccC3
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CD
12
Groenevelri (1973) studied the boiling curve for Freon-12 using a
heeit flux controlled system; he noticed that at high flows the usual excursion
in surface temperature at the boiling crisis (DF in figure 1) was absent;
instead the surface temperature continued to increase with surface heat flux
but the slope of the boiling curve (d<f>/dT) above the C H F was reduced, This
effect, which was also observed in water by this author and others
(Bertoletti (1964)) is illustrated in figure 7. Note that the CHF is not greatly
affected by the flow: depending on mass flow, quality and pressure it may
increase or decrease with flow. However, (f> . is strongly affected (because
of the improved h,,- at higher flows); at very high flows, the minimum
disappears completely.
Effect of Quality
High pressure CHF studies with Freon-12 and steam-water mixtures
(Bertoletti (1964), Groeneveld (1974)) show that, at high flows and high
qualities, the temperature jump at dryout is usually absent: the boiling
curve only displays a change in slope which may be accompanied by s lrface
temperature fluctuations. This is not surprising as at higher qualities the
CHF drops while h-,, and presumably <J> . increase as illustrated in figure 8.rli min
The effect on AT . is pot clear; the only known study is by Plummer (1973)min
who analyzed questionable transient post--dryout data obtained at 1000 psia;
bis results suggest a slight reduction in AT . with an increase in quality.
13
T W T S A TFIG, 7 EFFECT OF MASS FLUX ON BOILING CURVE
(ANNULAR FLOW REGIME)
T W ( S » T
FIG. 8 EFFECT OF QUALITY ON FORCED CONVECTIVE BOILING CURVE
14
Effect of Pressure
Hesse (1973) measured Lhe complete boiling curve in pool boiling
for Freon-114 at pressures between 3 and 20 bar. His results are shown in
figure 9: at low pressures the pressure effect was small but at high pres-
sures a significant reduction in h_,,, 6 . , AT and AT . was observed.TB nun max m m
Ellion (1954) obtained forced convective boiling curves (subcooled
boiling) for 16 and 60 psia. No effect of pressure was observed.
In general, for the same flow and quality, hp_ increases slightly
with pressure because of improved heat transport properties while (f>IT13.X
increases until it reaches a maximum value ai.. P/P =0.25; it subse-
quently decreases with pressure. Near the critical pressure the boiling
curve changes to that characteristic of a single phase fluid as here the flow
becomes homogeneous and the difference between boiling modes disappears.
'•"ffect of Subcoolinf;
The effect of subcooling on transition boiling has been studied in
steady state pool boiling systems (Tachibana (1973), Nishikawa (1963)),
quenching experiments (Bradrield (1967), Tachibana (1973), Stevens (1971))
and forced convective boiling systems (Ellion (1954)). In general, increased
subcooling was found to increase <b , h , <j> . and AT . . The exception tomax TB m m min
this was a study by Stevens (1971): on quenching of a hot sphere he observed
a slight reduction in AT . with an increase in subcooling. Ellion (1954)min
did not observe an effect of subcooling on AT . .° mm
The effect of subcooling on <f> and § . in a pool-boiling systemmax m m
has been evaluated theoretically by both Zuber (1961) and Kutateladze (1966).
The higher subcooling increases the CHF since for the same vapour flux leaving
L5
I i : i i i I I | I I I I I I I I I I I
10'
A T S A T ( ° C )
FIG 9 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON POOL BOILING CURVESOF FREON 114 (HESSE, 1973)
TW~TSAT
FIG 10 EFFECT OF SUBCOOLING ON BOiLING CURVE
16
the surface the heat flux must be higher. Also <J> . and h are higherm m i B
because of reqvired higher surface heat flux to maintain the same vapour film
thickness. The above reasoning suggests that h will increase as illustrated
in figure 10. Piggott (1974) studied the effect of subcooling on rewetting
of a hot surface exposed to a jet of subcooled water. He found that a slighl
increase in subcooling C18°F) would reduce the rewetting delay significantly
(from 100 seconds to 1 second). Also the spreading of the drypatch occurred
much more rapidly with a slight increase in subcooling. This agrees with
previously mentioned observations that an increase in subcooling results in
an increase in <j) , <j) . , h,,.. and/or AT . .max min FB min
Effect of Surface Condition
Berenson (1960) studied the effect of surface roughness on transi-
tion boiling in a pool boiling system using a variety of organics. In
general, commercial surface finish did not affect <j> , tj> . or AT . but itmax m m m m
reduced AT (as compared to a mirror finish). Berenson'3 observationsmax
agree with those of Nishikawa (1963), although Nishikawa observed an increase
in <j) . with increased surface roughness.
In a forced convective system the roughness effect is not clear.
Groeneveld (1973) has reviewed the literature on surface roughness effects
and concluded that the surface roughness will increase h if the roughnessCD
height is larger than the laminar sublayer thickness. The effect on d> ismax
less clear: in the subcooled region the roughness effect is probably positive
but at high qualities the effect nay be positive or negative, depending on
the roughness profile. Surface roughness is also expected to increase AT .m m
and <j) . because of increased liquid-wall interaction near the minimum
17
(possible mechanism: the peak of the roughness may protrude through the
vapour film and initiate rewetting). Evidence for this was reported by
Iloeje (1973): At 1000 psia increases in AT . from 350°F to 900°F weremxn
attributed to an oxidized or crudded heated surface although improper
experimental techniques are also expected to have played a role*,
Piggott (1974) studied the rewetting of hot rods by bottom flooding
and falling films. No effect of surface finish on rewetting delay was
observed for the bottom flooding case but for the falling film case, rewetting
delay was decreased by surface roughness. No explanation for this has yet
been offered.
Effect of Transient
In this section the effect of a temperature transient, as encountered
in quenching, on transition boiling will be discussed. The most complete
study was carried out by Tachibana (1973) who measured boiling curves for a
variety of fluids during steady state pool boiling and quenching. The
quenching boiling curves were derived from the temperature-time history which
makes the results less accurate. Nevertheless, Tachibana's results show that,
as a first approximation, the quenching curves agree with the steady-state
boiling curves. Also AT , and d) . both seem to be somewhat lower duringb mxn mxn
quenching conditions than during steady-state conditions. Bergles and
Thompson (1970) also studied the pool boiling curves during quenching and
ateady-state conditions in several fluids. They observed ua. increased t)>
and hT_ for the transient runs. Unfortunately, the heated surface had become
cruc'.ded during the quenching runs thus making their comparison questionable.
^private communication, General Electric Company
18
TRANSITION BOILING EXPERIMENTS
General
The most widely used system in forced convective boiling studies
is a heat flux controlled system where the heat output of an electrically
heated clement is increased gradually. On reaching a power level corres-
ponding to the critical heat flux, the heated surface temperature will
usually fluctuate between the nucleate and film boiling curve. Eventually
with a small further increase in heat flux, the temperature will steady out
along the film boiling curve. This might result in physical failure of the
heated surface.
As shown in figure 11, a heat flux controlled system will not
permit measurement of transition boiling data; to do this i temperature
controlled system (in which case certain stability criteria must be satis-
fied) or a transient experimental set-up, using a high thermal inertia
heater, is required. Table I lists the previous transition boiling inves-
tigations, and gives the ranges covered. In this section derails of exper-
imental methods will be discussed. Since this review deals with forced
convective studies, pool boiling details will only be quoted if relevant to
the forced convective case.
Electronic Feedback
Peterson et al. (1973) used a forced convective boiling system
(0.487" OD, 0.005" ID annulus heated by a 0.005" platinum wire) where the
heater resistance became one arm of a comparator bridge circuit. The
bridge became unbalanced for heater temperatures different from the required
heater temperature, and the bridge signal was used to control power.
ABCD
- HEAT FLUX CONTROLLED SYSTEM- TEMPERATURE CONTROLLED SYSTEM- HEAT FLUX- TRANSIENT
^ /<v /
$/
/A,B,C,Ds
CONTROLLEDTESTING US
B,
SYSTEM ING HIGH
%
\ \
D
•01 TH AUXTHERMAL
ILIIN
E
ARYERT
i,C,
HEAT FLUXIA HEATER
/
D
SPI
/
A,B
KE
,C,D
FIG, 11 FORCED CONNECTIVE BOILING CURVE:SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
= T W " T S A T
SUBDIVISION BASED ON EXTERNAL
20
A similar system has been used by Peterson (1971) and Sakurai (1974) in a
pool boiling study. Although this setup seems very promising, the data by
Peterson have a limited value since his heater geometry (0.005" OD, 2" b^-ted
length) differs greatly from heater geometries of interest. The boiling curve
derived from Peterson's data is based on the assumption that the heated
surface temperau-re is uniform in the axial direction. For long heaters this
is unlikely to be true because u: variations in quality along the length.
An improvement on Peterson's method could be a system whers the
test section power was controlled by the deviation from a preset temperature
as measured by a surface thermocouple.
Forced Convective Heating
Both McDonough (1961) and Ramu (1975) used a system where heat was
supplied by circulating liquid metals. McDonough obtained transition boiling
data inside a 0.152" ID tube externally heated by circulating NaK while
Ramu (1975) used an ann.ilar geometry (1" OD, 0.54" ID) for the boiling fluid
which was internally heated by mercury. Assuming a flat wall between the
liquid metal and the coolant the following relationship applies
(j) = UCV-T ) = 11,(1 -T .) = ~-(T ,-T .) = h_(T _-T JT 1 sat 1 1 wl o wl w2 2 w2 sat
where subscript 1 refers to the heating fluid and subscript 2 to ,_he boiling
!;ast fluid. The ij) vs, AT relationship for both fluids and the wall is shown
schematically in figure 11. Note that h.. is assumed to be constant (no
change in phase on heating fluid side) while h? varies depending on the
boiling mode.
Figure 12b illustrates that, for cer*.u±n conditions (low values of
h^ and k, large 6), r>o transition boiling data can be obtained: If the
21
a S T A B L E O P E R f l T l O W D U R I N G T R A N S I T I O N B O i L i N G
'SAT
H E A T I N GF L U I D
TEST F L U I D
'HI
'SAT
b. U N S T A B L E OPERflTION D U R I N G T R A N S I T I O N B O I L I N G
FIG 12 0 vs AT R E L A T I O N S H I P FOR B O I L I N G S Y S T E M S H E A T E D BY H E A T I N G F L U I D S
22
overall temperature difference T,-T at the maximum exceeds T,-T atv 1 sat 1 sat
the minimum, the heat flux will suddenly drop from <j> to a value close toin 3.x
d> . (A-B in figure 12b) without permitting any measurements in the transi-mxn
tion boiling region (A-C).
Stabilizing Fluid Technique
Ellion (1954) studied transition boiling in a 2.5': 00 annulus
centrally heated by a 0.25" electric tubular heater, cooled internally by i
stabilizing fluid to avoid a dryout temperature excursion. Total heated
length was only 3 inches. His setup is shown schematically in figure 13.
Ignoring the temperature variation across the tube wall, the total heat
removal rate from the tubular heater (per unit of surface area) is:
• - • i + ^ 2 - V V T l ) + h 2 ( V T s a t }
where subscript 1 refers to the stabilizing fluid and subscript 2 to the
boiling test fluid.
As can be seen from figure 13, the system permits stable operation
in the transition boiling mode provided the slope of the <j> vs. T curve
is between 0° and 90°.
Although Ellion's technique looks potentially very promising, the
choice of stabilizing fluids which have sufficiently high heat transport
properties is very limited. Ellion used high pressure water as a stabilizing
fluid which limited his maximum operating temperature to the corresponding
saturation temperature.
'SAT
TESTFLUID
STABILIZING FLUID
F I G . 13 vs T w R E L A T I O N S H I P F O R B O I L I N G S Y S T E M U S I N G S T A B I L I Z I N G F L U I D ( E L L I O N , 1 9 5 4 )
24
Transient Technique
Forced convective transition boiling data for water have been
measured during transient conditions by General Electric (Iloeje (1973),
Plummer (1973)) and Westinghouse as a part of the FLECHT tests. In the G.E.
tests power was applied to a 4" long, 0.492" ID test section (wall thickness
0.254") until film boiling was established. The power was subsequently cut
off and the temperature at several locations along the test section was
recorded. Assuming axial conduction to be unimportant, the boiling curve
can be derived from the thermocouple trace by differentiating the temperature
time recording (e.g., see figure 14). In most experimental set-ups the
inverse heat conduction problem must also be solved. A similar method was
used by Iloeje (3.974) who studied boiling in nitrogen.
Transient methods of measuring transition boiling data in water are
by far the simplest methods for forced convective systems. However, they
suffer from several serious drawbacks:
(1) Axial gradients in temperature are present. These axial gradients may
be very large (rewetting is often due to a propagating rewetting front)
resulting in large variations in surface heat flux. Due to the limited
number of thermocouples, proper evaluation of the axial surface heat
flux distribution in the presence of a rewetting front is often
impossible.
(2) The temperature of the transient test section is usually measured by
thermocouples attached to the outside of the test section (for tubular
test section with internal flow) or embedded in the heated surface (for
heater rods). In both cases the true heated surface temperature is
different fiom the measured temperature or is affected by the thermo-
couples used for measuring. The use of outside surface temperatures xn
- I T .
0 - C
MIN
CHF
;AT
FILMBOiLING
TRANSITIONBOILING
V _LNUCLEATEBOILING
TIME, t
FIG. 14 DERIVATION OF BOILING CURVE FROM TEMP-TIME TRANSIENT LUMPED PARAMETER MODEL
26
deducing the inside heated surface heat flux and temperature can result
in large errors.
(3) Flow parameters are not steady because of variation in heated surface
temperature and vapour production at the heated surface.
Transition. Boiling Results
An extensive search of the literature produced six sets of transi-
tion boiling data, tabulated in Table I. None of these data sets can be con-
sidered reliable. Their shortcomings range from inadequate heated length or
diameter to unknown local conditions such as subcooling or surface heat flux.
The "comments" column of Table I lists the sources of uncertainty for each
data set.
The shortage of data on forced convective transition boiling is
directly reflected in uncertainties in the prediction of temperature time
histories of nuclear fuel elements during a LOCA. To reduce this uncertainty
transition boiling studies have recently been initiated in Canada and the
U.S.A.
TRANSITION BOILING CORRELATIONS
General
A review of relevant literature resulted in eleven transition
boiling correlations. These correlations and their range of validity are
presented in Table II. In this section the correlation trends will be
examint.d, over a wide range of conditions, on a if vs. AT plot (figures 15-23).
Most correlations gradually change into a film boiling correlation at higher
wall superheats. For the correlations which do not have this feature an
27
appropriate film boiling correlation (Groeneveld (1975)) will also be shown
on the same plot. Comparisons of correlations with transition boiling data
are shown in figures 24-27. A discussion of these comparisons is given at the
end of this section.
The transition boiling correlations can be subdivided into three
groups: i) correlations containing boiling and convective components,
ii) phenomenological correlations, and iii) empirical correlations. They
will be discussed in this order.
Correlations Containing Boiling and Convective Components
It was shown previously that during transition boiling the heated
surface is wetted intermittently. Rohsenow (1952) was the first one to
suggest that the transition boiling heat transfer component contains a
convective (h ) component and a boiling (h, ) component.
The boiling component represents the heat transfer during liquid
contact with the heated surface. Mathematically, this may be expressed a?
h = A exp(-BAT )D S
where A and E are constants.
Physically, this represents the probability of the liquid contacting
the heated surface on a time average basis (or the average wetted area at any-
instant) which disappears at high wall superheats.
The convectiv'P component represents heat transfer during vapour
contact and is usually correlated by the forced convective heat transfer
correlation:
h = i a Reb PrCc De
28
In the transition region just beyond CHF, and at low quality flow,
the dominant term is the boiling component. Therefore, we expect
h T B ~ A exp(-BATs)
or cf>TB " A exp(-BATs).ATs
By differentiation we find that 4> occurs at AT = —. Since!
ID, max S 15the maximum heat flux in the transition boiling region is the CHF, we can say
1B ~ AT
max
and also
= -.ATq)max e max
. max ,or A ~ e.— = e.h
AT maxmax
The boiling component, h, , of the heat transfer coefficient is
therefore
{ AT ) f Tmax-T ]hb = C-hmax exp " A T ~ = hmax^ max''
T max T Tmax'' \ max satj
In all of the correlations, the constants are derived empirically.
At the minimum heat flux, the boiling heat transfer coefficient approximately
equals the convective heat transfer coefficient:
(T -T ,, , max minh . « h exp •-c,mm max T -
h . « h exp r,c,mm max T -T _' max sat
29
(a) Tong's Correlation
Tong (1970, 1972) has presented two correlations: one for high
pressures and one for low pressures. The correlations are plotted in
figures 15 and 16, where the mixture velocity is evaluated as
1 J
It is seen that the correlations show f'he familiar boiling curve shape.
They also extend to the film boiling region with the correct trend in mass
flux and quality. As can be seen <£ and the corresponding temperaturenicLX
AT ar>i almost constant, independent of any system parameters. There is
no cross-over in the transition boiling region as postulated in figure 8.
Tong's high pressure correlation was found to be insensitive to pressure
for the range 500-2000 psia. The same was found to be true for Tong's low
pressure correlation in the range 15-100 psia.
(b) Mattson's Correlation (1974)
Mattson developed two correlations: one for tubes and one for
bundles. They both have a very small boiling component compared with the
convective component (figures 17 and 18). The correlations are based on
data obtained in heat-flux controlled systems, which usually do not show a
pronounced dip in the transition boiling region. Furthermore, these correla-
tions show a negative quality effect on the heat transfer coefficient in the
film boiling region. This does not agree with our physical understanding of
the film boiling process and with experimental observations (Bennett (1967),
Groeneveld (1973)). An increase in quality always leads to an increase in
vapour velocity thus increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient.
(a) (b)
107
104
P = 1000 PSIftXE= 0.3De= 0.4 IN.
G= 2.5x1O6 Ib/h .ft2
P = 1000 PSIAG = 105 Ib/h .ft2
Do = 0.4 IN.
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 80U 1200 160U
VTSAT- °F V T S A T - °F
FIG. 15 EFFECT OF MASS FLUX AND QUALITY ON TONG'S (1970) CORRELATION
o
31
M/nia)
j o
—
—
e l
CO
a-oLA
II
o
II
CO
X
o
II
CO
O
AA\ \-Q \— \
\CO \
o \
LA
fNJ
. II
/kX
\\\\CO IO \
//hIf
\\
C D
O
XLAfNI
'IA
/A
\X\COO
T —
XT—
•
/
\
q d O7 O
0 7
iCM
CD
0 0
C3
3
X
ooD
O
o
OO00
oo
o
CD
CD
(a) (b)
10'
CO
-e-
I I I I I ! I i !P = 1000 PS!AX = 0.1
G=2.5 x10 6 Ib /h . f t 2 _
1 0 s .
De = 0 . 4
107
105
104
P = 1000 PSIAG = 10 5 I b / h . f t 2
D B = 0 . 4 I N .
X = .90
400 800 1200 ifeOO0 400 800 1200 1600 0
V T S A T « ° F V T S » T . ° F
FIG, 17 EFFECT OF MASS FLUX AND QUALITY ON MATTSON'S (1974) TUBE CORRELATION
33
o>-
oo
oofNI*"~
oo00
oo
1—
CO
•
a<cX
1
u.COCO"=£
11
o1—CJLULL.LL.LU
CO
CD
o o
34
(c) Ramu and Weisman's Correlation (1974)
Ramu and Weisman correlated the boiling component using the
suppression factor proposed by Chen (1963). In figure 19b we see that, at
high flow, the CHF is much reduced, which is contrary to usual observations.
Also, at high flow (above 106lb/h.ft2) the correlation predicts a very low
boiling component, with the result that the entire boiling curve resembles
that of film boiling (figure 19b).
In a later paper (Ramu and Weisman (1975)), the authors found that
this correlation did not agree with their experimental data, which were
obtained at low flow and high quality conditions. They corrected their
correlation by replacing Sh with <t>.,T,_/AT wherein unr max
f(a) as shown in figure 20 (Ramu and Weisman "975)*CHF pool
and AT = 3.86v<frr,mf0.074 (McAdam's correlation for nucleate boiling)max \J Mr
(d) Hsu's Correlation (1975)
Instead of a forced convective component, Hsu used a rree con-
vection film boiling heat transfer coefficient, together with a boiling and a
radiation component to correlate the FLECHT data. Hence, Hsu's correlation
does not depend on flow or quality, but is pressure dependent. At low flows
such an approach is justified. At higher Elows nowever the flow effect
becomes important and a forced convective film boiling correlation should
be used beyond dryout. The effect of pressure on Hsu's correlation is
illustrated in figure 21.
10'
10B
CD
•e-
104
(a)
: G = IO5
xe =0.1DB =0.4
1 1 1 1 1Ib/h -ft 2
IN.
= 2000 PSIA
500
- 100-15
i-—
|
0 400 800 1200 1600T - T ° F'W ' S A T , h
10'
106
CD
10"
(b)
P = 1 0 0 P S I A
I N .Xe -D e =
G = 2 . 5 x 1 0 B I b / h . f t 2
0 400 BOO 1200 1600
T -T °F'w ' S A T ,
h
F I G . 19 EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND MASS FLUX ON RAMU'S ( 1 9 7 4 ) CORRELATION
1 .0
.2 -
.2 . 4 .b
VOID FRACTION
1 ,0
F I G 2 0 LOW FLOW C R I T I C A L H E A T F L U X AS A F U N C T I O N O F V O I D F R A C T I O N
10]F 1 I I I 1
G = 105 i b / h . f t 2
Xe = 0.1De = 0.4 IN.
i i—r
P = 15 P S I AP = 5 0 P S I A
P = 1 0 0 PS I ft
en
FIG 21
1200 1600
°F
EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON HSU'S ( 1 9 7 5 )
CORRELATION
S A T ,
F I G . 22 E L L I O N ' S LOW PRESSURE TRANSITION
BOILING CORRELATION ( 1 9 5 4 )
38
Phenomenological Correlations
(a) Tong and Young's Correlation (1974)
Tong and Young expressed the hoiling heat flux component as a
fraction of the overall heat flux. Thus
The film boiling heat transfer coefficient is evaluated from a Dittus-Boelter
type correlation where the effect of slip between liquid and vapour phase is
taken into account. The non-equilibrium in vapour superheat is also accounted
for. The equation however is based on data from Bennett (1967) which were
obtained in a steady-state heat flux controlled system. Caution should be
exercised when applying thij correlation in the transition boiling region.
The above relationship may be rearranged as
(j>FB = <M1-*)
For a given system at a fixed exit quality and wall superheat, we may write
where C is a constant.
By L'Hopitai's rule we find the limit of <J) to be C. Thus, ifr o
the calculated <]>„„ is greater than the value of C, no solution will ber B
obtained. This is a mathematical rather than physical limitation.
39
(b) Iloeje's Model (1974)
iloeje developed a sophisticated heat transfer model for a flow
of dispersed droplets beyond the point of dryout. He divided the surface
heat flux into three components:
0 - accounts for heat exchange between wall and droplets
hitting the wall
d) , - accounts for the increase in wall-vapour heat transfer duendc
to a disturbance of the thermal boundary layer by droplets
which are repelled from the wall by a vapour thrust force
before they can touch the wall
<t> - convective heat transfer between wall and vapour,conv
Iloeje's model takes into account virtually all important physical mechanisms;
it has the correct asymptotic trends but because of its complexity it is
difficult to use. Also, its range of application is limited to the dispersed
droplet flow regime. For these reasons it has been left out of the comparison.
Empirical Correlations
(a) Ellion's Correlation (1954)
Ellion's correlation only depends on the temperature excess above
saturation (figure 22). It is based on data obtained at only two pressures
(16, 60 psia), two flows (1.1, 5 ft/s) and two subcoolings (50°F, 100°F).
As such, its range of application is very limited,
Cb) Berenson's Correlation for Pool Boiling
Berenson (1960) proposed that the transition pool boiling region
be represented by a straight line on a log-log plot of heat flux vs. wall
superheat. The application of this correlation depends on the knowledge
40
of two of the following sets of unknowns:
(i) CHF and TC
(ii) <t . and T .m m m m
(iii) Slope of line on the log-log plot.
In general, knowledge of (i) and (iii) is assumed, i.e.
, (T -T _q> _ 1 w sat
CHF ~ I
Peterson and Zaalouk (1971) reported values of n between -3.0
and -4.1, while Groeneveld (1976) obtained a better agreement with the data
with n = -1. Figure 23 shows the Bsrenson type correlation for n = -1
and n = -3; for n = -3 the transition boiling region seems rather steep,
as compared to other correlations at low flows.
(c) McDonough, Milich and King's Correlation (1961)
McDonough et al's correlation (figure 24) is particularly
restricted to the pressure range shown in Table I. Outside this range the
calculated heat flux values become unreasonably large at low pressure due
to the exponential term.
Comparison with Data
In this section, experimentally measured transition boiling data
are compared with the applicable correlations. On some of the graphs some
correlations, fall well beyond the range of the graph. This is indicated
by an arrow followed by tl.2 name of the correlation. The correlations labelled
Peterson and Groeneveld are basically Berenson-type correlations with an
10'
10B
105
104
I
CHF =ATCHF :
Xe -P
1 ! i
= 520,000 BTU/h .ft2
= 59.fe°F
= -0001= 40 PSIA
(VJ= -I(GROENEVELD)
\ (PETERSON) ' "1 i 1 1 I
10'
sz
CD
•e-
0 400 800 1200 1600
T -T °F'w 'SAT, r
FIG 23 BERENSON TYPE CORRELATION FORLOW FLOW
10'
G =105 Ib/h -ft2
= 0.4 IN.
P =1000 PS I A
2000
0 400 800 1200 1600
T -T °F
'w 'SAT, r
FIG. 24 EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON McDONOUGH,MlLICH AND KING CORRELATION (1981)
exponent of wall superheat of -3 and -1 respectively.
(a) Ellion's Data (1954)
In Ellion's experiment the water was s t i l l subcooled at the exit
of the test section and therefore comparison of his data with correlations
which contain quality terms may be misleading. Where needed, an estimated
quality of 0.000075 and a void fraction of 0.1 were used. As shown in
figure 25, Hsu's correlation is the closest to Ellion's and also to the
data. Furthermore, Hsu's correlation connects smoothly to the nucleate
boiling region.
(b) Plummer's Data (1973)
Plummer's data are above the values predicted by most of the
correlation? in the applicable range (figure 26). Possible reasons for
this are:
(i) Plummer noted that there was an oxide film present on the
test section, which could increase the heat flux.
(ii) Plummer's surface heat flux and surface temperature were
calculated values obtained from transient data. These
calculations may have introduced errors.
( i i i ) Axial conduction affected both calculated surface heat flux
and inside surface temperature.
400 500
VTSAT
600 700 800 900
FIG.. 25 COMPARISON OF TRANSITION BOILING CORRELATIONS WITHELLION'S DATA
44
106
105
TUBE
G = 99,fe00 Ib.h " ' f f 2
P - 1000 PSIA
• EXP. DATA
I I I L0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
VTS»T en
F I G . 2 6 C O M P A R I S O N O F T R A N S I T I O N B O I L I N G C O R R E L A T I O N S W I T H P L U M M E R ' SD A T A
45
(c) Peterson's Data (19.73)
Peterson's data are plotted in figure 27. The trend of the data is
not predicted by the correlations. Ramu's correlation is closest to the data.
Ellion's correlation overpredicts the heat flux but displays the same trend as
the data.
(d) Ramu's Data (1975)
Ramu's data lie below all the correlations (figure 28) except the
Berenson-type correlations which are based on experimental values of CHF and
AT,,,,-,. At the typical system parameters of the data (G = 130,000 lbm/ft^h and
X = 0.A5), the void fraction is close to one, thus giving a very low value of
$_„„ (figure 20). We therefore adopted Hsu's (1975) recommendation that <?>„„_
be not less than 90,000 Btu/ft^h. With this value Ramu's correlation is
replotted on figure 28. As can be seen, the revised correlation still lies
above the data and the trend is not in close agreement. No other data at high
quality, low flow and low pressure are available to compare with the revised
correlation.
(e) FLECHT Data
The FLECHT* experiment was carried out in a 49- and a 100-rod bundle,
initially heated to temperatures up to 2300°F and subsequantly cooled by
injecting subcooled water at the bottom of the channel. Local coolant param-
eters are not known but are calculated, the largest- uncertainty existing in
the coolant enthalpy and surface heat flux (due to severe axial conduction
near the rewetting front). Hsu's correlation gave the best fit to all FLECHT
*FLECHT: j[ull Length Emergency pooling Heat ^Transfer
46
10
105
I—CO
104
40
I E L L I I
TONG (LOW PRESSURE;
ANNULUSG = 1 ,420,000 Ib.hP = 14.7 PSIA
ATslJB = 0°F• EXP. TATA
ft-2
80 100
V T S A T
120 140 160
FIG,. 27 C O M P A R I S O N O F T R A N S I T I O N B O I L I N G C O R R E L A T I O N S W I T H P E T E R S O N ' SD A T A
CD
•e-
TONG (LOW PRESSURE)ELLIONHSU
104L
ANNULUSG = 13,000 Ib.hP = 27 PSIAX = 0.45• EXP. DATA
ft"-2
50 00 150 200 250
F I G . 2 8 C O M P A R I S O N O F T R A N S I T I O N B O I L I N G C O R R E L A T I O N S W I T H R A M U ' SD A T A
48
data although Tong's low pressure transition boiling correlation also seemed
to agree with most data. A sample of the FLECHT data is shown in figure 29.
Discussion
In general, agreement between transition boiling correlations and
data was poor. This was to be expected as the data used were unreliable and
each set of data covered only a very limited range of condition • (Table I).
Figures 25-29 showed that the slope of the data on a log <j> vs. log
AT plot was indeed -1 as suggested by Groeneveld. However, the agreement
between the correlation labelled Groeneveld and the data is artificial since
experimental data for the CHF and AT_,-F were used as an input in the
correlation:
-1
CHFexp
T -Tw sat
ATCHF,exp_
Prediction of the CHF value is not an unsurmountable problem hut A"" is
more difficult to predict.
No comparison could be made with McDonough (1961) data since, with
the exception of a single point, the data have been lost (Ramu (1*374)).
XL
\—CD
10B
ELLION
100 ROD BUNDLE
G = 112,000 (P = 15 PSIA
T | M -" 137°F
• EXP DATA
b . h •' ft - 2
1 1 1 1 i100 200 ^00 400 500 6U0 700 800 900
V T S A T
29 COMPARISON OF TRANSITION BOILING CORRELATIONS WITH FLECHT DATA
50
CONCLUSIONS AND FINAL REMARKS
1. Transition boiling is a combination of unstable film boiling and unstable
nucleate boiling alternately existing at any given location on a heating
surface. The variation of heat transfer rate with surface temperature
is primarily a result of a change in the fraction of time each boiling
regime exists at a given location (Berenson (1962)).
2. Very few experimental studies or. forced convective transition boiling
have been carried out. The available studies suffer from serious short-
comings and cover only narrow ranges of conditions. This situation is
expected to be improved soon, as a response to urgent demands by the nuclear
industry, for reliable sets of transition boiling data.
3. Present thermohydraulic reactor analysis usually ignores the transition
boiling beat transfer mode. Instead it is assumed that, during reflood
the film boiling mode will suddenly be rep]ac.ed by the nucleate boiling
mode (or vice versa during dryout occurrence). In both cases the assumption
that film boiling rather than transition boiling takes place will result
in an overprediction of the calculated surface temperature.
4. During transition boiling, roost of the heat is carried away during the
fraction of time that nucleate boiling takes place. Hence the observed
parametric trends for nucleate boiling are also valid for the transition
boiling region.
5. Present transition boiling correlations are valid only for the narrow range
of conditions of the data on which they are based. A transition boiling
correlation having a wider range of applications may be developed if
<J> and AT or i> . and AT . can be predicted with confidence. Themax max mxn mxn
present state of the art permits the approximate predict on of c|> ; the
prediction of A T ^ , <|>mln and A T ^ are stjll subject to a large degree of
uncertainty.
51
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53
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54
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60
A
B
C
CHF
Cp
De
f
G
h
h
k
L
P
Q
R
S
T
U
X
NOMENCLATURE
Constant
Constant
Constant
Critical heat flux
Specific heat
Hydraulic equivalent diameter, tube diameter
Friction factor
Acceleration due to gravity
Conversion factor
Mass flux
Enthalpy
Heat transfer coefficient
Thermal conductivity
Ltngth
Pressure
Surface heat flux
Gas constant
Slip ratio, suppression factor
Temperature
Velocity
Quality
Btu/h.ft2
Btu/lbm°F
ft
ft/s2
lbu.ft/lbf.s2
lbm/ft2h
Btu/lbm
Btu/ft2h°F
Btu/h.ft°F
ft
psia
Btu/ft2h
Btu/lbm°R
°F
ft/h
61
Greek
a
Y
*
&
£
p
a
AH
AT
Subscripts
Void fraction
Ratio of specific heats
Surface heat flux
Droplet diameter
Roughness height
Dynamic viscosity
Density
Surface tension
Local subcooling, hg-h
Local subcooling, Ts-T
Ibm/h.ft
ft
ft
lbm/h.ft
lbm/ft3
Ibf/ft
Btu/lb
°F
a Actual value
b Bubble, bulk, boiling
c Critical (thermohydrodynainic), convection
CHF Critical heat flux
e Equilibrium value
f Film temperature, (average of wall and bulk temperature)
fg Difference between satm'ated vapour and saturated liquid value
g Saturated vapour
i Inside, inlet
1. Liquid
m Maximum
max Maximum
min Minimum
o Outside, outlet
62
s
V
w
oaturation value
Vapour
Heated wall
Abbreviations
CKF Critical heat flux
DNB Departure from nucleate boiling
FB Film boiling
TB J ransition boiling
TABLE I
TRANSITION BOILING DATA OF WATER
IN A FORCED CONVECTIVE SYSTEM
GEOMETRY
Annulus0.25" ID2.5" OD
TubeDe =0.152"
Annulus| 0.005" ID0.477" OD
TubeDe =0.492"
Annulus0.54" ID1.0" CD
RodBundlesDe = 0.50"
REFERENCE
Ellion(1954)
McDonoughet al.(1961)
Peterson(1973)
Plummer(1973)
Ramu &Weisman(1975)
WestinghouseFLECHT
Hsu (1975)
RANGE OF DATA
Ppsia
16-60
800,1200,2000
atmos.
1000
25-30
15-90
G v 106
lbm/ft2h
0.24-1.1
0.2-1.5
0.47-1.42
0.05-0.25
0.012-0.034
0.035-0.184
* i 105
Btu/ft2h
4.67-6.22
1-12
1.3-6.3
0.2-0.87
0.10-0.81
0.045-0.87
Subcooiing(°F) orQuality
50-100°F
Subcooiingand lowquality
^saturated
X - 0.30-1.00"
X = 0-0.500
0-140°F
COMMENTS
6-controlled systemwith stabilizing fluidLH = 3"
Nak used as heatingfluid. T w inferredfrom heat transfercorr'a for Nak. Datano longer available.
Heat flux controlled byelectronic feedbackL R - 2"
Transient test
Hg used as heating fluid.X not reported. Limitedrange in T
Transient test.AT , or X unknown,
sub
64
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ran«u Is t m i a t l w l y
ccrrcldL Ion iliiL- loJulii'-. BolUnv, ctmpun-'nt(lttL-<l in ditii ol Ik'ntt.
19ft41, i'olonilk (19(.7),Cumo (1971), Nobel (1170)with BuppreHsion far t .T S(d>je u- Cht>n (1S63)); !•li«!iml on c r i t i c a l hca' m
i lux dnta of Addons(pool boHinn) .
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:'lllr. by *0MAllBliix
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65
'1'ABLIi 1 1 U.ont '<!)
K Cp . V " " 1-X ~* lr .1
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