atiyah's accidents, compensation and the law

Atiyah’s Accidents, Compensation and the Law

Since publication of the seventh edition of this seminal text, personal injurylaw has witnessed momentous changes. A major overhaul of the social secu-rity system began in 2012 and the Equality Act 2010 significantly modifiesanti-discrimination law and its impact on the disabled. But perhaps the mostimportant legal developments have affected the financing and conduct of per-sonal injury claiming and the operation of the claims-management industry.This new edition takes account of all this activity while setting it into a widerand longer perspective. Complaints that Britain is a ‘compensation culture’ andthat the tort system is out of control are explained and assessed and optionsfor further change are explored. Through the turmoil and controversy, the tortsystem remains a central feature of the legal and social landscape. The book’senduring central argument for its radical reform remains as compelling as ever.

Peter Cane is Distinguished Professor of Law at the Australian National Univer-sity College of Law. His main research interests are in the law of obligations,especially tort law; public law, especially administrative law; and legal theory.

Patrick Atiyah is one of the leading common lawyers of his generation. Until hisearly retirement in 1988 he was Professor of English Law at Oxford University.His published writings range widely over topics in tort law, contract law, legalhistory and legal theory.

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Atiyah’s Accidents,Compensation and the Law

Eighth edition

PETER CANEAustralian National University College of Law






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Atiyah’s accidents, compensation and the law / Peter Cane. – 8th ed.

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Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-107-63632-3 (paperback : alk. paper)

1. Accident law – Great Britain. 2. Compensation (Law) – Great Britain. I. Atiyah, P. S.

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Contents

Preface page xvList of abbreviations xviiList of tables xxiTable of legislation xxiiTable of cases xxvii

Part I The issues in perspective 1

1 Introduction: surveying the field 3

1.1 Compensation for accidents 3

1.2 Natural and human causes 6

1.2.1 The issue 61.2.2 Society’s ‘responsibility’ for human causes 81.2.3 Protecting reasonable expectations 91.2.4 Egalitarianism and the problem of drawing the line 10

1.3 Mixed systems in a mixed society 11

1.4 Some facts and figures 13

1.4.1 Accidents causing personal injury or death 141.4.2 Death and disability from other causes 161.4.3 The prevalence of disability 171.4.4 The effect of disability on income 181.4.5 Distribution and sources of compensation 191.4.6 The more serious and the less serious 22

Part II The tort system in theory 27

2 Fault as a basis of liability 29

2.1 The conceptual basis of tort law 29

2.2 Negligence as a basis of liability 30

2.3 The fault principle 31






viii Contents

2.4 Negligence as fault 32

2.4.1 A question of fact? 322.4.2 The nature of negligence 362.4.3 Probability of harm 392.4.4 Likely magnitude of harm 402.4.5 The value of the activity and the cost of the precautions

needed to avoid harm 412.4.6 The function of the negligence formula 432.4.7 Foreseeability 442.4.8 The objective standard of care 452.4.9 Negligence in design and negligence in operation 46

2.5 Conduct of the claimant 50

2.5.1 Contributory negligence 502.5.2 Volenti non fit injuria 582.5.3 Illegality 62

3 The scope of the tort of negligence 66

3.1 The nature of the duty of care 66

3.2 Specific duty issues 68

3.2.1 Common situations in which duties of carehave been imposed 68

3.2.2 The distinction between acts and omissions 70

3.3 Nervous shock 83

3.4 Family claims 88

4 Departures from the fault principle 91

4.1 Fault liability and strict liability 91

4.2 ‘Procedural’ devices 93

4.3 Breach of statutory duty 94

4.4 Contractual duties 97

4.5 Rylands v. Fletcher, nuisance and animals 98

4.6 Joint liability 99

4.7 Vicarious liability 101

4.8 Products liability 101

4.9 Proposals to extend strict liability 103

4.9.1 Dangerous things and activities 1034.9.2 Railway accidents 104

4.10 Ex gratia compensation schemes 105






ix Contents

4.10.1 Vaccine damage 1054.10.2 HIV and hepatitis-C 1074.10.3 Variant CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease) 108

5 Causation and remoteness of damage 109

5.1 Introduction 109

5.2 Factual causation 109

5.2.1 Proving causation 1095.2.2 Causing and increasing the risk of harm 1115.2.3 Omissions 1145.2.4 Multiple causal factors 115

5.3 Limits on the liability of factual causes 117

5.3.1 Legal causation 1185.3.2 Damage not within the risk 1245.3.3 Foreseeability again 126

5.4 Conclusion 128

6 Damages for personal injury and death 129

6.1 The lump sum: predicting the future 129

6.1.1 Personal injury cases 1296.1.2 Fatal cases 1316.1.3 Variation of awards after trial 1346.1.4 Suitability of lump sums 1366.1.5 Alternatives to lump sums 138

6.2 Full compensation 142

6.2.1 Interest 1436.2.2 Lost earnings and support 1446.2.3 Medical and other expenses 148

6.3 Full compensation for lost ‘earnings’: is it justified? 151

6.3.1 The earnings-related principle 1516.3.2 The 100-per-cent principle 155

6.4 Full compensation: the commitment in practice 156

6.5 Intangible losses 160

6.5.1 Assessing intangible losses 1606.5.2 The tariff system 1656.5.3 Subjective factors 1696.5.4 Should damages be payable for intangible losses? 170

6.6 Overall maxima 171

6.7 Punitive damages 172






x Contents

7 An appraisal of the fault principle 174

7.1 The compensation payable bears no relation to the degree of fault 174

7.2 The compensation bears no relation to the means ofthe tortfeasor 176

7.3 A harm-doer may be held legally liable without being morallyculpable and vice versa 178

7.3.1 Collective liability 1787.3.2 The objective definition of fault 1797.3.3 Moral culpability without legal liability 1827.3.4 The fault principle and popular morality 182

7.4 The fault principle pays little attention to the conduct orneeds of the victim 183

7.5 Justice may require payment of compensation without fault 184

7.6 Pragmatic objections to the fault principle 186

7.7 The fault principle contributes to a culture of blaming anddiscourages people from taking responsibility for their own lives 189

Part III The tort system in operation 199

8 Claims and claimants 201

8.1 Accident victims and tort claimants 201

8.1.1 Cases reaching trial and set down for trial 2018.1.2 Actions commenced 2038.1.3 Tort claims, actual and potential 204

8.2 Why do people (not) make tort claims? 207

8.2.1 Some research findings 2078.2.2 Alternative remedies 2098.2.3 Claims consciousness 210

8.3 Particular types of claims 215

8.3.1 Road accidents 2158.3.2 Industrial injuries and illnesses 2168.3.3 Public liability claims 2188.3.4 Medical injuries 2198.3.5 Group claims 221

9 Tortfeasors and insurers 222

9.1 Defendants 222

9.2 Individuals as tort defendants 222

9.3 Employers and corporations as tort defendants 227






xi Contents

9.4 Insurers 232

9.5 The nature of liability insurance 233

9.6 Some problems of liability insurance 238

9.7 First-party insurance for the benefit of others 244

9.8 The impact of liability insurance on the law 245

9.8.1 Statutory provisions 2459.8.2 The impact of insurance on the common law 248

9.9 The Motor Insurers’ Bureau 254

10 Settlements and trials 259

10.1 The importance of settlements 259

10.2 Obtaining legal assistance and financing tort claims 260

10.3 The course of negotiations 266

10.3.1 Individual claims 26710.3.2 Group claims 273

10.4 When negotiations break down 277

10.5 The time taken to achieve a settlement 279

10.6 The amount of compensation 282

Part IV Other compensation systems 287

11 First-party insurance 289

11.1 Types of first-party insurance 289

11.1.1 Injury and illness insurance 28911.1.2 Legal expenses insurance 293

11.2 First-party injury and illness insurance comparedwith tort liability 294

12 Compensation for criminal injuries 299

12.1 Tort claims 299

12.2 Compensation orders 300

12.3 Other sources of compensation 303

12.4 Criminal Injuries Compensation Scheme 303

12.4.1 Justifications for the CICS 30312.4.2 The scope of the CICS 30812.4.3 Comparison between the CICS and tort liability 31512.4.4 Administration 32212.4.5 Claims consciousness 324






xii Contents

13 The social security system 326

13.1 Foundations of the social security system 326

13.1.1 Workers’ compensation 32613.1.2 National insurance 328

13.2 The Beveridge Report and the 1946 Acts 329

13.3 Developments since 1946 332

13.4 Industrial injuries benefits 336

13.4.1 The scope of the scheme 33713.4.2 Accidents and diseases 33913.4.3 Benefits 342

13.5 Benefits for the disabled generally 345

13.5.1 Statutory sick pay 34513.5.2 Employment and support allowance 34613.5.3 Personal independence payment 347

13.6 Other benefits 348

13.6.1 Carer’s allowance 34813.6.2 Bereavement benefits 34913.6.3 Universal credit 350

13.7 Administration 351

13.8 The tort system and the social security system compared 354

13.9 Overpayment, error and fraud 357

14 Other forms of assistance 360

14.1 The general legal environment 360

14.2 The taxation system 361

14.3 Social services 363

14.3.1 Employment 36314.3.2 Mobility 36514.3.3 Housing and residential accommodation 36614.3.4 Other social services 367

14.4 Conclusion 368

Part V The overall picture 369

15 A plethora of systems 371

15.1 The concept of over-compensation 371

15.2 The choice of compensation system 372

15.3 Subrogation and recoupment 374






xiii Contents

15.4 Tort damages and other compensation 379

15.4.1 General principles 37915.4.2 Tort damages and sick pay 38215.4.3 Tort damages and personal insurance 38215.4.4 Tort damages and charitable payments 38415.4.5 Tort damages and social security benefits 384

15.5 Criminal injuries compensation 388

16 The cost of compensation and who pays it 390

16.1 The cost of tort compensation 390

16.2 Costs not paid through the tort system 396

16.2.1 The cost of social services 39616.2.2 The cost of the social security system 39816.2.3 Other sources of compensation 39916.2.4 Costs in perspective 400

16.3 The cost of criminal injuries compensation 401

17 The functions of compensation systems 403

17.1 Compensation 403

17.1.1 Some preliminary questions 40317.1.2 The meaning of ‘compensation’ 40617.1.3 Assessing compensation systems 409

17.2 Distribution of losses 410

17.2.1 What should be distributed? 41017.2.2 How should it be distributed? 411

17.3 The allocation of risks 413

17.4 Punishment 415

17.5 Corrective justice 416

17.6 Vindication 417

17.7 Deterrence and prevention 419

17.7.1 Rules and standards of behaviour 42017.7.2 Accident prevention via insurance 429

17.8 General deterrence 435

17.8.1 The basic idea 43517.8.2 Ascertaining the costs of an accident 43817.8.3 Allocation of costs to activities 43917.8.4 Responsiveness to price mechanism 44217.8.5 Applying general deterrence criteria in practice 44417.8.6 General deterrence and existing systems 445






xiv Contents

17.8.7 An assessment of the value of the general deterrenceapproach 450

17.8.8 Conclusions about general deterrence 453

Part VI The future 457

18 Accident compensation in the twenty-first century 459

18.1 Where we are now and how we got here 459

18.2 Basic issues 464

18.2.1 Strict liability or no-fault? 46418.2.2 Limited or comprehensive reform? 46618.2.3 Preferential treatment 47018.2.4 Assessment of compensation 47218.2.5 Funding 47518.2.6 Goals of the system 477

18.3 Proposals and schemes 482

18.3.1 Road accident schemes 48218.3.2 Other schemes 486

18.4 The way ahead 487

18.4.1 A social welfare solution 48718.4.2 A private insurance solution 491

18.5 Damage to property 494

18.6 The role of the insurance industry and the legal profession 495

Index 497






Preface

Like the years between the sixth and seventh editions, those between the seventhand this edition have witnessed vigorous public debate, official reports, legisla-tion and case-law developments in many of the areas covered herein. The mostsignificant legislative changes have affected social security and the financing ofpersonal injury tort claims. The Welfare Reform Act 2012, the various provisionsof which will be phased in over the coming years, represents perhaps the mostfundamental overhaul of the social security system since its establishment in the1940s. It has necessitated major rewriting in Chapter 13, made more difficult bythe fact that, at the time of writing, many of the details of the changes had yetto be settled or announced. In the wake of Lord Justice Jackson’s 2009 Reviewof Civil Litigation Costs, major changes to the funding of personal injury tortclaims were introduced by the omnibus Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishmentof Offenders Act 2012. Once again, at the time of writing, important detailsof the changes had yet to be settled, and so the discussion of the reforms isnecessarily tentative in various respects. Further afield, in 2011, the AustralianProductivity Commission recommended the introduction of two schemes –one for people disabled by injury and the other for people disabled by othercauses – that would greatly improve and increase public provision for the mostseriously disabled. At the time of writing, these schemes were caught up in theinitial phase of political wrangling about how the very large increase in publicexpenditure needed to implement the schemes would be funded. Such devel-opments prove the continuing importance of the issues discussed in this bookand the continuing value of the contribution it makes to public understandingand debate in a central area of public policy, legal theory and legal practice.

As I said in the Preface to the seventh edition, the main aim of this book isto provide the reader with resources for standing back from tort law and thetort system and viewing them in a larger legal and social landscape. Whetherplacing tort at the centre of the picture in this way continues to be desirableis a difficult question deserving of serious attention. From the point of viewof legal education, the approach still seems defensible because tort law is theonly aspect of the political economy of society’s provision for the injured anddisabled that the typical law student encounters. Whether the focus on tort hasthe same utility in the context of public policy debates is contestable. Tort law






xvi Preface

has an immanent ideology, and taking tort as a starting point may undesirablyskew consideration of the basic question of how risks and costs of personalinjury and disability ought to be distributed. Tort law and the tort system are(it seems) here to stay. The challenge is to imagine a dispensation to whichtort can make a positive contribution in partnership with other principles andinstitutions of risk and loss distribution. Only by doing this can we nurture thehope that the various components of existing compensation arrangements canbe held in benign and creative tension. Whatever the defects of tort law and thetort system as mechanisms for dealing with personal injury and disability, inthe world of realpolitik the burning question is not how to get rid of tort buthow to live with it.

The bulk of the work of preparing this eighth edition was done during a yearspent (jointly with Professor Jane Stapleton) as Arthur L. Goodhart Professor ofLegal Science at the University of Cambridge and a Visiting Professorial Fellowof Corpus Christi College. I wish to thank the Cambridge Law Faculty andCorpus for their warm hospitality and for the excellent facilities for researchand for life that they provided. It is hard to think of a more congenial place or wayto spend a year in England. More importantly, I am acutely aware of the honourof being elected to the Goodhart Chair. In addition, being in Cambridge madethe task of preparing this edition much easier and more efficient than it wouldhave been if undertaken in Australia. Spending time ‘on the ground’ is essentialto writing accurately and helpfully about the law of any jurisdiction. I must alsorecord my gratitude to Nick Wikeley, now a Judge of the Upper Tribunal, fortypically invaluable advice and for reading (and correcting!) a draft of Chapter13. Nick’s translation (or, perhaps, elevation) from Southampton Universityto the Upper Tribunal is a great gain for the country but an incalculable lossto the academy. The increasing dearth of serious, first-rate scholarship on atopic of such fundamental national importance as social security is much to belamented.

Towards the end of our time in Cambridge, Jane and I had the great pleasureof visiting Patrick Atiyah and his wife Christine in their retirement in the southof England. This edition, like every edition I have prepared (and this is the fifth),is a salute to Patrick and the great contribution he has made to legal scholarshipand to our understanding of the world. It is a tribute to his vision that this bookstill has no real competitor. I know that I can speak for Jane as well as myselfwhen I say that Patrick is one of our intellectual heroes.

Peter CaneNovember 2012






Abbreviations

A Atlantic Reporter (USA)ABI Association of British InsurersAC Appeal CasesADR alternative dispute resolutionAll ER All England Law ReportsALR Australian Law ReportsAPIL Association of Personal Injury LawyersApp Cas Appeal Cases (nineteenth century)ATE insurance after-the-event insuranceBA bereavement allowanceBeveridge Report Social Insurance and Allied Services, Report by Sir

William Beveridge (Cmnd 6404, 1942)BMLR Butterworths Medico-Legal ReportsBTE insurance before-the-event-insuranceCA Court of AppealCAA constant attendance allowanceCal Rptr California ReporterCFA conditional fee arrangementCh Chancery Division ReportsCICA Criminal Injuries Compensation AuthorityCICB Criminal Injuries Compensation BoardCICS Criminal Injuries Compensation SchemeCivil Justice Review Civil Justice Review: Report of the Review Body on

Civil Justice (Cm 394, 1988)CLR Commonwealth Law Reports (Australia)Cm Command Paper (HMSO)CMC claims management companyCmnd Command Paper (HMSO)CPR Civil Procedure RulesCRU Compensation Recovery UnitDBA damages-based agreementDLA disability living allowanceDLR Dominion Law Reports (Canada)






xviii List of abbreviations

DWP Department for Work and PensionsEC European CommunityECHR European Convention on Human RightsECtHR European Court of Human RightsEHRR European Human Rights ReportsER English Reports (nineteenth century)ESA employment and support allowanceESDA exceptionally severe disablement allowanceEU European UnionEWCA England and Wales Court of AppealEWHC England and Wales High CourtF Federal Reporter (USA)F Supp Federal Supplement (USA)FSA Financial Services AuthorityFSCS Financial Services Compensation SchemeFtT First-tier TribunalGLO Group Litigation OrderGP general practitionerHarris 1984 Survey D. R. Harris et al., Compensation and Support for

Illness and Injury (Oxford, 1984)Harvard Medical Report of the Harvard Medical Practice Study to

Practice Study the State of New York, Patients, Doctors andLawyers: Medical Injury, Malpractice Litigation, andPatient Compensation in New York (1990)

HC House of CommonsHCA High Court of AustraliaHL House of LordsHMRC Her Majesty’s Revenue and CustomsHMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery OfficeIB incapacity benefitICR Industrial Cases ReportsIIAC Industrial Injuries Advisory CouncilIIDB industrial injuries disablement benefitIIS industrial injuries schemeILGS Index-Linked Government StocksIPI income protection insuranceIRC Inland Revenue CommissionersIRLR Industrial Relations Law ReportsIS income supportJ JusticeKB King’s Bench ReportsKIR Knight’s Industrial ReportsLaw Com. Law Commission ReportLJ Lord/Lady Justice






xix List of abbreviations

Lloyd’s Rep Lloyd’s ReportsLR . . . Ex Law Reports (Exchequer)LR . . . HL Law Reports (House of Lords)MIB Motor Insurers’ BureauMonckton Committee on Alternative Remedies (Cmnd 6860,

Committee 1946)MR Master of the RollsMVR Motor Vehicle Reports (New South Wales)NHS National Health ServiceNHSLA National Health Service Litigation AuthorityNSWCA New South Wales Court of AppealNSWLR New South Wales Law ReportsNW North Western Reporter (USA)NZLR New Zealand Law ReportsOFT Office of Fair TradingOPCS Disability Report 1: Martin, Meltzer and Elliott, The

Survey Prevalence of Disability Among Adults (HMSO,1988)Report 2: Martin and White, The FinancialCircumstances of Disabled Adults Living in PrivateHouseholds (HMSO, 1988)Report 3: Bone and Meltzer, The Prevalence ofDisability Among Children (HMSO, 1989)Report 4: Martin, White and Meltzer, DisabledAdults: Services, Transport and Employment(HMSO, 1989)Report 5: Smyth and Robus, The FinancialCircumstances of Families with Disabled ChildrenLiving in Private Households (HMSO, 1989)Report 6: Meltzer, Smyth and Robus, DisabledChildren: Services, Transport and Education (HMSO,1989)

Paths to Justice H. Genn, Paths to Justice: What People Do and Thinkabout Going to Law (Oxford, 1999)

Pearson Commission Royal Commission on Civil Liability andCompensation for Personal Injury (appointed in1973)

Pearson Report Report of the Royal Commission on Civil Liabilityand Compensation for Personal Injury (Cmnd 7054,1978, 3 volumes)

PIP personal independence paymentPIQR Personal Injury and Quantum ReportsPMI private medical insurancePPO periodical payment order






xx List of abbreviations

PTSD post-traumatic stress disorderQB Queen’s Bench ReportsQBD Queen’s Bench Division Reports (nineteenth

century)QdR QueenslandRobens Committee Report of the Committee into Safety and Health at

Report Work (Cmnd 5304, 1972)RRL Road Research LaboratoryRTR Road Traffic ReportsSB supplementary benefitSCR Supreme Court Reports (Canada)SERPS State Earnings-Related Pension SchemeSI Statutory InstrumentSLT Scots Law TimesSSP statutory sick payTRL Transport Research LaboratoryTRRL Transport and Road Research LaboratoryUC universal creditUKHL United Kingdom House of LordsUT Upper TribunalWALR Western Australian Law ReportsWAR Western Australian ReportsWinn Committee Report of the Committee on Personal Injuries

Report Litigation (Cmnd 3691, 1968)WLR Weekly Law ReportsWN Weekly Notes (New South Wales)WPA widowed parent’s allowanceWTC working tax credit






Tables

1 Numbers of disabled persons in Great Britain by age and degree ofdisability (thousands) page 18

2 Sources of income of family units containing a disabled adult byseverity of disability (%) 19

3 Numbers of injured persons obtaining compensation fromdifferent sources 20

4 Cost of compensation paid from different sources to injured personsand administrative costs of payments, average over 1971–6 (1977currency values) 21

5 Court waiting times in personal injury actions 202






Table of legislation

United Kingdom legislation

Primary legislation

Access to Justice Act 1999 264Administration of Justice Act 1970 88, 225Administration of Justice Act 1982 88, 376, 460

s. 1 89s. 2 148, 376s. 5 388

Animals Act 1971 70, 99, 248s. 2(2)(b) 99s. 6 99

Attachment of Earnings Act 1971 225Child Maintenance and Other Payments Act 2008

s. 54 376Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act 1970

s. 2 366Civil Liability (Contribution) Act 1978 100Civil Procedure Act 1997

s. 7 187Companies Act 1989

s. 141 253Compensation Act 2006

s. 1 425s. 2 208s. 3(2)(a) 113

Congenital Disabilities (Civil Liability) Act 1976 54, 70, 246,468

Consumer Protection Act 1987 69, 101, 102, 103, 219Part I 98, 101, 124, 142, 460, 465, 488s. 4(1)(e) 102

Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 245, 257






xxiii Table of legislation

Courts Act 2003ss. 95–96 302ss. 100 140

Criminal Courts Sentencing Act 2000ss. 130–134 300

Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1995 307, 308, 309ss. 7A–7D 302, 377

Criminal Justice Act 1988 308Criminal Justice Act 1991

ss. 18–21 177Damages Act 1996

s. 2 140Damages (Scotland) Act 1976 89, 171Defective Premises Act 1972

s. 4 70Disability Discrimination Act 1995 364Disabled Persons (Employment) Act 1944 364Domestic Proceedings and Magistrates’ Courts Act 1978

s. 3(2) 154Domestic Violence, Crime and Victims Act 2004

s. 57 377s. 59 302

Employers’ Liability Act 1880 326Employers’ Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969 227, 246, 258,

295Equality Act 2010 7, 361, 364, 366Fatal Accidents Act 1976 54, 55, 88, 89, 90, 131, 133, 135, 136, 145, 146, 147,

148, 161, 239, 245, 253, 321s. 1A 88s. 3(3) 133s. 3(4) 350s. 4 245, 350

Financial Services and Markets Act 2000Part XV 243

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974s. 47(1)–(2) 95, 97

Health and Social Care (Community Health and Standards) Act 2003Part 3 376Sched. 10 376

Highways (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1961 70Human Rights Act 1998 29

s. 7 263s. 8 29, 142, 263






xxiv Table of legislation

Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988s. 263 362s. 265 362s. 327 362

Industrial Assurance and Friendly Societies Act 1948 293Industrial Injuries Act 1946 97Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945 52, 245, 385Law Reform (Husband and Wife) Act 1962 70, 246, 248, 254, 313Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1934 32, 131, 146, 147, 245Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1971

s. 4 239Law Reform (Personal Injuries) Act 1948 32, 245, 326

s. 1(1) 326s. 1(3) 245s. 2 385s. 2(4) 149

Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 294ss. 44 and 46 265s. 45 223, 265s. 48 265s. 55 278s. 56 262

Lord Campbell’s Act 1846 89, 131National Assistance Act 1948 366

ss. 21–28 366National Insurance Act 1911 328, 329, 345NHS Redress Act 2006 463Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 32, 70, 248Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984 32, 70Pneumoconiosis etc. (Workers’ Compensation) Act 1979 356, 376Powers of Criminal Courts Act 2000

ss. 130–134 300Riot (Damages) Act 1886 293, 304Road Traffic Act 1988 224, 246, 247, 248, 256, 301

s. 144 232s. 149(2) 59s. 149(3) 62, 257s. 151(4) 257s. 153 231s. 158 376

Senior Courts Act 1981s. 32A 135, 141, 287

Social Security Act 1985s. 23 106






xxv Table of legislation

Social Security Act 1989 386Social Security Act 1998 351

s. 29 355Social Security Administration Act 1992 351

Part IV 386Social Security (Contributions and Benefits) Act 1992

s. 94(3) 338s. 99 338s. 101 338, 339Sched. 6, para. 1(a) 342

Social Security (Recovery of Benefits) Act 1997 375, 377, 378s. 17 387, 388

Third Parties (Rights Against Insurers) Act 1930 231Third Parties (Rights Against Insurers) Act 2010 247Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 59, 244, 248

s. 2 58s. 11(4) 248

Vaccine Damage Payments Act 1979 106, 375Welfare Reform Act 2012 336, 357Workmen’s Compensation Act 1897 326, 328

Secondary legislation

Civil Procedure RulesPart 19 275Part 36 278Part 44 278Part 45 266Part 46 264Part 72 225

Damages (Variation of Periodical Payments) Order 2005 (SI 2005 No. 841)141

European Communities (Rights Against Insurers) Regulations 2002 (SI 2002No. 3061) 232, 246

High Court and County Courts Jurisdiction Order 1991 (SI 1991 No. 724)202

Motor Vehicles (Compulsory Insurance) (Information Centre andCompensation Body) Regulations 2003 (SI 2003 No. 37)

reg. 11 255reg. 13 255

Sex Discrimination (Amendment of Legislation) Regulations 2008 (SI 2008No. 963)

Sched. 2, para. 13 432






xxvi Table of legislation

Social Security (Claims and Payments) Regulations 1979 (SI 1979 No. 1968)reg. 25 355

Social Security (Recovery of Benefits) Regulations 1997 (SI 1997 No. 2205)reg. 2(2)(a) 350, 381

Vaccine Damage Payments Act 1979 Statutory Sum Order 2000 (SI 2000 No.1983) 106

European legislation

Compensation of Crime Victims Directive 2004/80/EC 312European Convention on Human Rights

Art. 2 29Art. 3 29, 68Art. 6 81Art. 13 68, 81

European Convention on the Compensation of Victims of Violent Crime312

Product Liability Directive 488Working Time Directive 391

New Zealand legislation

Accident Compensation Act 1972 152, 155Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation and Compensation Act 2001

s. 122 465






Table of cases

AB v. British Coal Corporation [2004] EWHC 1372 285AB v. John Wyeth & Brother Ltd [1994] PIQR P109 276Adamson v. Motor Vehicle Insurance Trust (1957) 58 WALR 56 181Airedale NHS Trust v. Bland [1993] AC 789 169Albert v. Motor Insurers’ Bureau [1972] AC 301 258Alcock v. Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [1992] 1 AC 310 86, 87Allen v. Distillers Co. (Biochemicals) Ltd [1974] 2 All ER 365 136Allied Maples Group v. Simmons & Simmons [1995] 1 WLR 1602 116Arnold v. Teno (1978) 83 DLR (3d) 609 76Ashley v. Chief Constable of Sussex Police [2008] 1 AC 962 417Ashton v. Turner [1980] 3 All ER 890; [1981] QB 137 64, 257Attia v. British Gas [1988] QB 304 84, 316Austin v. Zurich Insurance Co. [1945] KB 250 375AXA General Insurance Ltd v. HM Advocate [2011] 3 WLR 871 3Baker v. Willoughby [1970] AC 476 115, 374Barker v. Corus (UK) plc [2006] 2 AC 572 112, 113Barnett v. Chelsea and Kensington Hospital Management Committee [1969] 1

QB 428 76Barrett v. Enfield London Borough Council [2001] 2 AC 550 68, 80Barrett v. Ministry of Defence [1995] 1 WLR 1217 78Bernia, The (1888) 1 App Cas 1 54Bevan Ashford v. Geoff Yeandle (Contractors) Ltd [1998] 3 All ER 238 272Bird v. Pearce [1979] RTR 369 76Bolitho v. City and Hackney Health Authority [1998] AC 232 35Bolton v. Stone [1951] AC 850 39, 41Bond v. Chief Constable of Kent [1983] 1 All ER 456 302Bradburn v. Great Western Railway (1874) LR 10 Ex 1 382Bretton v. Hancock [2005] EWCA Civ 404 247Brice v. Brown [1984] 1 All ER 997 126Broome v. Cassell [1972] AC 1027 415Brown v. Roberts [1965] 1 QB 1 80, 252Buckley v. John Allen & Ford Ltd [1967] 1 QB 637 133Burmah Oil Co. v. Lord Advocate [1965] AC 75 116






xxviii Table of cases

Burns v. Edman [1970] 2 QB 541 317Bux v. Slough Metals Ltd [1974] 1 All ER 262 114Byrne v. Motor Insurers’ Bureau [2009] QB 66 255CAL No. 14 Pty Ltd v. Motor Accidents Insurance Board (2009) 239 CLR 390

77Caparo Industries plc v. Dickman [1990] 2 AC 605 66Capital & Counties plc v. Hampshire County Council [1997] QB 1004 77Capps v. Miller, The Times, 12 December 1988 52Carmarthenshire County Council v. Lewis [1955] AC 549 178Cassidy v. Ministry of Health [1951] 2 KB 343 94, 231Caswell v. Powell Duffryn Collieries [1940] AC 152 51, 110Chadwick v. British Railways Board [1967] 1 WLR 912 82, 87Chaplin v. Boys [1971] AC 356 253Charlton v. Fisher [2002] QB 578 247Charlton v. Forest Printing Ink Co. [1978] IRLR 559 300Chester v. Afshar [2005] 1 AC 134 115Chief Adjudication Officer v. Faulds [2002] 2 All ER 961 341Chief Constable of Hertfordshire Police v. Van Colle [2009] 1 AC 225 49, 68Childs v. Desmoreaux [2006] 1 SCR 643 79Clark v. National Insurance Corporation [1963] 3 All ER 375 237Clarke v. Vedel [1979] RTR 26 256Clunis v. Camden and Islington Health Authority [1998] 3 All ER 180 64Colledge v. Bass Mitchells & Butlers Ltd [1988] 1 All ER 536 383Connelly v. RTZ Corporation plc [1998] AC 854 167Cookson v. Knowles [1979] AC 556 132, 144, 158Cooper v. Motor Insurers’ Bureau [1985] QB 575 257Corfield v. Groves [1950] 1 All ER 488 258Corrigan v. Bjork Shiley Corporation (1986) 227 Cal Rptr 247 167Couch v. Attorney-General [2010] 3 NZLR 149 172Cox v. Hockenhull [1999] 3 All ER 577 131Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Litigation; Group B Plaintiffs v. Medical Research

Council (1997) 41 BMLR 157 85Crocker v. Sundance Northwest Resorts Ltd [1988] 1 SCR 1186 77Crofton v. National Health Service Litigation Authority [2007] 1 WLR 923

150CSR Ltd v. Eddy (2005) 226 CLR 1 148Cutter v. Eagle Star Insurance Co. Ltd [1998] 4 All ER 417 247Daly v. General Steam Navigation Ltd [1980] 3 All ER 696 148Davie v. New Merton Board Mills [1959] AC 604 249Davis Contractors v. Fareham Urban District Council [1950] AC 696 34Deyong v. Shenburn [1946] KB 227 73Dillon v. Twin State Gas & Electric Co. (1932) 163 A 111 116Dimond v. Lowell [2002] 1 AC 384 264Dodds v. Dodds [1978] QB 543 54Donnelly v. Joyce [1974] QB 454 150






xxix Table of cases

Donoghue v. Stevenson [1932] AC 562 66, 69Dooley v. Cammell Laird [1951] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 271 87Doughty v. Turner Manufacturing Co. [1964] 1 QB 518 125DP & JC v. UK (2003) 36 EHRR 183 68Drake v. Foster Wheeler Ltd [2010] EWHC 2004 (QB); [2011] 1 All ER 63

150Dunne v. North West Gas Board [1964] 2 QB 806 414Dunnett v. Railtrack plc [2002] 1 WLR 2434 272Eagle v. Chambers (No. 2) [2004] 1 WLR 3081 136Fairchild v. Glenhaven Funeral Services Ltd [2003] 1 AC 32 112, 191Finlay v. Railway Executive [1950] 2 All ER 1969 278Fitzgerald v. Lane [1989] AC 328 55Fletcher v. Autocar Ltd [1968] 2 QB 322 251Flynn v. Commonwealth of Australia (1988) 6 MVR 186 47Froom v. Butcher [1976] QB 268 52Gaca v. Pirelli General plc [2004] 1 WLR 2683 383, 384Gale v. Motor Union Insurance Co. Ltd [1928] 1 KB 359 372Gardner v. Moore [1984] AC 548 257, 314, 373Gaskins v. British Aluminium [1976] QB 524 278Giambrone v. JMC Holidays Ltd (No. 2) [2004] 2 All ER 891 150Gillies v. Secretary of State for Work and Pensions [2006] 1 WLR 781 358Glaister v. Appleby-in-Westmoreland Council [2009] EWCA Civ 1325 250Goldman v. Hargrave [1967] 1 AC 645 81, 82Goodburn v. Thomas Cotton Ltd [1968] 1 QB 845 132Gorris v. Scott (1874) LR 9 Ex 125 125Gray v. Barr [1970] 2 QB 626 318Gray v. Criminal Injuries Compensation Board (1998) 312Green v. Russell [1959] 2 QB 226 244Gregg v. Scott [2005] 2 AC 176; [2005] 2 WLR 268 113, 117Gregory v. Kelly [1978] RTR 426 61Griffiths v. British Coal Corporation [2001] 1 WLR 1493 387Griffiths v. Brown, The Times, 23 October 1998 77Groves v. Wimborne [1898] 2 QB 402 94, 326Gurtner v. Circuit [1968] 2 QB 587 258Gwilliam v. West Hertfordshire Hospitals NHS Trust [2003] QB 443 248, 250H v. Ministry of Defence [1991] 2 QB 103 165Haigh v. Ireland [1974] 1 WLR 43 97Hall (Arthur J. S.) & Co. v. Simons [2002] 1 AC 615 67Hall v. Brooklands Auto Racing Club [1933] 1 KB 205 61Halsey v. Milton Keynes General NHS Trust [2004] 1 WLR 3002 272Hamilton v. Al Fayed (No. 2) [2003] QB 1175 263Hardy v. Motor Insurers’ Bureau [1964] 2 QB 745 318Hartley v. Birmingham City Council [1992] 1 WLR 968 233Hatton v. Sutherland [2002] 2 All ER 1 86Hay v. Hughes [1975] 1 All ER 257 146






xxx Table of cases

Heil v. Rankin [2001] QB 272 163, 164Henderson v. Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1995] 2 AC 145 76Hepburn v. Tomlinson [1966] AC 451 244Hill v. Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989] AC 53 49, 80, 300Hinz v. Berry [1970] 2 QB 40 83Hodges v. Harland & Wolff [1965] 1 WLR 523 165Hodgson v. Imperial Tobacco [1998] 2 All ER 672 274Hollis v. Dow Corning Corporation (1995) 129 DLR (4th) 609 115Holmes v. Syntex Laboratories Inc. (1984) 202 Cal Rptr 773 167Home Office v. Dorset Yacht Co. [1970] AC 1004 48, 79, 300Horsley v. MacLaren (The Ogopogo) [1971] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 210 74, 77Hosie v. Arbroath Football Club Ltd, 1987 SLT 122 81Hotson v. East Berkshire Health Authority [1987] AC 750 113Houghton v. Hackney Borough Council (1961) 3 KIR 615 300Hudson v. Ridge Manufacturing Co. [1957] 2 QB 348 80Hunt v. Severs [1994] 2 AC 350 150, 254Hunter v. British Coal Corporation [1988] 2 All ER 97 87Hussain v. New Taplow Paper Mills [1988] AC 514 383ICI v. Shatwell [1965] AC 656 61, 183IRC v. Hambrook [1956] 2 QB 641 373Jaensch v. Coffey (1983–4) 155 CLR 549 86Jebson v. Ministry of Defence [2000] 1 WLR 2055 78Jefford v. Gee [1970] 2 QB 130 144Jobling v. Associated Dairies Ltd [1982] AC 794 374Jones v. Dennison [1971] RTR 174 181Jones v. Lloyd, The Times, 22 March 1967 225Kars v. Kars (1996) 187 CLR 354 254Kent v. Griffiths [2001] QB 36 77Kingston v. Chicago & NW Railway (1927) 22 NW 913 115Kirkham v. Chief Constable of Greater Manchester [1990] 2 QB 283 63, 64,

77Kralj v. McGrath [1986] 1 All ER 54 172Lamb v. Camden London Borough Council [1981] QB 625 127Lamb v. Cotogno (1987) 164 CLR 1 127, 172Lane v. Holloway [1968] 1 QB 379 318Larner v. British Steel plc [1993] ICR 551 95Leakey v. National Trust [1980] QB 485 81Lee v. Lee’s Air Farming Ltd [1961] AC 12 337Lefevre v. White [1990] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 569 231Leversley v. Thomas Firth [1953] 1 WLR 1206 96Lim Poh Choo v. Camden Health Authority [1979] QB 196; [1980] AC 174

143Lister v. Romford Ice and Cold Storage Co. Ltd [1957] AC 555 232, 249, 253,

375Longden v. British Coal Corporation [1998] AC 653 383






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