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ATAF - Proceedings of the CONFERENCE on TOURISM & HOSPITALITY Armenia, 2013

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Organized by

ATA Fellows (American-Turkish-Armenian Fellows)

A Multilateral University Consortium to Strengthen Tourism Education, Research and Industry Outreach

Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia

http://uftourism.org/atafellows/index.shtml

Supported by

The Embassy of the United States, Ankara, Turkey


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(http://uftourism.org/atafellows/index.shtml) Tourism as a catalyst for cultural understanding, mutual respect, goodwill and peace has been a theoretically accepted and somewhat empirically studied phenomenon. A team of academics and industry practitioners (ATA Fellows) from USA, Turkey and Armenia endeavored to explore the prospect of peace via travel and tourism as an opportunity to normalize and strengthen dialogue between Turkey and Armenia whose relations have been strained by a number of historical and political issues. ATA Fellows undertook this project proposing collaboration between academics and practitioners of tourism industry in all three partnering countries. The main goal of the ATAF Project is to educate, train, research and bring together resources for sustainable regional tourism development for increased cross‐border tourism between Turkey and Armenia. This endeavor received financial and logistics support from the Embassy of the United States in Ankara, Turkey, as well as relevant public, NGO and private sector authorities in all three countries. Over a three year‐period, ATAF conducted three visioning meetings in three countries, delivered online courses for students from partner institutions and conducted two field trips to Turkey and the USA for the Armenian and Turkish students and faculty. This meeting, the Conference on Tourism and Hospitality in Armenia is the final activity of the project to share and exchange experiences, knowledge and insights about the project as well as generate new ideas for future collaboration. Below is the list of the ATAF Project Team members.

UniversityofFlorida(UF),USA

DokuzEylulUniversity(DEU),Turkey

ArmenianStateUniversityofEconomics(ASUE),Armenia

Faculty Faculty FacultyDr.AsliD.A.Tasci

ProjectDirectorandPIDr.GurhanAktasTurkish

DirectorofProjectDr.ArtakManukyanArmenianDirectorof

ProjectDr.LoriPennington‐GrayCurriculum/Education

Director

Dr.EbruGunluCurriculum/Education

Director

Dr.ArmenuhiBurnazyanCurriculum/EducationDirector

Administrators Administrators AdministratorsDr.BrijeshThapa Dr.BurcuSelinYilmaz Dr.ArmenKtoyanDr.MichaelSagas Dr.YaseminArbak

Practitioners Practitioners PractitionersDeeAnnMcKinney

DirectorofResearchforDepartmentofMissouri

Tourism

ArminZerunyanHilton‐CountryGeneral

ManagerTurkey

ArmenShahbazyanBusinessAssociationSpecialist,AdvisorfortheCompetitiveArmenianPrivate

Sector(CAPS)ProjectRolandLoog

ExecutiveDirectorofAlachuaCountyVisitorsand

ConventionBureau

Dr.MustafaTanyeriSecretaryGeneraland

MemberofBoard,AegeanYoungBusinessmenAssociation(EGIAD)

Dr.HasmikHambardzumyanFacultyMemberASUE,Yerevan

TourismPlanningandDevelopmentConsultantDr.MuzafferUysal,ProfessorofTourismatVirginiaPolytechnicInstitute&StateUniversity

HistoricPreservationandCommunityConservationConsultantProf.RoyGraham

Beinecke‐ReevesDistinguishedProfessorandDirectorofUFCollegeHistoricPreservationProgramATA Fellows are energized with Eleanor Roosevelt's philosophy:

“It isn’t enough to talk about peace. One must believe in it. And it isn’t enough to believe in it. One must work at it.”


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AUTHORS TITLE PAGE #

TOURISM AND PEACE: A Secret Love Affair?

Asli D.A. Tasci and Svetlana Stepchenkova: CROSS‐CONTINENT TOURISM

COLLABORATION AS A STRATEGIC TOOL FOR GLOBAL PEACE ‐ A TALE OF TWO CASES

Mahmood Khan: TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY AS CATALYSTS FOR PROMOTING WORLD PEACE

Abraham Pizam: CAN TOURISM PROMOTE PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN UNFRIENDLY NATIONS?

Roland Loog: TOURISM BRANDING PROMOTES PEACE

TOURISM AND QUALITY: It Takes Two for a Sustainable Tango Robertico Croes: REKINDLING THE ATTENTION TO POVERTY REDUCTION WITH THE

PROMISE OF TOURISM Muzaffer Uysal: QUALITY OF LIFE OF RESIDENTS AND SUSTAINABILITY IN THE

DESTINATION COMMUNITY: EMERGING RESEARCH ISSUES Fevzi Okumus: REGIONAL COMPETITIVENESS: CLUSTER BASED ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT John Downes (Presented by Siranush Iskandaryan): INTERNATIONAL HARMONIZATION

OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM LAW

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM MANAGEMENT – Practices and Outcomes Artak Manukyan: HOW DEVELOPMENT GAP CAN BE REDUCED? THE ROLE OF

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Kaye Chon: MANAGING QUALITY OF SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HOSPITALITY

AND TOURISM INDUSTRY: EXPERIENCES FROM ASIA Armin Zerunyan: CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY AT HILTON WORLDWIDE

TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Anja Tuohino* and Antti Honkanen: ON THE WAY TO SUSTAINABLE (WELLBEING)

TOURISM DESTINATION? CASE SAVONLINNA TOWN IN FINLAND Vardan Urutyan and Artur Grigoryan*: AGRITOURISM FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL

DEVELOPMENT IN ARMENIA Tamara Rátz: INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY IN NICHE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN

HUNGARY Semih S. Yilmaz* and Asli D.A. Tasci: COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM FOR WHO?

PROFILING CONSUMERS

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ISSUES: Part I Gurhan Aktas* and Askin Ozdagoglu: DIFFERING PERCEPTIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY

AMONG THE USERS OF ACTIVITY‐BASED TOURISM Hasmik Amiryan: SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ASSESSMENT INDICATORS: CASE OF

ARMENIA Pınar Isıldar, Murat Usta* and Mustafa Tanyeri: THE ROLE OF LOCAL FOOD IN TOURISM

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AND EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS IN DESTINATION ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT BY MANUFACTURER IN ÇEŞME/TURKEY

Semih S. Yilmaz* and Asli D.A. Tasci: EXPLORING THE IMPLICATIONS OF COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING IN SUSTAINABLE GUEST BEHAVIOR

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ISSUES: Part II

Burcin Kirlar* and Serdar Sunnetcioglu: SUSTAINABILITY PRAXIS ON DESTINATIONS:

CASE OF “DOOMSDAY” IN ŞIRINCE VILLAGE ON 21ST OF DECEMBER Anahit Voskanyan: RURAL TOURISM AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING THE

COMPETITIVENESS OF A COUNTRY Joohee Chae: DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF SKI RESORTS IN JAPAN: THE

CHANGES IN DEMAND AND VALUES Kelly J. Semrad* and Katerina Berezina: HOTEL FLASH SALES: AN INDUSTRY

PERSPECTIVE

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM STAKEHOLDERS Ceren Miral, Sonay Kaygalak*, and Rezzan Ersoy: ETHNIC MINORITIES AS TOURISM

ENTREPRENEURS: THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

Mathilda van Niekerk: KNOCK KNOCK. WHO’S THERE? FESTIVAL STAKEHOLDERS Manush Simonyan: STRATEGIC TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT FOR

ARMENIA Artak Manukyan: ARMENIAN‐TURKISH BORDER OPENING: THE KEY PLAYERS AND

THEIR INTERESTS

CAPACITY BUILDING: A Prerequisite for Sustainable Development Kelly J. Semrad: INDUSTRY INSIGHTS AND EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOKS FOR TOURISM

AND HOSPITALITY CURRICULA DESIGN Gurhan Aktas*, B. Selin Yilmaz and Ebru Gunlu: DESIGNING CURRICULA FOR A

CERTIFICATE PROGRAM: SUSTAINABLE REGIONAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT Carnot E. Nelson*, Richard Newel, Gema Ruiz de Huydobro, Ashley Nixon, Savaş

Ceylan, Ece Omuris and Artak Manukyan: CROSS‐NATIONAL STUDY OF EMOTIONAL LABOR RESULTS AND FURTHER EXPLORATIONS

Manuel Antonio Rivera, Kelly J. Semrad* and Seung Hyun Lee: THE PERCEIVED VALUE OF A HOSPITALITY INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE IN RELATION TO SATISFACTION WITH INTERNSHIP AND LOYALTY TO SCHOOL

HIGHWAY DIRECTIONS FOR THE CAUCASUS

Asli D.A. Tasci* and Semih S. Yilmaz: CAUCASUS, ARMENIA AND TURKEY FROM

AMERICANS’ PERSPECTIVE: A SLIPPERY SLOPE Yong Jae Ko and Michael Sagas: CAN HOSTING SPORT EVENTS HELP ENHANCE

DESTINATION IMAGE? Semih S. Yilmaz* and Asli D.A. Tasci: TOURISM CLOSES DISTANCES‐ PHYSICAL, MENTAL

AND EMOTIONAL

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EXTENDED ABSTRACTS & FULL PAPERS 54‐90

BIOGRAPHIES OF PRESENTERS 91

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 106

*: Presenter


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Disclaimer: This project was funded through a Department of State Public Affairs Section grant, and the opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed herein are those of the Author(s) and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of State.


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CROSS‐CONTINENT TOURISM COLLABORATION AS A STRATEGIC TOOL FOR GLOBAL PEACE‐ A TALE OF TWO CASES

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Asli D.A. Tasci, University of Florida, USA Svetlana Stepchenkova, University of Florida, USA

Tourism is praised for its presumed benefits of better appreciation of cultures, heritage, religion, and societies, eventually promoting tolerance, mutual understanding and respect, goodwill and peace (D’Amore, 1988; Fridgen, 1996; Salazar, 2011; Var, Brayley, & Korzay, 1989a, 1989b). This potential provides a unique opportunity to improve cross‐border relations particularly for regions suffering from negative or lack of relations due to social, political and historical perils. The opportunity of improving cross‐border relations through tourism can be realized strategically, especially when it includes educational endeavors targeted towards youth. Being aware of this significant opportunity, Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management Department (TRSM) at the University of Florida (UF) has been actively seeking involvement in cross‐continent collaboration for research and education. In 2010, these efforts resulted in the start of two projects: one with Armenia, and Turkey and the other with Russia. American‐Turkish‐Armenian Fellows (ATAF) is a group of academics and industry practitioners from USA, Turkey and Armenia who formulated a multilateral consortium to strengthen the dialogue between Turkey and Armenia. Their effort received financial support from the Embassy of the United States in Ankara, Turkey. The partnership consists of the University of Florida, U.S.A., Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey, and Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia. To achieve the objectives, several activities have been proposed for implementation during the course of three years (2010‐2013). Three visioning meetings in all three countries were conducted, followed online education offered free for students of partner universities and student field trips to Turkey and the USA. The main outcomes of the planned activities are to contribute to the region in several ways including: sustainable tourism development, increased cultural and environmental awareness, diversifying the tourism products (extending the triangle of sun, sand and sea to include cultural tourism, wine tourism, faith tourism, event tourism, thermal tourism, winter tourism etc.), branding the region as a sustainable quality tourism brand, improving the human capital with a focus on non‐elite groups, and ultimately promoting cross‐cultural understanding and regional peace. Many of these outcomes are to surface in the long run; however, some visible outcomes were observed. Several challenges hampered some of the activities planned as extra to the proposal. However, with commitment and trust, many obstacles were overcome and the achieved outcomes prove that it is worth it. Activities enabled interactions between students, academia, industry practitioners as well as locals, generating cross‐cultural understanding and interest.


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Given the development of destinations and attractions in Russia, current and expected influx of visitors due to mega‐sport events of the Sochi Winter Olympic Games in 2014 and the World Soccer Cup in 2018, there has been limited number of institutions that have focused on tourism related curriculum. The shortage of specialist in tourism related professions (e.g., destination planning and development) is a major limitation when compared with other countries with similar tourist flows. “Capacity Building Partnership to Improve Tourism Education, Research, and Industry Outreach” is a three‐year project carried by the faculty at the Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management, UF and the State University of Nizhni Novgorod (UNN), Russia. The project engaged in degree curriculum development, delivery, faculty training programs, student exchange mobility program and experiential education, as well as collaborative research. Students from both countries strengthened their understanding of issues pertinent to tourism, hospitality, and destination management, experienced practical applications in tourism and hospitality, improved their language skills and cultural understanding of the host country. During the faculty mobility program, UF and UNN team engaged to develop, share and partner in teaching methodologies, instructional materials, research initiatives as well as industry outreach activities. The collaboration between the two institutions has been funded by The U.S. Department of Education and the Ministry of Science and Education of the Russian Federation. Both institutions intend to continue collaboration beyond the official term of the Project. References D’Amore, L. (1988). Tourism‐The world’s peace industry. Journal of Travel Research, 27, 35‐

40. Fridgen, J. D. (1996). Dimensions of Tourism. Educational Institute of the American Hotel &

Motel Association, East Lansing. Salazar, N.B. (2011). Building a ‘Culture of Peace’ through Tourism: Reflexive and analytical

notes and queries. Viewed 03/02/11 on the www:http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultades/C_Sociales/universitas/62/salazar.pdf

Var, T., Brayley, R. & Korzay, M. (1989a). Tourism and world peace: Case of Turkey. Annals of Tourism Research 16(2), 282‐286.

Var, T., Brayley, R. & Korzay, M. (1989b) Tourism and world peace: The case of Argentina. Annals of Tourism Research 16(3), 431‐434.


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TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY AS CATALYSTS FOR PROMOTING WORLD PEACE by

Mahmood A. Khan Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA

Hospitality and Tourism industry is the most rapidly growing industry worldwide which has an impact on social, economic, cultural, technological, and environmental aspects of any country, particularly the newly developing countries. Due to its far reaching effects it directly or indirectly helps in cultural diversity, solidarity, poverty alleviation and promoting world peace. The different facets of hospitality and tourism field have wide reaching impact on social, cultural, political, aspects of any country. Many countries are therefore seriously considering hospitality and tourism industry as an important strategic component of development and planning. Considering the importance of hospitality and tourism industry, and using Armenia as an example this presentation provides an overview of the theoretical and practical underpinnings of involved intricacies. Special emphasis of the presentation will be on (a) theoretical aspects related to hospitality and tourism development, (b) status of the hospitality and tourism industry and its impact on national development, and (c) opportunities and constraints with reference to Armenia and other competing countries. Factors responsible for tourism and hospitality serving as catalyst for promoting peace will be outlined. In conclusion, all related aspects will be presented with examples.


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CAN TOURISM PROMOTE PEACE AND UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN UNFRIENDLY NATIONS?

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Abraham Pizam University of Central Florida, USA

The objective of this presentation is to discuss the capability of tourism to induce change in the attitudes of travelers between countries that are unfriendly to each other. This is achieved through a review of four empirical studies that were conducted during the 1990s and a follow up study in 2002, the purpose of which was to examine the role of tourism as an agent of change between pairs of countries that have been traditionally unfriendly or hostile to each other.

The four studies that analyzed the effect of tourism on the change in attitudes were conducted among American tourists visiting the USSR, Israeli tourists visiting Egypt, Greek tourists visiting Turkey and Turkish tourists visiting Greece. The follow up study was conducted with Israeli ecotourists visiting Jordan. The four studies hypothesized that: (1) the tourist experience will improve the ethnic negative attitudes that tourists have of their hosts and (2) the tourist experience will lead to a reduction in the perceived differences between tourists and hosts, people who have been traditionally hostile to each other. The combined results of the four studies did not confirm the hypotheses and showed only a relatively small number of changes in the opinions and attitudes of the tourists toward their hosts resulting from the tourist experience. More importantly, the majority of the changes were in the negative direction. It is suggested that positive changes were not achieved in the change of ethnic relations in the afore mentioned studies, because the following conditions were not present: (1) Equal‐status contact between the members of the interacting groups; (2) Intergroup cooperation in the pursuit of common goals, which creates an interdependency between the groups and discourages competition between them; (3) Contact of intimate rather than casual nature, which allows the interacting members to get to know each other beyond the superficial level; (4) An “authority” and/or social climate approving of and supporting the intergroup contact; and (5) Initial intergroup attitudes that are not extremely negative. To confirm the validity of this explanation the results of a follow up study are presented which confirm the original hypotheses that under certain conditions tourism can change tourist ethnic attitudes in a positive direction.


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TOURISM BRANDING PROMOTES PEACE by

Roland Loog VisitGainesville, Florida, USA

ATA Fellows believe that a significant opportunity to strengthen the dialogue between Turkey and Armenia exists via tourism to promote peace and mutual understanding, which is supported by the shared cultural and heritage background between Turkey and Armenia. The aim of this presentation is to talk about how a strong tourism brand can persuade positive changes in the perception of a destination and lessen the tension between two different nations. UNWTO Secretary‐General, Taleb Rifai, emphasized the potential of tourism in peace building by saying, “Tourism can be one of the most effective tools in peace building, as it brings people from around the world together, allowing them to exchange ideas, beliefs, and different points of view; these exchanges are the very foundation of mutual understanding, tolerance, and human enrichment.” Turkey’s and Armenia’s history have been an obstacle to peace and future good will, but projects, such as, ATA Fellows’ partnerships between the 2 countries will enable the stabilization of relations between the two nations by developing teamwork between academic circles and industry experts in both countries. Add to this the University of Florida’s influence in research, branding, and educational programs to build and strengthen regional tourism development. In developing a strong brand research is the single most important element. A destination needs to know a variety of things like: where are visitors coming from, purpose of travel, level of satisfaction, likelihood to return, psychographics & demographics of the visitor, destinations strengths, weaknesses, threats and more. Destination management organizations, universities, research corporations and industry partners must all come together in developing a strong brand that has community buy‐in and will endure a long strategic effort in the marketplace. The viable growth of tourist promotion, the design and marketing of a tourist brand are a basic constituent to achieve the best levels of the area‘s customized tourist brand. This is vital in order to differentiate one competitive destination on the national and international market from other destinations, and to attract investors and other strategic partners for the growth of the tourist industry. As brand helps to increase travel and travel help to increase understanding, it becomes clear that any effort to use tourism to enhance friendship must have a clear and definable brand. In fact, the ultimate confirmation of peace through tourism was offered by Mahatma Gandhi who described travel as ‘the language of peace’, along with that add the Dali Llama’s belief that for spiritual awareness, ‘one should travel someplace they have never been once a year’. A proper and honest brand is instrumental in encouraging this exploration of nations, people, and culture and the exploration of nations, people, and culture is instrumental to peace. Besides, branding helps destinations to know themselves, better through research, work collaboratively, compelled to portray a positive image‐ as friendly, diverse, peaceful.


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REKINDLING THE ATTENTION TO POVERTY REDUCTION WITH THE PROMISE

OF TOURISM by

Robertico Croes University of Central Florida, USA

Armenia is a transitional economy that is challenged by economic and social fallouts. These challenges are induced by the process of transition towards a market economy. This transitional process has resulted in declining outputs, rising unemployment, falling wages, and increasing levels of poverty and socio‐economic inequality. Approximately, one in every four Armenians fall below the poverty line (i.e. the amount of persons with an income less than four USD (PPP adjusted) per day. In developed countries socio‐economic inequality is typically less than .3. However, in the case of Armenia the Gini coefficient for socio‐economic inequality is 0.37 which is of concern. Many of the country’s transitional indicators reveal that the status quo conditions of Armenian outputs (e.g. income and consumption) and changes in distribution (e.g. economic, social, equality, and political processes) represent and support the structure of poverty. This means that the country may not comply with the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) which was to halve poverty by 2015 worldwide. Tourism development is credited to be a powerful source of regional development in developing countries and economies that are in transition. According to the pro‐poor movement, through economic mechanisms such as employment, social, and business opportunities as well as the appropriate distribution of government taxes to the poor tourism development may reduce poverty. This reduction in poverty occurs in two forms that contribute to economies. The primary form being direct effects (e.g. jobs created by hotels and restaurants). And, the secondary form appearing as indirect effects (e.g. cleaning services and IT services rendered to hotels and restaurants). Thus, tourism and its economic contribution are presumed to help the poor. Tourism represents 7.1% of Armenia’s GDP and employs 6.2% of the population. In 2011, the country received 758,000 arrivals. When compared to other countries in the region (i.e. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan), tourism is still inchoate in Armenia. An important question that should be asked is whether Armenia should continue to spend its scarce resources in tourism development as a means to create “decent” jobs? Assuming that these jobs will go to the poor and the additional income generated by tourism will go directly to poor households, the answer is ‐ it depends. This is because the relationship between economic growth and equity is not always self‐evident in practice. One reason why this relationship fails to materialize in transitional economies could be due to the lopsided effects of economic growth on the poor. In times of recession, the poor seem to suffer the


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most. While in times of prosperity, the poor seem to benefit the least. Therefore, balancing equity with growth becomes a necessity and a policy matter in poverty reduction strategies. The benefits of economic growth cannot be maximized or favor the poor by ignoring the effects of inequality. This means that in order for growth benefits to reach the poor an assumption must be met that growth is pro‐poor. In order for growth to matter, it has to be all inclusive of all players in the market including the poor. In the case of Armenia, 25% of the population is excluded from market opportunities that would facilitate progressive social mobility. This progressive mobility is the platform to nourish social equality which leads to greater economic growth and prosperity. There is strong empirical evidence that suggests that tourism development may generate facets of economic growth that could change the income configuration for locals. However, this proposition is an empirical question that leads us to ask if tourism is inclusive of all players could tourism reduce inequality or keep inequality neutral? Unfortunately, this question will not ever have generalizable answer. This is because each country faces different types of contextual challenges. In other words, there are no standard recipes to guarantee that tourism development will aid in the reduction of poverty. Simply put, there are only recommended ingredients that would provide the right mixture of policies in the difficult and long road towards poverty reduction. Armenia will not be the exception. However with the appropriate mix of ingredients that address Armenia’s contextual challenges, the end product may be a taste of an industry that could aid in poverty reduction.


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QUALITY OF LIFE OF RESIDENTS AND SUSTAINABILITY IN THE DESTINATION COMMUNITY: EMERGING RESEARCH ISSUES

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Muzaffer (Muzzo) Uysal Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA

The objective of this presentation is to establish the assumed relationship between sustainability, destination competitiveness and quality of life of both visitors and destination residents. Sustainability is one of the most ubiquitous topics within the tourism literature and is recognized as foundational to destination competiveness and resident quality of life. Tourism as an industry has become a major socioeconomic force in both developing and developed markets. Its potency as a source of economic development tool has made it central to the strategic planning of development efforts almost in every country in the world. As a result, tourism has developed into an ever‐expanding industry servicing unique individuals with differing needs to destinations that can fulfill and hopefully exceed tourist expectations while maintaining competiveness based on improvements of destination quality of life (QOL). There are few industries that encompass the entire globe and bring so many different cultures together and the tourism industry must capitalize on its unique structure. However, along the way the tourism industry will be faced with a plethora of opportunities and challenges that can significantly alter the direction of the industry. This is more relevant to emerging destinations in the regional context. On the challenge side, several challenges for us include economic instability, recession and stagnation, social in‐stability, war/terrorism, information technology and social media, environmental and sustainability issues, and distributions of benefits of tourism. There are obvious ramifications of these challenges to the tourism industry and we have seen a rich stream of research that has been examining some aspects of these challenges. One of the research areas that are gaining momentum and increased attention is the connection between tourism activities, its consequences and quality of life of those involved in the production of consumption of tourism goods and services. The future of tourism research for both practical and theoretical reasons should embody the interplays of three major constructs of tourism, namely, sustainability, destination competiveness and attractiveness, and quality of life of stakeholders as they are affected by tourism activities. The presentation is intended to propose that within the fully functioning of tourism system we have two models that should be considered in examining tourism activities and their consequences from a systems point of view. The first model examines and understands the impact of tourist‐related variables on the well‐being of tourists. The second model examines and understands the impact of tourism‐related variables on the well‐being of resident of the host community and its stakeholders. In these two nested models of the tourism system, tourists as consumers, service providers, and stakeholders are the central parts of the system, where interaction between supply and demand is reciprocal. This interaction has an effect on the total vacation experience, as simultaneous production and consumption of goods and services take place, thus creating a synergy between sustainability and destination competitiveness. The presentation concludes with future research areas in the regional context of tourism development.


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REGIONAL COMPETITIVENESS: CLUSTER BASED ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT by

Fevzi Okumus University of Central Florida, USA

This presentation will focus on destination competitiveness and cluster based economic development. Destinations are struggling to remain competitive. In recent years, “cluster strategies” have become a popular approach for economic development and competitiveness of destinations. An industry cluster is a group of firms, and related economic actors and institutions, which operate in the same region and draw productive advantage from their mutual proximity and connections. Cluster analysis can assist in identifying a destinations strengths and challenges and indicate strategies to shape a destination’s future. However, government officials and practitioners do not have in‐depth understanding of destination competitiveness and cluster based development. The presentation will first discuss competitiveness, firm level competitive advantage and competitive advantage of destinations. It will then define the clustering concept for a destination and discuss how tourism clusters can particularly be developed. Potential challenges in developing tourism industry clusters will be discussed. Examples of successful tourism clusters will also be provided.


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INTERNATIONAL HARMONIZATION OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM LAW by

John J. Downes Business Environment Improvement Team Leader, EDMC, Armenia

The Law is a vital tool in the facilitation of economic activity. It can create an enabling regulatory framework or it can act as an impediment to the development of a modern, adaptable and efficient economic sector. Most governments recognize the potential contribution of tourism to economic growth, regional development, job creation and, particularly in developing countries, poverty alleviation. The recent and continuing global economic crisis points to the need for recognition that economic and fiscal success will only be built on sound institutional and regulatory frameworks. The State plainly has a role in providing those frameworks. The question arises: to what extent should the State be engaged in tourism development, either by itself or in partnership with others, or whether that ought to be left entirely to the private sector? Where is the State involved: what national, and local government entities are responsible for tourism; what are their functions and powers; and what administrative and economic mechanisms are available to them? Also: to what extent should the State regulate tourism businesses; in what fields and with which mechanisms? The aim is to strike the right balance between State supervision and economic freedom. Economic and fiscal success will only be built on a sound institutional framework. That framework is dependent on sound legal infrastructures. Thus it is clear that in the construction of an efficient travel and tourism industry, a Tourism Law, which builds a functional, institutional framework, is a fundamental aspect of any holistic, facilitative approach. The national legal framework must be consistent with developing international norms At the same time as there are powerful forces of convergence, harmonization and standardization, there is a need for sensitivity to specific regional factors. It would be a mistake to project an EU model wholesale onto Armenia, for example, as the country is at a unique stage on the trajectory of institution building. The political and socio‐economic conditions preclude such full‐scale adoption at this stage. Nevertheless, any recommendations on reforming the law in Armenia should take into account the international harmonization process whilst respecting the particularities of the situation in Armenia. The very nature of the travel and tourism industry is an international one. The client usually enters into a contract in his/her own country to purchase tourism services and facilities in the host country, using suppliers that may be based in his/her country (e.g. travel agent), a third country (e.g. the airline) and the host country (e.g. hotel, tour guide, car hire etc.). Problems of conflict of laws and forum shopping arise. These have, to some extent, been addressed by international conventions and by harmonization of tourism laws. Unfortunately, in many developing countries the interface between government and the private sector is often fraught with red tape, restrictions and bureaucratic entangles. The


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private sector is governed by an intricate web of rules and regulations. As stated above, these are not specific to the tourism sector and are sometimes insensitive to its needs. A comprehensive Tourism Law can be used to streamline the processes for the tourism sector and provide for transparency and fairness. In developing a business friendly regulatory framework, the question arises as to the right balance between State regulation and self‐regulation in the tourism sector. Also, if there is self‐regulation, how does the State monitor its effectiveness in ensuring that it protects the national interest and provides adequate protection for the consumer? Tourism can make a huge contribution to the national and local economy. It can make a major contribution to the attainment of the MDGs, if managed properly, and if the sector is integrated in the MDG and Poverty Reduction Strategies of a country. Developing countries need to ensure that tourism development takes place that benefits disadvantaged communities and provides employment opportunities for those currently unemployed or in poverty. In order to do so, it needs to encourage diversification of the tourism product; wider distribution of the benefits of tourism; training and development opportunities; support and development of the handicrafts sector etc. To pursue these goals effectively, the country needs an effective and comprehensive legislative framework that encompasses environmental and cultural protection and enhancement; regulation of land use in tourism development; the development of appropriate infrastructure for tourism; management of, and investment, in tourism; and institutional and other legal mechanisms to provide for the full, active and equitable participation by poor communities in decision‐making and enjoyment of the benefits of tourism development. Economic criteria should not overrule the technical, environmental and socially and culturally equitable criteria for decision making with regard to location, design, and operation of tourism infrastructures. There should be coordination of institutional and inter‐sectoral activity, adequate personnel training and capacity‐building plans for public authorities involved in tourism development; speedy and efficient legal processes for indemnifying the negative impact on the environment and communities, and compensatory provisions to cover any damage to the environment and society as a whole.


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HOW DEVELOPMENT GAP CAN BE REDUCED? THE ROLE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

by

Artak Manukyan Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia

It is obvious that people living in developed countries get more time, which in combination with higher life expectancy rates, motivate people to use some of that time for tourism‐related activities. Most developing countries are relatively unknown tourism destinations for developed countries, thus the reasonability of developing countries to focus on that segment of potential travelers could bring higher rate of return for their economy and reduce development gap. In the past, destinations believed that it was enough to have only the tourists and destination resources, low salaries, attractive exchange rates etc. to compete and be successful in the international tourism industry (Bordas, 1994). This approach gave rise to the formulation and implementation of strategies and policies that aimed mainly at increasing tourist arrivals. In most cases results have not been as expected, leading to questioning of this strategy. Empirical evidence has shown that to secure long‐term profits and continued patronage, it is essential to have competitive advantages (Poon, 1993). The objective of this presentation is to discuss and underline the factors that could improve tourism competitiveness in developing countries and thus help reduce the existing development gap between developed and developing countries. It is evident that there is a lot of leakage in the tourism industry especially in developing countries. In order to be competitive in the long run developing countries should try to be more creative as an economic strategy based on agro‐exports, free trade zone labor, and sun‐and‐sand tourism is not a sustainable strategy for today’s global markets. That is why developing economies should focus more on competitiveness, which can lead to implication of convergence theory. It should be noted that there is an accumulation of models and results that demonstrate the importance of competitiveness and applicability of competitiveness‐building approaches; these approaches are mainly anchored with Porter’s works. Due to better social welfare (higher income equality and a higher number of the middle class), low fertility rates, improved medical technologies, in the near future life expectancy will still be higher in high income countries compared to developing ones. This factor in conjunction with free time and investment opportunities will have key impacts on the tourism industry. Taking this into account, one can predict that the need for destinations that have not yet experienced a tourism boom will be boosted. These destinations are generally located in developing countries, thus in the near future more and


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more developing countries will consider tourism as a strategic field of operation. It is obvious that only those developing countries that can target and attract tourists from developed countries will be more competitive as these countries will be the main contributors to tourism growth. Based on data from Tourism and Travel Competitiveness report the tourism related leakages and their mitigation strategies for policymakers in developing countries will be addressed. Based on analysis, situational and long term drivers of competitiveness will also be developed. These policy implications can be useful for Caucasus region and especially for Armenia. In particular using the suggested methodology Armenian Government can increase the efficiency of its investments in tourism sector.


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MANAGING QUALITY OF SERVICES FOR SUSTAINABILITY IN HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM INDUSTRY: EXPERIENCES FROM ASIA

by

Kaye Chon Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China

Asia's hospitality and tourism industry is often recognized for excellence in service. This is evidenced by the fact that many of the world's best hotels, airlines and airports are all present in Asia. The purpose of this presentation is to focus on the experiences of Asia's hotel and travel industry in their endeavors in developing sustainable tourism quality infrastructures. The presentation will be made in the form of detailed observations of industry practices and analysis of service quality management in Asia's top hospitality and tourism organizations. Case studies to be presented include such brands as Shangri‐La, Aman Resorts, Peninsula, Mandarin Oriental and Banyan Tree. The seminar will also cover such topics as: a. Creating positive service culture b. Developing service quality monitoring system c. Promoting a goal‐driven service organization d. Institutionalizing service quality


19

CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY AT HILTON WORLDWIDE by

Armin Zerunyan Hilton international, Turkey

Corporate responsibility has always been part of who we are at Hilton Worldwide. For nearly one hundred years, we have sought to deliver our founder Conrad N. Hilton’s vision of filling the earth with the light and warmth of hospitality. Today corporate responsibility is an important part of our transformation and a critical component of our business. Becoming the preeminent global hospitality company means that we are not only the first choice of our guest, team members and owners but also of the communities where we do business. To fulfill this mission, we must establish ourselves as a true leader in corporate responsibility. Hilton Worldwide has a dedicated Vice President for Corporate Responsibility and in 2011 we launched –Travel with Purpose‐ our global corporate responsibility commitment to provide shared value to our business and communities around the world. Travel with purpose focuses our efforts in four core areas:

- Creating opportunities: striving to be an employer of choice, fostering diversity and inclusion, providing workforce development and career pathways, supporting educational and life skills programs for young people

- Strengthening communities: Contributing to local economies, providing for basic needs and disaster relief, supporting human rights

- Celebrating cultures: Facilitating commerce through travel and tourism, providing cultural experiences, preserving cultural heritage

- Living sustainably: Managing efficiency, and performance of our natural resources, Investing in partnerships that support restoration and awareness

With each focus area we have set standards and established partnerships that complement our expertise and amplify our impact in doing so, we are supporting our strategic priorities to maximize performance, expand into new markets, strengthen our brands and enhance our culture. To reach our targets within our Travel with Purpose commitment we use unique tools, sources and programs that include:

- OnQ Insider‐ Our Global Intranet - Lightstay‐ Our proprietary sustainability measurement system - Hilton Worldwide University‐ Our development & e‐learning tool - Purpose Portal‐ Our giving and volunteering site for all of the team members - Hilton 360Community‐ Hilton Brand’s Online Social Networking Tool - Conrad Community‐ Conrad Brand’s Online Social Networking Tool - Global Week of Service‐ Dedicated week to deliver service to our local communities

at our all Hilton Worldwide properties - Bright Blue Futures‐Hilton Brand’s Community Program - Teaching Kids to CARE‐ Doubletree by Hilton Brand’s Community Program


20

Among our global partnerships we can list are Books for Kids, Room to Read, International Youth Foundation, Globalgiving, ECPAT, Global Soap Project and Good360. Our Corporate Responsibility promise is delivered via :

- Corporate Responsibility Council (forthcoming) - Brand Community Relations Council - Hotel Committees & Champions - Corporate Community Committees & Champions - Employee Resource / Affinity Groups - Ambassadors throughout the Organization


21

ON THE WAY TO SUSTAINABLE (WELL‐BEING) OF TOURISM DESTINATION? A CASE OF SAVONLINNA TOWN IN FINLAND

by

Anja Tuohino, University of Eastern Finland, Finland Antti Honkanen,University of Eastern Finland, Finland

(Full paper on page 55) Savonlinna City is located in the middle of Saimaa Lake Region in Finland with 36,000 inhabitants. Over one‐third of the city's area is covered by water. The purpose of the study is to ascertain how local actors perceive the situation and positioning of Savonlinna city in the wellbeing/wellness tourism context and how they see the presence of water as a source of wellbeing for locals and tourists. Secondly, the aim is to test if the model of a sustainable wellness destination developed by Sheldon & Park, 2009, adapted from Ritchie and Crouch 2003, could be used while defining the Savonlinna city in the context of wellbeing/wellness tourism. And thirdly: can Savonlinna be seen as a sustainable wellbeing/wellness destination in the future? The methodology is qualitative. The data for this paper is based on interviews made in the Savonlinna region during the year 2009 and 2010. Interviewees were local wellbeing tourism entrepreneurs, regional developers and project managers in wellbeing‐related projects. Regional developers represented the public sector in the study. A total of 14 interviewees were conducted. The interviews took from 23 minutes to 78 minutes. All interviews were taped and later transcribed. The thematic interviews included questions about the unique selling points of the region, cooperation and networking as well as resources used in wellbeing tourism development. The overall finding of the interviews is that Savonlinna was perceived as a destination product. In addition, there was much discussion on Savonlinna’s assets for wellbeing tourism. The status of Savonlinna as a sustainable wellbeing tourism destination was more figured in the minds of respondents than on a tangible, practical level. In addition the wellbeing segment was still seen limited and fragmentary. The presence of water was recognized but it was unclear how to utilize it in the wellbeing tourism context. To summarize it can be said that the interviewees analyzed Savonlinna more as a tourism product, not as a wellbeing tourism destination. In addition it was noticed that Savonlinna city cannot take advantage of the resources available in the best possible way. In the final paper the findings will be mirrored to the strategy and development work in the region. As the process is still going‐on, the concluding results will be presented in the final paper.


22

References Ritchie, J.R. & Crouch, G.I. (2003/2005). The Competitive Destination: A Sustainable Tourism

Perspective. Wallingford: CABI Publishing. Sheldon, P. J. & Park, S.‐Y. (2009). Development of sustainable wellness destination. In

Bushell, R. & Sheldon, P. J. (Eds.), Wellness and Tourism – Mind, Body, Spirit, Place, (pp. 99‐113). Innovation and Tourism ‐ Connecting Theory & Practice series. New York: Cognizant Communication Corporation.


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AGRITOURISM FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARMENIA by

Vardan Urutyan, Armenian State Agrarian University, Armenia Artur Grigoryan, Armenian State Agrarian University, Armenia

(Full paper on page 70) Agritourism is a business activity, which channels additional income into rural communities, thus contributing to the reduction of rural poverty and hampering excessive influx of rural population to cities, keeps a country in a sociodemographic balance among its regions. Factors like historical heritage sites, natural environment, sporting and recreational activities, and certainly the rural daily routine are among many, which motivate people for national and international agritourism. Rural communities in Armenia mainly consist of self‐sufficient family farms, which neither have sufficient production capacities to turn into commercial farms nor have much differentiation of their products to enjoy any extra profits from less competitive sectors of the economy. The situation is definitely not very encouraging for an Armenian farmer to stay and work in the village, while wider job prospects lure these families to cities in Armenia or abroad. Outflow of rural population can potentially deteriorate production base of agricultural commodities and leave productive agricultural plots abandoned, thus deteriorating quality of the latter. The rural sustainability issue rises, when economic, social, and environmental constituents of sustainable rural life are being deteriorated. Armenia, with numerous factors which can turn certain rural communities into agritourism heaven, has not yet adopted any comprehensive strategy on development of this field. There have been sporadic initiatives to contribute to agritourism development in rural areas of the country, but either business models of the established businesses did not prove to be successful or the parties that initiated agritourism movement in rural areas were not very persistent in their intents. This paper makes a try to analyze potential capabilities of Armenia for development of agritourism, understand the obstacles for development of the field, and come up with possible business models.


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INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY IN NICHE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN HUNGARY

by

Tamara Rátz Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences, Hungary

During the last decades, in parallel with the globalisation of mass tourism, a new trend has appeared in the global tourist market: specialisation as opposed to homogenisation (Hall – Weiler 1992). The increasing ratio of experienced travellers has brought about new demand patterns, and has influenced the services offered by many destinations and companies. The importance of alternative tourism products such as ecotourism or food and wine tourism has been increasing (Michalkó 2007), and the gradual fragmentation of the supply led to the creation of highly specialised niche products, such as birding within ecotourism, or cooking schools or wine festivals within food and wine tourism (Novelli – Benson 2005). The role of imagination, creativity and innovation has become central, leading to the creation of financially profitable products based on site‐specific features (Ritchie – Hudson 2009). The proposed paper is based on findings of a 3‐year research project supported by the Bolyai János Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences that aims to explore supply and demand characteristics of niche tourism development in Hungary, and to identify the external and internal factors that contribute to the emergence of successful tourism businesses in this field. The presentation is based, on the one hand, on the analysis of literature sources on innovation in tourism as well as on niche tourism development, and on the other hand, qualitative research methods including a Delphi‐survey carried out to define the destination‐specific concept of niche tourism in Hungary and on focus group surveys with successful and less successful tourism operators, with the aim to provide an overview of the latest trends in Hungarian niche tourism development, based on the concepts of co‐creation (Binkhorst 2005) and niche marketing as theoretical frameworks.

References Binkhorst, E. (2005): The Experience Economy and Creativity, Towards the Co‐creation

Tourism Experience? Paper presented at the 2005 ATLAS Annual Conference “Tourism, Creativity and Development”, 2‐4.11.2005. Barcelona.

Hall, C.M. – Weiler, B. (eds.) (1992): Special Interest Tourism. Belhaven Press, London. Michalkó, G. (2007): A turizmuselmélet alapjai, 2. átdolgozott kiadás. Kodolányi János

Főiskola, Székesfehérvár. Novelli, M. (ed.) (2005): Niche Tourism. Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases. Elsevier

Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford. Novelli, M. – Benson, A.M. (2005): Niche tourism: A way forward to sustainability? In

Novelli, M. (ed.): Niche Tourism. Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases. Elsevier Butterworth‐Heinemann, Oxford, pp.247‐250.

Ritchie, J.R.B. – Hudson, S. (2009): Understanding and Meeting the Challenges of Consumer/Tourist Experience Research. International Journal of Tourism Research 11(2):111‐126.


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COMMUNITY BASED TOURISM FOR WHO? PROFILING CONSUMERS by

Semih S. Yilmaz, University of Florida, USA Asli D. A. Tasci, University of Florida, USA

Tourism is known for its negative, as well as positive impacts for the destination and host community. The debate about non‐economic impacts of tourism ‐ social, natural and cultural ‐ escalated during the 1970s (Singh et al., 2003). De Kadt (1979) was among the first to voice the community‐based concerns about externalities, particularly the negative effects of tourism, while Murphy (1985) advocated the local community’s involvement in the tourism processes as a means of ensuring a balance between the economic interests and socio‐cultural concerns. The consequent rise of alternative tourism concept in response to mass tourism encompassed a variety of tourism trends that were socially, culturally or environmentally sustainable and responsible. Community‐based tourism, as one of these sustainable tourism paradigms, is generally characterized with participation of locals in tourism workforce, distribution of tourism benefits fairly among the local population and the local power or control over tourism processes (Scheyvens, 1999; Zapata et al., 2011). Some positive outcomes associated with community based tourism include economic benefits (Hatton, 1999; Mitchell & Reid, 2001; Lapeyre, 2010); capacity building for locals (Novelli & Gebhardt, 2007; Kibicho, 2008), increased tourism service quality for visitors (Byczek, 2011; Lapeyre, 2010; Baktygulov & Raeva, 2010) as well as cross‐cultural exchange between hosts and visitors (Hatton, 1999). Despite the growing interest in community‐based tourism especially for underdeveloped, less‐developed and developing places, community based tourism is largely defined in supply‐side terms and demand side remains a relatively under‐studied area. However, as any tourism type, community‐based tourism cannot sustain itself without tourists, and understanding the characteristics of them is only vital for the future of community‐based initiatives. The characteristics of a potential community‐based tourism consumer ‐ sociodemographics, psychographics, and behavior – could help managers and marketers to target the right markets for successful community‐based tourism development. Hence, the purpose of this study is to have a glimpse into the demand side and investigate to find if it is possible to profile a community‐based tourist. A total of 399 surveys were collected in an online setting through random sampling on Americans. Survey included variables of travel purpose, travel behavior intentions and decision making characteristics, measured with 7‐point Likert type scales. Based on groupings according to travel‐related behavioral intentions (potential community‐based tourists vs. potential mass tourists), differences in sociodemographics, decision making characteristics and travel purposes were analyzed. Significant differences between potential community‐based tourists and potential mass tourists were observed on some of the variables. Results suggest correlations between decision making characteristics, travel purpose and behavioral intentions. The results might prove useful for community based tourism developers and marketers as they suggest what characterizes potential target markets that are more prone to engage in community‐based tourism initiatives.


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References Baktygulov, S., & Raeva, D. (2010). Creating Value For All: Community‐Based Tourism. Central

Asia‐Kyrgyzstan. New York: UNDP Byczek, C. (2011). Blessings for All? Community‐Based Ecotourism in Bali Between Global,

National, and Local Interests–A Case Study. ASEAS‐Austrian Journal of South‐East Asian Studies, 4(1), 81‐106.

De Kadt, E. J. (1979). Tourism‐‐passport to development?: Perspectives on the social and cultural effects of tourism in developing countries (Vol. 65). A World Bank Research Publication.

Hatton, M. J. (1999). Community‐based tourism in the Asia‐Pacific (Vol. 99). School of Media Studies.

Kibicho, W. (2008). Community‐based tourism: A factor‐cluster segmentation approach. Journal Of Sustainable Tourism, 16(2), 211‐231. doi: 10.2167/jost623.0

Lapeyre, R. (2010). Community‐based tourism as a sustainable solution to maximise impacts locally? The Tsiseb Conservancy case, Namibia. Development Southern Africa, 27(5), 757‐772. doi:10.1080/0376835X.2010.522837

Mitchell, R., & Reid, D. (2001). Community integration ‐ island tourism in Peru. Annals Of Tourism Research, 28(1), 113‐139.

Murphy, P. E. (1985). Tourism. A community approach. Methuen & Co. Ltd.. Novelli, M., & Gebhardt, K. (2007). Community based tourism in Namibia: 'reality show' or

'window dressing'? Current Issues in Tourism, 10(5), 443‐479. Scheyvens, R. (1999). Ecotourism and the empowerment of local communities. Tourism

Management, 20(2), 245‐249. doi: 10.1016/S0261‐5177(98)00069‐7 Singh, S., Timothy, D. J., & Dowling, R. K. (Eds.). (2003). Tourism in destination communities.

CABI. Zapata, M., Hall, C., Lindo, P., & Vanderschaeghe, M. (2011). Can community‐based tourism

contribute to development and poverty alleviation? Lessons from Nicaragua. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(8), 725‐749. doi: 10.1080/13683500.2011.559200


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DIFFERING PERCEPTIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY AMONG THE USERS OF

ACTIVITY‐BASED TOURISM by

Gurhan Aktas, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Askin Ozdagoglu, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

The economic, social and cultural benefits of tourism, such as the attraction of new investments leading to new employment opportunities for local communities and, the protection of natural and heritage resources, cannot be neglected. However, the fact that the sector relies heavily on destinations’ natural, cultural and heritage attractions for survival, may also result in the overuse of these very resources, and may threaten their successful maintenance, and even existence, in the long‐term. The remedy is, more often than ever, sought in sustainable tourism development. Sustainable tourism development aims to reduce the adverse impacts and costs of the tourism sector, while optimizing its benefits shared by the sector’s stakeholders ranging from host communities to visitors. The foremost challenge of the process, therefore, rests in the identification of the activities and facilities triggering such adverse effects in the natural, socio‐cultural and economic environments of a tourist destination, while ensuring the longevity of irreplaceable tourist resources that would help the destination to retain its competitive advantage in the long‐term. An academic attention has recently been paid to varied tourism forms that are considered more ‘sustainable’ than others. Most apparent examples to such tourism forms include; ecotourism, alternative tourism, responsible tourism, soft tourism, low‐impact tourism, community tourism, farm‐based tourism and volunteer tourism. Various authors have also studied the concept within the field of sports tourism. Although the motivations for taking part in sports holidays as well as the provision of sports tourism products would vary according to the type of sports under investigation, there is no doubt that the development of this particular tourism form is strongly related to the protection of natural, economic and socio‐cultural resources of destinations. Among these, natural resources are of utmost importance, as they are often required for the actual practicing of many sports, as in mountaineering, water sports, skiing and paragliding. Since visitors become more participative than inactive in sports holidays, one can argue that the protection of destination resources is easier to achieve in sports tourism, where the concerned stakeholders ranging from suppliers to consumers, are more likely to establish strong co‐operation –an imperative prerequisite of sustainable tourism development. This research, therefore, aims to investigate the perceptions of those visitors, who travel to exercise various sports forms, on sustainable tourism development. The research especially aims to identify whether there are any differences on the perceptions of sustainable tourism development in general, and on its prerequisites in particular, among the participants of different activity‐based tourism forms. In order to obtain valid research


28

findings, the survey respondent population was restricted to those visitors, who use nature for practicing sports, namely sailing enthusiasts and mountaineers. The research is designed to investigate whether those nature‐user visitors attach greater importance to the “nature” aspect of sustainable tourism more than its other interrelated elements –i.e. socio‐cultural factors, economic factors, and policy making. To this aim, a self‐filled survey using the indicators of sustainable tourism prepared by the European Commission (2013) was designed and distributed first to sailing enthusiasts during a sailing cup in Izmir (Turkey), and second to a mountaineering club touring near Izmir in March 2013. It is important to note that the survey is not designed to understand how each respondent group evaluates a specific tourist destination from the sustainable tourism development point of view, but what they understand from sustainable tourism development in general. This is why the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is used as a method of ranking each respondent group’s answers, and selecting the indicators regarded as the most important in sustainable development by those nature‐users. The indicators were, first, categorized in four main groups in line with the EC (2013) research: A‐ the strategic plans and policies on sustainable tourism development; B‐ socio‐cultural impacts of tourism; C‐ environmental impacts of tourism, and; D‐ economic impacts of tourism. Each group is, then, further split into sub‐indicators. There were 5 sub‐indicators in each main group. The findings indicate that the sub‐indicator shown as the most important in sustainable tourism development for both groups was “to protect and manage destinations’ biodiversity and natural resources” from the main group “environmental impacts of tourism”, while the least important sub‐indicator was from the “socio‐cultural impacts” group; “crowdedness and capacity exceeding visitor numbers”.


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SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ASSESSMENT INDICATORS: CASE OF ARMENIA by

Hasmik Amiryan Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Portugal

In the last two decades sustainability has become a central matter in tourism, giving rise to more proactive development strategies from destination management organizations, to more responsible attitudes from the tourism industry, and increased awareness and concerns from consumers, particularly in developed countries. However, in developing countries, sustainability with regard to tourism is still an emerging issue. This research addresses the process of the sustainable tourism assessment in developing countries, namely which indicators can be put into practice in order to help tourism organizations and tourism businesses to meet sustainability requirements and to gain the confidence of tourism markets. Results of the research will be summarized in order to identify the set of indicators to measure and monitor tourism sustainable development that can be applied to developing countries, with a special reference to Armenia.


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THE ROLE OF LOCAL FOOD IN TOURISM AND EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS IN DESTINATION ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT BY MANUFACTURER IN

ÇEŞME/TURKEY by

Pınar Isıldar, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Murat Usta, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey

Mustafa Tanyeri, Dokuz Eylül University, Turkey Local food has been an issue in many areas in recent years, particularly in terms of sustainability. Because of increasing interest in local food, many studies are conducted on local food and there is an ongoing debate that food has an opportunity to make a direct contribution through research on issues of environmental sustainability, economic development, community renewal, and public health. Additionally, local food is used in tourism and can play a role to create more sustainable tourism. This paper examines the role of local food in tourism and the contribution of local food to sustainable economic development in the local community. To expose correlations between local food and tourism and also economic sustainability a review of the literature was followed by in‐depth interviews with primary and secondary food producers (farmers, restaurant owners) in Çeşme. The preliminary findings of the study point out that tourist consumption of local foods provide some benefits to the local economy in Çeşme.


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EXPLORING THE IMPLICATIONS OF COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING IN SUSTAINABLE GUEST BEHAVIOR

by

Semih S. Yilmaz,University of Florida, USA Asli D. A. Tasci, University of Florida, USA

The purpose of this study is to explore the behavioral implications of counterfactual thinking in hospitality communications. Counterfactual thinking is a thought process where one imagines ‘what could have happened’ by means of altering an antecedent in the mind (Fessel and Roese 2007). Depending on the imagined alternative in contrast to the current reality, counterfactuals could be upward (better alternative) or downward (worse alternative). Capable of causing both positive and negative emotions, counterfactual thinking is considered functional in the sense that it may increase saliency of the undesirable elements and result in behavioral improvement (Roese 1997). Little is known about the implications of this cognitive process in hospitality related communication processes while studies so far have investigated the effects of counterfactual thinking on decision making, satisfaction and advertising perception (Medvec et al. 1995; Zeelenberg et al. 1998; Yoon and Vargas 2010; Krishnamurthy and Sivaraman 2002). Therefore, this study explores the behavioral potential of counterfactual thinking in hospitality, particularly focusing on resource conservation behavior by hotel guests. Environmental sustainability domains have already been suggested to be promising for the study of effects of counterfactuals (Ferraro, 2009). For hotels, resource conservation is an important part of waste management which is long recognized for its dual benefits for environmental sustainability and cost reduction (Kirk 1995). However, consumers are among the key stakeholders whose participation in waste minimization schemes is vital for achieving true sustainability. Therefore exploring the role of counterfactuals might contribute to our understanding of the cognitive processes that might be influential in eliciting sustainable guest behavior. A quasi‐experimental study was conducted in an online setting through random sampling among a population of American users. A total of 232 surveys were collected. Participants were subjected to six different experiment conditions as well as one control condition with no manipulation. Seven‐point Likert‐type scale and bipolar rating scales were used to measure affective states, behavioral intentions of participants regarding resource conservation, perceptions about waste minimization, beliefs regarding human‐nature relationship and sociodemographics. The factor analysis results for the behavioral intentions revealed three factors explaining 61.8% of the variance. The results revealed partial evidence for difference between different types of counterfactual thinking on respondents’ affective assessment and behavioral intentions regarding sustainability. Potential explanations and implications will be further discussed.


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References Ferraro, Paul J. "Counterfactual Thinking and Impact Evaluation in Environmental Policy."

New Directions for Evaluation 2009, no. 122 (2009): 75‐84. doi: 10.1002/ev.297 Fessel, Florian, and Neal J. Roese. "Counterfactual Thinking." In Encyclopedia of Social

Psychology, edited by Roy F. Baumeister and Kathleen D. Vohs, 197‐99. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2007. doi: 10.4135/9781412956253.n119.

Kirk, David. "Environmental Management in Hotels." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 7, no. 6 (1995): 3‐8. doi:10.1108/09596119510095325

Krishnamurthy, Parthasarathy, and Anuradha Sivaraman. "Counterfactual Thinking and Advertising Responses." Journal of Consumer Research 28, no. 4 (2002): 650‐58. doi:10.1086/323736

Medvec, V. H., S. F. Madey, and T. Gilovich. "When Less Is More: Counterfactual Thinking and Satisfaction among Olympic Medalists." Journal of personality and social psychology 69, no. 4 (1995): 603‐10. doi:10.1037/0022‐3514.69.4.603

Roese, Neal J. "Counterfactual Thinking." Psychological Bulletin 121, no. 1 (1997): 133‐48. doi:10.1037/0033‐2909.121.1.133

Yoon, Sukki, and Patrick T. Vargas. "Feeling Happier When Paying More: Dysfunctional Counterfactual Thinking in Consumer Affect." Psychology and Marketing 27, no. 12 (2010): 1075‐100. doi: 10.1002/mar.20374

Zeelenberg, M., W. W. van Dijk, J. van der Pligt, A. S. R. Manstead, P. van Empelen, and D. Reinderman. "Emotional Reactions to the Outcomes of Decisions: The Role of Counterfactual Thought in the Experience of Regret and Disappointment." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 75, no. 2 (1998): 117‐17. doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2784


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SUSTAINABILITY PRAXIS ON DESTINATIONS: CASE OF “DOOMSDAY” IN ŞİRİNCE VILLAGE ON 21st OF DECEMBER

by

Burcin Kirlar, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Serdar Sunnetcioglu, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

(Extended abstract on page 82) Şirince village in the western province of Izmir, Turkey, is one of the two destinations (the other one is Bugarach village in France) prophesized to survive doomsday predictions based on Mayan calendar. The aim of this study is to discuss the effects of the case of “Doomsday” in Şirince village on 21th of December within the framework of sustainability through the viewpoints of local business owners. Semi‐structured interview technique was applied to 12 local business owners in Şirince village on 20th of December 2012 for this study. Data from the in‐depth interviews were evaluated via content analysis. Results indicate that Şirince village does not have sufficient carrying capacity in terms of environmental damage, infrastructure and superstructure facilities and safety for such kind of a large‐scale event, ‐especially for one‐time events like this one. It is also seen that media had a huge impact on the growth of this event but demand was limited for “Doomsday” in Şirince.


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RURAL TOURISM AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING THE COMPETITIVENESS OF THE COUNTRY

by

Anahit Voskanyan European Regional Educational Academy, Yerevan, Armenia

Rural tourism focuses on taking part in rural life in places such as villages as tourist attractions. Tourists can have the opportunity to be close to hospitable villagers, taste their national food products, see the production process and experience all the peculiarities of village life. This type of tourism contributes to the preservation of national values and because national traits are more authentic in rural areas. Rural tourism is a fast growing sector of tourism sphere which may produce different effects on the host regions' economy. In the tourism industry, unlike any other sector of economy, geographical distribution enhances economic activity at the regional scale. Studying the characteristics of rural tourism and its development can help proposing a typical model for the development of rural tourism. The main purposes of this study are:

compare rural and other types of tourism influence in economy

explore rural tourism's developing areas,

create typical model for improving rural tourism.

Improving rural tourism means to involve local residents in tourism activities, and it can raise living standards and improve social conditions in rural districts.


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DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF SKI RESORTS IN JAPAN: THE CHANGES IN DEMAND AND VALUES

by

Joohee Chae University of Exeter Business School, England

The concept of sustainability is now a keyword in tourism, thought to solve various problems in this field. Although it is considered an important concept, its precise meaning and definition is still being debated. One important and under‐researched factor of making tourism sustainable is the appreciation of changes over time in tourist decision‐making. The long term challenge of establishing sustainable tourist destinations in some respects is at odds with the shorter term challenges of satisfying visitor demands. One way of helping to solve this difficulty would be to try to understand longer term shifts in tourist choices, at a social and cultural level. This case study about destinations demonstrates the usefulness of using the concept of tourist motivation and values to tackle the problem of promoting sustainable tourism. The case study looks at reasons for the steep decline in ski tourism in Japan. Japan has a long history of ski tourism, going back over a hundred years; the number of people who have skied or have experienced skiing reached 17 % of the national population and many local governments in snowy area joined to build ski resorts to create jobs and promote local economic development boosted by Law for Development of Comprehensive Resort Areas which was enacted by Japanese government in 1987. However, the over‐heated ski resort boom which reached a maximum of more than 700 in the whole country brought the rapid popularisation of skiing, excessive price competition, bankruptcy and closure of ski resorts since 1993, many of which now lie derelict. The aim of this study is to clarify the change in demand for ski resorts in Japan in terms of socio‐cultural factors to understand its meaning and importance of ski resort developments. More specifically the research had three main objectives:

1) To understand the change in the image of skiing and ski resorts focused on personal

factors in particular, visitors’ values and motivation based on socio‐cultural background.

2) To examine the feature of visitor’s behaviour in each different types of group classified

by their motivation.

3) To construct a classification of ski resorts and clarify these different resorts and their

influence on visitor decision making.

In total, 5 interviews with managers and 432 questionnaires with visitors were conducted in five ski resorts in Japan and 5 non‐visitors who reside in metropolis and used to visit ski resorts in the past also were invited to be interviewed to examine the reason they quit visiting ski resorts and to deepen understanding of the influence of socio‐cultural factors on people’s value. As a result, five different types of visitor groups were classified by their motivation to visit ski resorts and it is precise that their demand in ski tourism and behaviour in ski resorts are different by the groups.


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HOTEL FLASH SALES: AN INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE by

Kelly J. Semrad, University of Florida, USA and University of Central Florida, USA Katerina Berezina, University of Florida, USA

The purpose of this study is to investigate the benefits, drawbacks, and success measures of room inventory distribution via flash sales websites. Flash sales websites seem to assist with the distribution of perishable inventory by providing deep discounts and generating consumer demand. However, flash sales websites also have high distribution costs associated with them. There seems to be a trade‐off between increasing sales and incurring high distribution costs. Such a trade‐off may pose some difficulties for hotel managers as it pertains to the evaluation of flash sales website’s effectiveness as a distribution channel. In this regard, a study of benefits, drawbacks, and success measures of the hotel flash sales would contribute to the understanding of the flash sales impact on the hotel industry, and guide hotel managers in their decisions to continue (or discontinue) distribution via flash sales websites. In order to recognize this purpose, the study uses a three‐fold inquiry addressing factors that may influence flash sales adoption by hotel managers. The first inquiry is to identify and document some of the benefits and drawbacks for hotel management using flash sales websites for hotel room inventory distribution as perceived by hotel managers. The second inquiry is to investigate how hotel managers seem to measure the success of flash sales distribution. The third inquiry of this study is to assess the assumption recognized in the literature that a portion of revenue that is lost in the deep discounted room rates as offered on flash sales websites may be recaptured from the hotel guests’ expenditures through additional purchases in other revenue operating departments. Data collection for this study was conducted in the form of semi‐structured interviews with hotel managers who have participated in flash sales. A total of 43 interviews were conducted. An average length of the interviews was approximately 20 minutes. Common themes emerged from interviews with the hotel managers who have participated in hotel flash sales. Hotel managers participating in the study outlined several benefits of using hotel flash sales websites as a distribution channel for hotels. Those benefits included moving a hotel’s room inventory; exposure to a larger market; and promotion of the hotel property. However, on the other hand, hotel managers were also concerned with some drawbacks of using flash sales websites for hotel inventory distribution. The reasons for concern were misrepresentation of hotel brands when offering flash sales deals, and potential brand name erosion. It is recommended that future research concentrates on developing research studies that could empirically confirm the findings of this qualitative inquiry. The results from this study reveal deep discounting pricing information for perishable goods that is applicable for hotels operating in a transition economy. The transition process includes moving from administrated/planned prices to market economics where managers must set their own market value rates. It is important for hotel managers in a transition economy to consider the short term advantage of selling rooms at a deep discount to avoid room sales from perishing but also the long term effects this pricing strategy may have on overall market value. The presentation will elaborate on financial performance indicators that managers may use to evaluate deep discounting strategies.


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ETHNIC MINORITIES AS TOURISM ENTREPRENEURS: THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

by

Ceren Miral, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Sonay Kaygalak, Batman University, Turkey Rezzan Ersoy, Giresun University, Turkey

(Extended abstract on page 87)

Most tourism activities excluding the e‐tourism activities as matter of their nature (service taker and provider) take place face to face between people. In addition tourism activities encourage bonding between people both for tourists and the tourism services providers. Tourism has a multicultural environment. Multicultural environment brings various different cultures, languages and life styles together. Turkey is a country comprised of people belonging to several different cultures in the same and wide geography. As well as in the West coast of the Turkey in Aegean Region, different cultural groups of people or people having different ethnic origins have been living together for many years. Izmir and near cities in the Aegean Region are the homes of mostly Levantines, Greeks, Jewish people and rarely Armenians.

In this paper there are two research questions: what does it mean to be the other (ethnic minority) as tourism entrepreneurs in the Turkish tourism industry and how are these ‘other’ entrepreneurs involved in sustainable tourism development? ., The research methodology in this paper is qualitative. Semi‐structured interviews are conducted with tourism entrepreneurs belonging to different cultural groups and identities. Semi structured interview technique is a commonly used interview method, allowing for a deep understanding of participants` perceptions, thoughts and behaviors.

In general, understanding the other fosters respect to others` cultural beliefs and lifestyle and this in turn will contribute to peace and harmony amongst groups. In the light of these research questions, being the ‘other’ entrepreneur in sustainable tourism development in Turkey is evaluated. Furthermore, this research aims to highlight the advantages and disadvantages different cultural groups have in Turkish tourism industry as well as their overall importance for sustainable tourism development.


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KNOCK KNOCK. WHO’S THERE? FESTIVAL STAKEHOLDERS by

Mathilda van Niekerk University of Central Florida, USA

This study aims to develop a framework for the differentiation of festival stakeholders. Festival stakeholders are identified as those individuals who have a stake in the festival and its outcomes and who influence, or are influenced by it (Getz, 2008). They can include the event production team, sponsors, grant‐givers, community representative, and anyone else impacted by the event (Getz, 2008). Several previous studies have further added the artist and their booking agents, employees, organizers and attendees, government agencies, media, suppliers, police and public services, tourism traders, venues and facilities and volunteers to the stakeholder list of Getz (Larson, 2002 Getz et. al., 2007; Andersson & Getz, 2008; Karlsen & Nordstrom, 2009; Van Niekerk & Coetzee, 2011; Presenza & Iocca 2012). The relationship with festival stakeholders is extremely important and they should be clearly differentiated to enable the festival manager to identify their expectations, needs and intensions (intentions?) (Getz, 2010; Getz et. al., 2007; Karlsen, 2007). It appears that scholars categorize and differentiate stakeholders in different ways and while some prefer a narrow frame that will only reflect the economic link with the organization others prefer a much broader frame, which encompasses of the whole society (Getz & Anderson, 2009; Polonsky and Scott, 2005; Sheehan and Ritchie, 2005). For example, several studies have differentiated stakeholders as either primary or secondary (Carroll, 1989; Clarkson, 1995; Freeman, 1984; Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005) while other studies differentiated them into five groups namely: local community, investors, suppliers, customers and employees (Garrod et al., 2012). Researchers have therefore developed various models with different numbers and combinations for the differentiation of stakeholders (Anderson & Getz, 2008; Freeman, Wicks & Parmar, 2004; Getz, et al., 2007; Presenza & Iocca, 2012; Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005). Stakeholder theory suggests that by addressing the interest of stakeholders, an organization will be sustainable and perform better (Freeman; 2010, Freeman, Wicks and Parmar, 2004). Although the stakeholder theory has been widely used in festival studies (Presenza & Iocca, 2012; Garrod et. al., 2012; Karlsen & Nordstrom 2009; Van Niekerk & Coetzee, 2011) previous studies have not yet reached consensus on differentiating festival stakeholders (Garrod, et. al., 2012; Getz, et. al., 2007; Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005; Nazrin, Anuar, Ahmad, Jusoh & Hussain, 2012, Reid & Arcodia, 2007; Larson, 2002). Given this gap in the field, this study aims to develop a framework for the differentiation of festival stakeholders. An extensive literature review was conducted on festival stakeholders (Garrod, et. al., 2012; Getz, 2008, 2005,1997; Getz, et. al., 2007; Sheehan & Ritchie, 2005; Nazrin, Anuar, Ahmad, Jusoh & Hussain, 2012, Reid & Arcodia, 2007; Larson, 2002). Based on the literature findings a semi‐structured interview questionnaire was developed, tested and administered to 5 festival managers. The findings of the semi‐structured interview as well as previous literature review were then used to draft a questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to 410 festival managers in the USA in 2013.


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The preliminary study findings indicate that various festival managers use different methods to group and differentiate their stakeholders. Some differentiate according to their role and function within the festival and others according to their power structure. It was found that different stakeholder group examined also appeared to impact the different manager’s view. Based on the study findings, a theoretical framework is developed which can be utilized to differentiate stakeholders, evaluate their roles and importance when engaging and working with them. Failing to identify important stakeholders and using inappropriate management strategies when engaging them can lead to poor outcomes in managing festivals. References Andersson, T.D. & Getz, D. (2008) Stakeholder Management Strategies of Festivals. Journal

of Convention & Event Tourism. 9(3), pp. 199 – 200. Carroll, A. B. (1989) Business and society: Ethics and stakeholder management. Cincinnati:

South‐Western Publishing. Clarkson, M. B. E. (1995) A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate

social performance. Academy of Management Review, (20), pp. 92‐117. Freeman, R. E. (2010) Strategic Management , A stakeholder approach. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. Freeman, R. E. (1984) Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston, MA:

Pitman. Freeman, R.E., Wicks, A.C. & Parmar, B. (2004) Stakeholder Theory and “The corporate

objective revisited”. Organization Science. 15(3), pp. 364 – 369. Garrod, B., Fyall, A., Leask, A. & Reid, E. (2012) Engaging residents as stakeholders of the

visitor attraction. Tourism Management. 33(2012), pp. 1159‐1173. Getz, D. (2010) The nature and scope of festival studies. International Journal of Event

Management Research, 5(1), pp. 1‐47. Getz, D. (2008) Event Tourism: Definition, evolution, and research. Tourism Management,

29 (3), pp. 403‐428. Getz, D. (2005) Event Management and Event Tourism (2nd ed.). New York: Cognizant. Getz, D. (1997) Festivals, special events and tourism. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Getz, D & Andersson, T. (2009) Sustainable festivals: On becoming an institution. Event

Management, 12 (1), pp.1‐17. Getz, D., Anderson, T. & Larson, M. (2007) Festival stakeholder roles: Concept and case

studies. Event Management, (10), pp.103‐122. Karlsen, S. (2007) Festivals in the Barents Region: Exploring festival stakeholder

cooperation. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism. 9(2‐3), pp. 130‐145. Karlsen, S. & Nordstrom, C.S. (2009) Festivals in the Barents Region: Exploring festival

stakeholders cooperation. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism. 9(2‐3), pp. 130‐145.

Larson, M. (2002) A political approach to relationship marketing: Case study of the Strosjoyran Festival. International Journal of Tourism Research, 4(2), pp. 119‐143.


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Nazrin, A., Anuar, A., Ahmad, H., Jusoh, H. & Hussain, M.Y. (2012) Understanding the role of stakeholder in the formation of tourist friendly destination concept. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 2(2), pp. 69 – 74.

Polonsky, M.J. & Scott, D. (2005) An empirical examination of the stakeholder strategy matrix. European Journal of Marketing. 39(9), pp. 1199‐1215.

Presenza, A. & Iocca, S. (2012) The weight of stakeholders on festival management. The case of music festivals in Italy. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonia Cultural. 10(2), pp.25‐35.

Reid, S. & Arcodia, C. (2007) Understanding the role of stakeholder in event management. Journal of Sport and Tourism, 7(30), pp. 20‐22.

Sheehan, L.R. & Ritchie, J.R.B. (2005) Destination stakeholders: Exploring identity and salience. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(3), pp. 711‐734.

Van Niekerk, M. & Coetzee, WJL. (2011) Utilizing the VICE model for the sustainable development of the Innibos Arts Festival. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management. 20(3‐4), pp. 347 – 365.


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Student Technical Paper

STRATEGIC TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT FOR ARMENIA

by

Manush Simonyan Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia

This paper identifies some of the trends affecting the tourism and hospitality industry, including globalization. Evolution of the sector at the world level has enabled strong growth of the tourism sector in Armenia, but requires an action strategy that will make it possible to respond to more sophisticated demand and competing offers. The success of Armenia as a tourism destination relies on the awareness and appreciation that it must compete, not internally, but internationally, providing products and services that are demanded in preference to other regional and international destinations. Armenia’s tourism industry is based to a large extent on the quality of its natural environment; many visitors have a perception that the country has a pristine natural landscape. I also analyzed some tourism investment opportunities in Armenia. The tourism industry must reflect the requirements of the global village in many aspects of its operations, including food, services, amenities, staffing policies and training. In a world moving more and more towards globalization, hotel organizations will need to communicate more quickly, operate more productively, offer their employees greater opportunity and deliver their customers enhanced benefits. Those companies that address these issues today will be better prepared for the global market space of tomorrow.


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ARMENIAN‐TURKISH BORDER OPENING: THE KEY PLAYERS AND THEIR INTERESTS

by

Artak Manukyan,Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia

Turkey was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia’s independence after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. In 1993 Turkey reacted to the war in Nagorno‐Karabakh by closing its borders with Armenia. Although there are currently no formal diplomatic relations between Armenia and Turkey, but the business goes on. For example with the absence of diplomatic relations there is a regular air flight between Armenia (Yerevan) and Turkey (Istanbul). The obvious economic results of border opening for Armenia and Turkey respectively are the following:

• Border opening will have a positive impact on Armenian economy’ competitiveness (decrease of transportation costs)

• Opening would yield significant benefits for the underdeveloped province of Kars, as well as raise the competitiveness of the port of Trabzon.

A reopening of the border would also have beneficial effects on the wider region, including the South Caucasus, Russia, the Black Sea, Iran and Central Asia. The major gains would be in terms of economic efficiency, achieved by integration, reducing transit fees and opening new markets. Turkey’s isolation of Armenia has alienated Yerevan further, disqualified Ankara’s role in mediation efforts over Karabakh, and more complicated and imperiled Turkey’s ties with Russia and the EU. The case for opening the border is strong, when viewed from all perspectives. How could this win‐win situation be brought about in the face of interlocking and highly sensitive political problems? Unfortunately there are only few publications focusing on the impact of Armenian‐Turkish border opening economic aspects. They mostly focus on estimations of the changes in trade flows between Armenia and Turkey that will take place if the border is opened (see Baghramyan). In this paper the interests of the players in the region are discussed. The results clearly show that there is a chance to initiate win‐win strategy among Armenia and Turkey if one will look on economic interests. As a first step for this cross border tourism can serve as a catalyst for peace and sustainability in the region.


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INDUSTRY INSIGHTS AND EDUCATIONAL OUTLOOKS FOR TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY CURRICULA DESIGN

by

Kelly J. Semrad University of Florida & University of Central Florida, USA

The examination of curriculum design is essentially an assessment of the factors that may influence the choices and the decisions made between different approaches to the organization of learning. From a traditional educational perspective, this means that curriculum design should consider local contexts (i.e. social, cultural, and economic contexts) that may guide educators in the development of degree programs that support the society for which educated individuals may positively contribute to through their advanced education. This means that curriculums may only be fully understood within the context for which it was developed to serve. While this traditional educational perspective is certainly relevant for tourism and hospitality educational efforts, it is necessary for tourism and hospitality educators to recognize that in order to develop tomorrow’s skilled managers that will nourish a profitable industry that the design process should not be identified as content bound but rather as content related. This means that as we continue to enter an era of globalization in the tourism and hospitality industry, the educational models that should be used for curriculum design must satisfy international needs of global tourism and hospitality sectors as well as provide relevance to local contexts. Due to the applied nature of training in the tourism and hospitality industry the adoption of educational models that are able to satisfy both international needs and local contexts in curriculum design can be a daunting challenge for educators to overcome. However, if that challenge is met, the rewards of a well‐designed program may lead less‐developed regions towards the sustainable development of the socio‐economic value of tourism. The presentation provides a methodological progression of steps that incorporates the influences of all stakeholders that are directly affected by the educational value that a student receives in a tourism and hospitality program. The educational model that is proposed follows a process based approach, which is based on the acquisition of transferable skills that improves human capital within the employment pool for the tourism and hospitality industry. The presentation is based on a study that examined the point at which content bound curricula deviated from homogeneous curriculum expectations and became infused with content related needs for a specific context. The research includes the representation of 100 industry managers from around the world that reported the necessary core competencies required to support the industry. The research reveals the strengths and shortcomings of where tourism and hospitality education is headed in terms of courses, program philosophies, courses’ subject content, and the teaching and learning


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strategies that are used in the classroom. The goal of the research is to challenge educators to design tourism and hospitality programs that produce graduates who do not merely “function” in the industry. But rather, guarantee that they can meet the needs of a dynamic industry that operates in complex changing environments and that requires sustainable development in order to maximize the value that the industry may provide.


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DESIGNING CURRICULA FOR A CERTIFICATE PROGRAM: SUSTAINABLE REGIONAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

by

Gurhan Aktas, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey B. Selin Yilmaz, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Ebru Gunlu, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dokuz Eylul University (Izmir, Turkey) has recently gone through a meticulous curriculum development process, during which all schools and departments of the university re‐designed their education programs according to the EU’s Bologna Process. In 2011, the University initially appointed “pilot” schools, among which there was Faculty of Business, to implement the process’ phases in restructuring academic programs at both graduate and postgraduate levels. In line with the process’ phases, the Faculty executed a series of data collection methods to find out; what existing students expect from their higher education; what alumni suggest on improving programs to better prepare students to their future careers, and; what qualification, skills and capabilities that academics and the concerned sector stakeholders think that each student should have upon completion of a specific program. Following the analyses of primary data findings collected from various stakeholders, the Department of Tourism Management of the Faculty has introduced a new curriculum for its graduate program on “Tourism Management”. With the new curriculum, students are offered to graduate with a major either in “Tourism and Recreation”, or in “Hospitality Management”. Students are also offered more selective and specialty courses in each major, hence a chance to get specialized in their interest areas. This paper will briefly explain the four courses newly introduced by the Department, namely “Cultural Tourism”, “Tourism Planning and Development”, “Tourism Resource Analysis”, and “Sustainable Destination Management” in the major “Tourism and Recreation”, all designed according to the insights gained from varying actors. These courses were considered as components of a Certificate Program envisioned by the ATAF team for further cross‐continent collaboration in tourism education and capacity building.


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CROSS‐NATIONAL STUDY OF EMOTIONAL LABOR RESULTS AND FURTHER EXPLORATIONS

by

Carnot E. Nelson, University of South Florida, USA and Bilkent University, Turkey Richard Newel, University of South Florida, USA

Gema Ruiz de Huydobro, University of Deusto, Spain and University of South Florida, USA Ashley Nixon, Willamette University, USA Savaş Ceylan, Hacettepe University, Turkey Ece Omuris, Akdeniz University, Turkey

Artak Manukyan, Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia Emotional labor refers to a process by which employees manage their emotions to meet organizationally mandated display rules concerning the appropriate emotional reactions in specified situations (Hothschild, 1983). Basically it is the regulation of the employees own emotions to meet organizational expectations despite their own feelings (Grandey, 2000). Hothschild (1983) identified two emotional labor strategies as surface acting and deep acting. Surface acting is the modification of employee’s observable expressions to meet display rules and deep acting is an effortful modification of felt and underlying emotions to correspond with organizational demands both of which are related to significant workplace outcomes. Deep acting has been positively related job satisfaction and intention to quit while surface acting has shown the opposite relationships. However, there have been few studies which have examined these relationships cross‐nationally Grandey, Fisk, & Steiner, 2005; Nixon, Mazzola, Bauer, Krueger, & Spector, 2011; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). This research analyzed differences in the impact of the emotional labor strategies (deep acting and surface acting) on job satisfaction, turnover intention, commitment, and emotional strain, as well as their relationships with other variables like support, organizational justice and trust in the United States, Turkey and Armenia. A sample of 642 employees from USA (N= 200), Armenia (N=150) and two samples from Turkey (N= 292) completed the following scales: Emotional Labor, Organizational Support, Coworker Support, Supervisor Support, Job Satisfaction, Turnover Intention, Emotional Wellbeing, Organizational Justice Scale, Organizational Commitment and Trust in Organization. Scales which were not available in Turkish or Armenian were translated and back translated by bilingual speakers. All the participants were working in customer service, virtually all of the participants in the two Turkish samples worked in tourism. The results showed differences between the samples. Armenia had a lower deep acting mean score than the rest of the samples. The major findings concerned the correlations between deep and surface acting and the other variables. Deep acting showed similar relationships between the countries but surface acting had no relationship with the other variables except in the USA. Thus results for deep acting generalize across countries but surface acting does not. We will present a model which we are presently testing to explain the influence of cultural differences and other variables which can explain these results.


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References Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotional regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize

emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95‐110. doi: 10.1037/1076‐8998.5.1.95

Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., & Steiner, D. D. (2005). Must "service with a smile" be stressful? the moderating role of personal control for American and French employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 893‐904. doi: 10.1037/0021‐9010.90.5.893

Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: Univ of California Pr.

Nixon, A. E., Mazzola, J. J., Bauer, J., Krueger, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2011). Can work make you sick? A meta‐analysis of the relationships between job stressors and physical symptoms. Work & Stress, 25(1), 1‐22. doi: 10.1080/02678373.2011.569175

Zhang, Q., & Zhu, W. (2008). Exploring emotion in teaching: Emotional labor, burnout, and satisfaction in Chinese higher education. Communication Education, 57(1), 105‐122. doi: 10.1080/03634520701586310


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THE PERCEIVED VALUE OF A HOSPITALITY INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE IN RELATION TO SATISFACTION WITH INTERNSHIP AND LOYALTY TO SCHOOL

by

Manuel Antonio Rivera, University of Central Florida, USA Kelly J. Semrad, University of Florida, USA and University of Central Florida, USA

Seung Hyun Lee, University of Central Florida, USA Hospitality internships create an opening in which students apply the knowledge, skills and techniques learned in the classroom to real industry conditions, providing students an opportunity to understand the commitment required in the industry and to develop a career path for post‐graduation employment (Pauze et al., 1989; Fox, 2001; Zopiatis, 2007). However, it should not be neglected that internship programs require students to make sacrifices for their internship experience. For example, students typically are required to work long hours that include weekends and holidays for either low pay or no pay (Pavesic & Brymer, 1990) and to interact with guests in hotels or restaurants during their internship period which may cause stress and burnout to students (Lam & Ching, 2006; Pavesic & Brymer, 1990). Valuable internship experience in comparison to student sacrifices (e.g. working for free) may lead to low satisfaction with internship experiences and loyalty towards universities and the industry the students would like to pursue a career in. The aim of this study is twofold; to gain insights into the student value dimensions through an internship program; and, to examine the relationship between students’ value perceptions and satisfaction and loyalty to their university and career path. In order to address the objectives of the study, questionnaires were distributed among students during the exit interview after they completed their internship. The sample included students from one of the largest hospitality programs in San Juan, Puerto Rico, and a total of 231 students completed the questionnaire. San Juan, Puerto Rico represents an area that is stressed in terms of socioeconomic progress of the local people. Using factor analysis, four student value perceptions were identified; emotional value, institution image, social value, conditional value, and functional value. Non‐monetary sacrifice and monetary sacrifice were also added to the model to capture both value perceptions and sacrifices in relation to satisfaction and loyalty. The preliminary findings from this study suggest that students’ value perceptions and non‐monetary sacrifice have significant impacts on students’ satisfaction with an internship and their career path choice. The results may be practically applied in the designing of tourism and hospitality curriculums by emphasizing functional values and objectives the students will receive from an internship program, and setting realistic expectations for the students to achieve. In this way, students’ internship experience may enhance satisfaction with internships and loyalty towards their career path and their university. The focus on students’ value perceptions may enhance students’ loyalty toward universities that will then result in positive referrals, a more skilled industry, and future employees that are more committed to tourism and hospitality careers.


49

CAUCASUS, ARMENIA AND TURKEY FROM AMERICAN’S PERSPECTIVE: A SLIPPERY SLOPE

by

Asli D.A.Tasci, University of Florida, USA Semih S. Yilmaz, University of Florida, USA

Destination image is a mental representation of a destination that is generated through a perceptual digestion of information from diverse sources including destination promotion materials (Alhemoud and Armstrong 1996; Bramwell and Rawding 1996; Court and Lupton 1997; Gunn 1972; Young 1999). Destination image has long been assumed a critical factor in a destination’s success in tourism (Hunt’s, 1975). Several researchers confirmed this assumption by studying image’s influence on several consumer behavior including destination choice, decision‐making and satisfaction. Different components of image ‐ holistic destination image (destination image as an overall perception), specific destination dimensions (individual destination attributes) and destination image factors (a group of two or more dimensions) ‐ were found to affect tourists’ behavior before, during and after visiting a destination (Chen and Hsu 2000; Chen and Kerstetter 1999; Court and Lupton 1997). Therefore, Destination Marketing Organizations spend considerable public resources for production of promotional materials to generate positive and desirable images for tourist attention and attraction. However, tourists’ sources of information are not limited to the promotional materials from destinations. Other information agents include news media, movies, school materials, word‐of mouth and own experiences. In fact, the impact of these agents are suspected to be stronger than destination‐generated material since they are assumed to be more credible and able reach mass crowds than the destination‐generated information (Crompton 1979; Gartner and Shen 1992; Hanefors and Mossberg 2002). Since these agents cannot be controlled by out of a destination’s immediate control (Gartner 1993; Hanefors and Mossberg 2002), their impact could be damaging on image especially when the content is signaling danger or risk such is in cases of natural or human‐caused disasters (Alhemoud and Armstrong 1996; Gartner and Shen, 1992; Mansfeld 1999; Milo and Yoder 1991; Sonmez, Apostolopoulos, and Tarlow 1999; Sonmez and Sirakaya 2002). Furthermore, the impact can be detrimental when the destination is already hampered by a relatively negative image. The Caucasus Region and countries involved in the region represent a case of such vulnerability to negative news coverage. Recent bombing in Boston, USA, for example received ample news coverage with mentioning of Caucasus and some countries due to the background connection of the perpetrators to this region. This study investigated the image of Caucasus, Turkey and Armenia, mostly with open‐ended questions requiring free elicitation. The questions included countries perceived as most risky in different regions, the word associations, likely Caucasus countries to travel, likely purposes of traveling, desirability and likelihood to travel to Armenia and Turkey as well as top of mind awareness of attractions and activities in the region. The survey was conducted on American respondents with diverse sociodemographic backgrounds on an


50

online platform. Results indicated potential effect of recent Boston bombing on the perception of Caucasus. However, the image was not limited to the projected negative verbal and visual cues on the news media only. Considerable amount of respondents mentioned the cultural and natural attributes as well as activities associated with those attributes in this region. There is also substantial number of lack of response for the asked questions, which signals lack of a firm image in this market segment. Hence, several practical implications are generated for the tourism and hospitality industry in the region.

References Alhemoud, A. and Armstrong, E. (1996). Image of tourism attractions in Kuwait. Journal of

Travel Research 34(Spring):76‐80. Bramwell, B., and Rawding, L. (1996). Tourism marketing images of industrial cities. Annals

of Tourism Research 23:201‐221. Chen, J. S., and Hsu, C. H. C. (2000). Measurement of Korean tourists’ perceived images of

overseas destinations. Journal of Travel Research 38(May):411‐416. Chen, P. J., and Kerstetter, D. L. (1999). International students’ image of rural Pennsylvania

as a travel destination. Journal of Travel Research 37(February):256‐266. Crompton, J. L. (1979). An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination and

the influence of geographical location upon that image. Journal of Travel Research 17(1):18‐23.

Court, B. and Lupton, R. A. (1997). Customer portfolio development: Modeling destination adapters, inactives, and rejecters. Journal of Travel Research 36(1):35‐43.

Gartner, W. C. and Shen, J. (1992). The impact of Tiananmen Square on China's tourism image. Journal of Travel Research 30(Spring):47‐52.

Gunn, C. (1972). Vacationscape: Designing tourist regions. Austin: Bureau of Business Research, University of Texas.

Hanefors, M. and Mossberg, L. (2002). TV travel shows‐‐a pre‐taste of the destination. Journal of Vacation Marketing 8(3):235‐246.

Hunt, J. D. (1975). Image as a factor in tourist development. Journal of Travel Research 13(Winter):1‐7.

Mansfeld, Y. (1999). Cycles of war, terror, and peace: Determinants and management of crisis and recovery of the Israeli tourism industry. Journal of Travel Research 38(1):30‐36.

Milo, K. J. and Yoder, S. L. (1991). Recovery from natural disaster: Travel writers and tourist destinations. Journal of Travel Research (Summer):36‐39.

Sonmez, S., Apostolopoulos, Y., and Tarlow, P. (1999). Tourism in crisis: Managing the effects of terrorism. Journal of Travel Research 38(1):13‐18.

Sonmez, S. F. and Sirakaya, E. (2002). A distorted destination image? The case of Turkey. Journal of Travel Research 41(2):185‐196.

Young, M. (1999). The social construction of tourist places. Australian Geographer 30(3):373‐389.


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CAN HOSTING SPORT EVENTS HELP ENHANCE DESTINATION IMAGE? by

Yang Jae Ko, University of Florida, USA Michael Sagas, University of Florida, USA

The purpose of this session is to present: (a) the relationship between Event Quality and Destination Image and (b) the mediating roles of Destination Image and Value Perception in the relationship between the Event Quality and Visit Intention. We recruited spectators/tourists who attended the 2009 Tour de Korea, an international road bicycling stage race. The Tour de Korea is a 15 day international road bicycling stage race, which crosses 10 counties. Reliability and validity of the measurement scale were established through a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), Cronbach’s alpha analyses, and inter‐correlation analyses. A series of structural equation model (SEM) tests with maximum likelihood estimation was performed to test the relationship among the research variables using 451 participants. (a) The results suggest that event quality perceptions, particularly intangible factors, positively influenced the destination image; (b) Event quality positively influenced perceived value, destination image, and visit intention; perceived value positively influenced destination image, but negatively influenced visit intention; and destination image plays an important mediating role in the relationship between service quality and visit intention and the relationship between perceived value and visit intention. To date, there have been few empirical studies examining the relationship between international sport event quality and destination image. Consequently, understanding the role of event quality of an international sport event and the destination image in tourist’s decision making process, and their theoretical relationship, will make both scientific and practical contributions. The method of measuring event quality will also be discussed.


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TOURISM CLOSES DISTANCES‐ PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL by

Semih S. Yilmaz, University of Florida, USA Asli D.A.Tasci, University of Florida, USA

Social distance indicates the degree of intimacy one individual or one group is inclined to hold towards others (Bogardus, 1933; Bankston, 2000). It is operationalized in an attitudinal scale which has been so far used in a wide variety of contexts including racial, ethnic, national, occupational, religious and political (Triandis and Triandis, 1960; Owen 1981; Wark and Galliher, 2007). Due to its nature, social distance signifies prejudice and has been shown to be influenced by external events and contextual factors at any given time. On the other hand, contact has long been suggested to reduce prejudice between individuals and groups (Intergroup Contact Theory: Allport, 1954), provided that certain conditions are maintained (such as equality amongst groups in contact) (Pettigrew, 1998; Manstead & Hewstone, 1999). Prejudice reduction through tourism, as a phenomenon that constantly involves contact amongst different individuals and groups, is also a long studied area (Reisinger and Turner, 2003). The findings so far in tourism contact research have suggested the possibility of both positive and negative attitude changes, shedding doubt on the potential of intergroup contact theory in the tourism domain. The potential of utilizing social distance as a more reliable behavioral indicator of prejudice within the tourism context have received attention in the 21st century (Thyne and Zins, 2004; Sinkovics & Penz, 2009; Tasci, 2009; Woosnam & Lee, 2011;). However, the scarcity of empirical research on the direct relationship between social distance and contact is even more evident (Bastian et al., 2012). In an attempt to investigate this particular relationship, the current study investigates if contact between tourists and members of the host community is associated with reduced social distance. A total of 393 surveys were collected through random sampling from international tourists in Turkey, a popular destination for European tourists. Survey included scales measuring social distance, quality and quantity of contact, travel motives as well as sociodemographic information. Results indicate significant differences in social distance between groups identified with close friendships with the host community members and those that do not have any close friendships. Moreover, correlations were observed between determinants of contact (number of visits and friendships) and social distance scores. The results suggest the possibility of social distance reduction due to increased tourist‐host contact. This potential positive connection between contact through h tourism and less social distance can be harnessed in improving relations between nations, especially those that are assumed to be “unfriendly.”


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References Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Human Prejudice. Basic books. Bogardus, E. S. "A Social Distance Scale." Sociology and Social Research, 17 (1933): 265‐271. Owen, C. A. (1981). A Half‐Century of Social Distance Research: National Replication of the

Bogardus' Studies. Sociology and Social Research, 66(1), 80‐98. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 65‐

85. Reisinger, Y. & Turner, L. W.(2003). Cross‐cultural behaviour in tourism: Concepts and

analysis. Oxford: Butterworth‐Heinemann. Sinkovics, R. R., & Penz, E. (2009). Social distance between residents and international

tourists—Implications for international business. International Business Review, 18(5), 457‐469. doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2009.06.002

Tasci, A. D. A. (2009). Social distance: The missing link in the loop of movies, destination image, and tourist behavior? Journal of Travel Research, 47(4), 494‐507. doi:10.1177/0047287508326534

Thyne, M., & Zins, A. H. (2003). Designing and testing a Guttman‐type social distance scale for a tourism context. Tourism Analysis, 8(2), 129‐135.

Triandis, L. M., & Triandis, H. C. (1960). Race, social class, religion, and nationality as determinants of social distance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61(1), 110‐118. doi:10.1037/h0041734

Wark, C., & Galliher, J. F. (2007). Emory bogardus and the origins of the social distance scale. The American Sociologist, 38(4), 383‐395. doi:10.1007/s12108‐007‐9023‐9

Woosnam, K. M., & Lee, Y. J. (2011). Applying social distance to voluntourism research. Annals of Tourism Research, 38(1), 309‐313. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2010.06.003


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ON THE WAY TO SUSTAINABLE (WELL‐BEING) OF TOURISM DESTINATION? A CASE OF SAVONLINNA TOWN IN FINLAND

by

Anja Tuohino, University of Eastern Finland, Finland Antti Honkanen,University of Eastern Finland, Finland

Abstract The purpose of the study is to test if the model of a sustainable wellness destination developed by Sheldon and Park, 2009, adapted from Ritchie and Crouch 2003, could be used while defining the Savonlinna town in Eastern Finland in the context of wellbeing/wellness tourism. The data for this paper is based on interviews conducted in the region during 2009 and 2010. The overall finding is that Savonlinna was perceived as a destination product which consists of both tangible and intangible components. In addition, there was much discussion on Savonlinna’s assets for wellbeing tourism. The status of Savonlinna as a sustainable wellbeing tourism destination was more in the minds of the interviewees than on a tangible, practical level. In addition, the wellbeing segment was still seen to be limited and fragmentary. The presence of water was recognized but it was unclear how to utilize it in the wellbeing tourism context. Keywords: The model of sustainable wellness destination of Sheldon and Park, Savonlinna,

Finland Introduction Tourist destinations are known to be a key component of the tourism system (Kozak, 1999). Destinations can be viewed from two perspectives; destination attractiveness is evaluated from the tourist’s perspective and destination competitiveness from the perspective of the destination itself. According to Buhalis (2000, p.97‐98) “destinations are amalgams of tourism products, offering an integrated experience to consumers, and are consumed under the brand name of the destination”. He continues by citing Hall (2000) and Davidson and Maitland (1997) that traditionally, destinations are regarded as well‐defined geographical areas, such as a country, an island or a town. A tourist destination product consists of both tangible and intangible components like destination attractions, destination facilities and services, infrastructure and accessibility, images and hospitality as well as cost variables (Kozak & Rimmington, 1998; Medlik & Middleton, 1973). The assessment of a destination’s competitiveness can include its economic, political, socio‐cultural, technological, and environmental competitiveness. (see Ritchie & Crouch 2003/2005). Ritchie and Crouch presented their own refined conceptual model of destination competitiveness in 2003. This is based on a comparative and competitive advantage concept including several attributes of a destination. These are the global environment, the competitive micro environment, the core resources and attractions,


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supporting factors and resources, destination policy, planning and development, destination management, and qualifying and amplifying determinants. Comparative advantages include human resources, physical, knowledge, and capital resources, infrastructure, and cultural and historical resources. Competitive advantages on the other hand include effectiveness, efficiency, maintenance, and auditing. As core resources and attractors they listed e.g. physiography and climate, culture and history, mix of activities, special events and entertainment, while supporting factors and resources include infrastructure, hospitality, enterprises, and facilitating resources. Destination management includes among others marketing, quality of services, information and research, human resource development, and visitor management. Destination policy, planning, and development include visions, branding, positioning, monitoring and evaluation, while location, safety, cost value, image and carrying capacity are seen as qualifying and amplifying determinants. The model by Ritchie and Crouch includes many key elements which are important for competition between tourist destinations. Cracolici and Nijkamp (2008, 338) point out that “...achieving a good performance and position in the tourism market depends on the capability of a destination area to manage and organize its resources according to an economic logic driven by competitiveness strategies”. The model by Ritchie and Crouch has been further developed by Sheldon and Park (2009) to be more readily applicable in the wellness tourism context. Sheldon and Park noted that the model is crucial to identify the supporting factors and resources for wellness tourism because it would not be possible to develop wellness products if the destination cannot provide basic infrastructure and guarantee access to the area. According to them (ibid. p. 100) “destinations can no longer be passive and allow themselves to naturally adapt, but must strategically plan for this market and identify their competitive advantage. Identification of wellness resources and products, and strategic positioning in the market are critical to success.” From the resource point of view, the attractions are of vital importance. The built‐up and natural physical environment of a destination, its local culture and community spirit can be considered as the core resources in tourism. The attractiveness of a destination can be considered from different angles, among them nature and landscape, culture, history, facilities for engaging in various hobbies, and accessibility. However, the resource itself is not a product. Rather, existing resources are the necessary precondition for the creation of a travel experience that can be turned into a saleable tourism product (Middleton with Clarke 2001, Middleton 1997, Järviluoma 1994, Tuohino, 2006, see also Williams 2009). Concepts of wellness and wellbeing are quite widely used, for example, in the health, wellbeing and tourism sectors. The concepts are sometimes used synonymously, but there are differences in content and meaning in different contexts and countries (Smith & Puczkó, 2009). Especially in the Finnish context, the terms are used interchangeably and this inconsistent use has caused considerable confusion. In this paper, the term wellbeing is used in preference to wellness. The reason for this is that in Finnish one term “hyvinvointi” is used render what in English is rendered as wellness and also as wellbeing (see Konu et al. 2010; Smith & Puczkó, 2009).


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A model of a sustainable wellbeing destination

As mentioned earlier, Sheldon and Park (2009) developed their model (see Figure 1) to be more readily applicable in the wellness/wellbeing tourism context. In the model of Crouch and Ritchie (2003/2005) branding, awareness, and image are included among the qualifying and amplifying determinants. Sheldon and Park (2009) argue that these branding efforts should be situated at the point at which the core resources of wellness tourism are identified. They explain this by stating that the wellness resources connected to the culture and cultural elements of the host community are a crucial part of the identity/brand of a destination.

Figure 1. A model of sustainable wellness destination (Sheldon & Park, 2009, adapted from

Ritchie and Crouch, 2002). Sheldon and Park (2009) locate wellness destination policy and planning in the third stage. The reason for this is that in their view wellness tourism cannot be sustainable if it has no clear vision, goals, and positioning on the market. Further, Conlin and Baum (2003) argue

Sustainable Wellness Tourism Destination

Wellness Destination Development and Management

Human resource, training, education, certification programs, building associations among and between the wellness industry and public sector

Wellness Destination Policy and Planning

Vision, goals, private-public sectors’ collaborated planning and development of policy, monitoring/evaluation measures of wellness

experiences and sustainability

Core Wellness Resources and Attractions

Unique wellness destination features: natural and cultural resources, traditional healing/therapeutic/wellness resources

Supporting Factors & Resources for Wellness Tourism

Infrastructure, superstructure, residents’ hospitality, and knowledge of healing practices, destination atmosphere (a sense of place)


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that public policymakers and private sector decision‐makers need to recognize the human resources as an indispensable component of successful sustainable tourism development. According to them, human resources have to be part of the overall planning instead of an operational consideration. Baum’s comprehensive model calls for consideration of the five areas of tourism ‐ environment, tourism and labor markets, tourism and education, human resource practices in the industry, and tourism and the community in a comprehensive, integrated and cohesive manner (Conlin and Baum, 1994, 2003). The planning stage is followed by destination development and management. At this stage it is guaranteed that the wellness products offered and provided are of high quality. To realize this, the stage includes elements such as training and education of personnel (human resources) and opportunities to join certification programs (Sheldon and Park, 2009). The purpose of this paper is to ascertain how local actors perceive the situation and positioning of the town of Savonlinna in the wellbeing/wellness tourism context and how they see the presence of water as a source of wellbeing for locals and tourists. Secondly, the aim is to test if the model of a sustainable wellness destination developed by Sheldon & Park, 2009, adapted from Ritchie and Crouch 2003, could be used in defining Savonlinna in the context of wellbeing/wellness tourism. Given the many discussions at local level on Savonlinna’s prospects in wellbeing tourism, the third aim of the paper is to find out whether Savonlinna can be seen as a sustainable wellbeing destination in the future. Characteristics of Savonlinna Region Geographically Savonlinna town with 36,000 inhabitants is located in the Eastern part of Finland (see Figure 2) in the center of Lake Saimaa. Over a third of its area is covered by water. Considering tourism in general, Savonlinna has good basic infrastructure and its accessibility is relatively good, even if traveling from the capital Helsinki takes more time than it does to some competitor destinations. The town is about 340 kilometers (211 miles) from Helsinki by road and about four and a half hours away by train (see Figure 2). Savonlinna Airport is located about 20 kilometers (12,4 miles) outside the city, and the journey to Helsinki takes 40–60 minutes by plane, but there are only two flights a day on weekdays. The distance from St. Petersburg (the second biggest city in Russia) is only 350 (217,5 miles) kilometers by car. Savonlinna is built on a chain of islands located in a number of large lakes. The lake environment is a key asset for Savonlinna town. Savonlinna has a long history as a spa tourism destination. As early as in the 1860s the region around Savonlinna was a popular holiday resort on Lake Saimaa, attracting visitors from as far afield as St. Petersburg to enjoy its spa facilities (Hirn & Markkanen 1987). The spa and casino were built in 1896. In 1898, the casino was extended. The old spa was destroyed by fire in 1962. Today the Casino Spa Hotel is in recreational use and offers a wide range of summer activities as a part of the Best Western chain. However, the old historical spa image of Savonlinna is more or less a thing of the past and the current tourism image is based on the Opera Festival and the resources of the lakeland scenery. The recreational use of spas has replaced the traditional spa culture.


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In the vicinity of Savonlinna town Linnansaari and Kolovesi aquatic national parks are open all year round. The nature experiences are supported by high quality self‐catering cottage and hotel accommodation and restaurant and sauna facilities. The outlying villages of Kerimäki and Punkaharju strengthen the image of Savonlinna region as a wellbeing destination due to two significant rehabilitation centers.

Figure 2. Location of Savonlinna. (Map: Katja Pasanen, UEF)

Finnish wellbeing tourism focuses mainly on nature, peace and tranquility, activities and also some cultural offerings (Kangas & Tuohino 2008, Finnish Tourist Board 2008a). This also applies to Savonlinna. The natural core resources are unspoiled natural environment including forests, lakes and other waterways, hills and extensive areas of wilderness. In Savonlinna region there are also four distinct seasons to be exploited in different tourism products. Finnish wellbeing innovations are generally internationally well known. Sauna and Nordic walking have notably raised their profile as generally known Finnish products (Finnish Tourist Board 2008a). Both activities are well represented in Savonlinna region. The infrastructure and facilities of the region are suitable for the wellbeing sector, as the main hotels in the town and its surroundings have a long history as rehabilitation centers. Because of this, the knowledge of healing practices is good, likewise the knowledge of the use of natural resources such as the water element. Surveying the wellbeing companies and their offerings in the Internet Mahkonen (2008) found 19 companies offering wellbeing tourism services in South Savo province. These companies have altogether only 56 saleable products in the Internet. Only two of the 19 companies were located in Savonlinna town. In Hook’s survey (Finnish Tourist Board 2008b) only four wellness/wellbeing products were found in Savonlinna. Today there is no updated information available, but the hypothesis is that situation is not much changed.


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Strategic development of wellbeing tourism in Finland

At present the wellbeing segment of the travel industry in Finland is booming (Konu et al., 2013; Tuohino 2012). Wellbeing tourism is also one product theme earmarked for development in the Finnish national tourism strategy published by the Ministry of Trade and Industry (TEM, 2008). In the national strategy the guiding principle is based on accentuating the acknowledged strengths of Finland’s tourism, while helping growth‐oriented, networked companies in tourism clusters to succeed. According to the strategy, the strengths of Finnish tourism include among others a unique location next to Russia, attractive travel destinations/tourism areas like Finnish Lakeland and the diverse services offered by tourism clusters (TEM, 2008).

The Finnish Tourist Board advocates wellbeing tourism as one main future area of tourism and this led to the development of ‘Development strategy for Finnish wellbeing tourism in international markets, 2009‐2013’ in 2008. The vision for Finnish wellbeing tourism by the Finnish Tourist Board (2008a) is: “Finland is known as a country that can offer wellbeing, rest, and relaxation. Its wellbeing offering is clearly defined. The offering has been put together in a manner that is marketable and follows sustainable development. It comprises packages or modules that are easy to purchase and internationally known. Wellbeing tourism is a year‐round activity that can extend the tourism season in Finland”.

In the strategy the Finnish Tourist Board defines three different kinds of goals for the period 2009‐2013. Operational goals include the implementation of terminology and theme‐based thinking in the field; company commitment to internationalization, networking, and joint marketing; identification of core products; new product innovation in wellness tourism and support for common product ideas; renewal of old products; continuous service chains; creation of cooperation models with food, cosmetics, and treatment product producers as well as equipment manufacturers; an improved quality level – corresponding to the requirements of a well‐traveled international tourist (addressing quality and product criteria); cooperation in distribution and pricing; year‐round product offering and sales; identification and copying of good action models; clarification of the division of labor among operators by development phase; diversification and augmentation of the offering of accessible wellbeing tourism; and a product and/or quality label to support the development and marketing of wellbeing tourism. The image goals set are a unified image for Finnish wellbeing tourism, and that Finland should be known as a leading wellbeing tourism country in the Nordic region – to be achieved by creating an offering based on international trends and the increasing demand, and by including wellbeing tourism as a strong part of the country brand (Brand Finland) through marketing communications. Finally, the quantitative goals include a growth target defined as +6% per year in overnight stays (Finnish Tourism Strategy, 2008b), and an increase in the international customer base for the companies participating in the product development process.

In the next phase of the strategy work, the Finnish Tourist Board defined the main preconditions for wellbeing tourism products. In practice this meant that product recommendations were set by theme for wellbeing tourism products (Finnish Tourist Board, 2011a) and their criteria for exportability (Finnish Tourist Board, 2011b). In keeping with the criteria imposed a wellbeing product or service should in its entirety be constructed from the perspective of wellbeing tourism. The criteria include among other things border


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conditions relating to wellbeing products and services, for example location, premises, and resources available. In addition to this there are comparative bases for the expertise and professional skills of the personnel and coping at work. Sales and marketing were taken into account when the criteria were compiled. Emphasis is likewise placed on Finnishness, special features of one’s own area, co‐operation networks, domestic treatment products and measuring methods.

On the regional and local levels, the tourism development strategy of the Province of South Savo and the strategy of Savonlinna town set the guidelines for wellbeing tourism development. In both strategies wellbeing is seen as one of the main strategic foci in the region. Savonlinna is mentioned in the strategy of Region of South Savo as one of the three main tourism agglomerations to be developed. The plan for the implementation of the strategy includes the development of internal action networks and operating conditions as well as strengthening interaction and cooperation between private and public actors. Focal points raised for Savonlinna include the creation of a lake tourism center, strengthening cooperation between actors and comprehensive planning. Wellbeing tourism has been raised as a key theme alongside nature‐based and cultural tourism. In content the emphasis is on physical, mental, and social wellbeing and on the increase and renewal of wellbeing‐related tourism services (Finnish Tourist Board, 2007).

On the local level strategic development is mainly in the hands of public actors. The roles of the Savonlinna municipal administration and the Savonlinna Region Federation of Municipalities (1.1.2013 Savonlinna Business Services Ltd) have a prominent role in local planning and development actions. In the business strategy for Savonlinna region 2008 – 2013(Savonlinna, 2008) wellbeing tourism is stressed as one of the main strengths of the region likewise nature‐based and cultural tourism as well as innovation environment as potential strengths. As strategic level, e.g. location next to Russia, lake milieu, innovation environment are mentioned. In addition, Savonlinna region has an existing tourism strategy, but in fact the strategy has been poorly implemented in practice and there are at present no known activities for the implementation of wellbeing strategy. From the organizational perspective there are so far no official Finnish associations in the wellbeing sector or governmental organizations promoting co‐operation between the wellbeing industry and the public sector. However, central government provides support for social holidays that frequently take place in wellness or wellbeing facilities. In addition, there are rehabilitation programs for war veterans (Aho, 2007). As mentioned earlier, Savonlinna and its surroundings are decidedly competent in the rehabilitation sector. From an educational perspective in Finland there is a fairly good education system in place for service personnel in the wellbeing sector. In addition, a new full‐time polytechnic degree program in Experience and Wellness Management has started up (Haaga‐Helia 2010). In Turku University of Applied Sciences there is ongoing a project entitled Innovations and Learning in Spa Management (Turku University of Applied Sciences 2010). In Savonlinna there are several educational options in the wellbeing sector; all levels of education from vocational school to university are well represented in the town.


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Methodology and data gathering

The research method chosen was qualitative including both in‐depth interviews and participant observation. Echtner and Ritchie (1993) claim that a structured questionnaire is extremely ill suited to the scrutiny of the unique, holistic components of images. There are many unstructured ways of gathering research data. These include among others content analyses and both visual and written information, interactive individual or group interviews (Jenkins 1999; Shani & Wang 2011). In consumer research it is possible to conduct qualitative research using open‐ended questions. The research can be implemented either as a focus group interview or individual interviews (Middleton with Clarke, 2001). In the present study individual in‐depth interviews were chosen because this was found to be more appropriate given the resources available.

The data for this paper is based on interviews conducted in the Savonlinna region during 2009 and 2010. In total 14 interviews were conducted. Supposedly, the data reached saturation because no new themes emerged in the last interviews. The interviewees were local wellbeing entrepreneurs (6), regional developers (4) and project managers (4) in wellbeing‐related projects. The regional developers represented the public sector. The interviews took from 23 minutes to 78 minutes. All interviews were tape recorded and later transcribed. The transcribed data were read and re‐read to identify keywords. The data was classified and grouped by the author. Grouping was based on both questions presented and keywords from respondents.

The thematic questionnaire included questions e.g. about unique selling points, networking and cooperation in the laboratory areas, structure of the business environment, locomotive entrepreneurs, competitiveness, competition, cooperation and internationalization, sources of information, and the utilization of information in their development processes, motivations, and innovation factors as well as well as resources used in wellbeing tourism development. Although in‐depth interviews formed the primary data, participant observation was used as a supplementary data source. As both authors have participated in development actions in the region, observations were used alongside the data analysis and writing process of the paper as extra information. Savonlinna as a Sustainable Wellbeing Tourism Destination

Figure 3 shows the attributes interviewees associated with Savonlinna town. Above all, Lake Saimaa, the lake environment, lake scenery or water elements were mentioned by every interviewee. In addition cultural attractions like the medieval castle of Olavinlinna, the Retretti Art Centre and the Opera Festival(s) were mentioned. The main core resources of the region were reportedly the four former rehabilitation centers, which have found a way of win‐win cooperation with new wellbeing business areas. Core resources and attractions also included lakes and aquatic environment, national parks and cultural attractions. Natural resources were seen as a core resource, while the main attractions mentioned were Olavinlinna castle, the Retretti Art Centre, the Opera Festival(s) and, of course, lakes. In addition, the local people and businesses were seen as unique


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selling points of Savonlinna. When asked about added value for the region, the respondents mentioned attributes like national parks, local services and hospitality, genuine people, authentic way of life, variety, and attractiveness. On the other hand, it was also mentioned that the town is an underachiever given the resources available.

Wellbeing Destination Development and Management - competent human resources available, excellent educational and training resources - Savonlinna Travel Ltd.

Figure 3. Savonlinna as a sustainable wellbeing tourism destination

SupportingFactorsandResourcesforWellbeingTourism

‐ geographicallocationclosetoRussianborderandSt.Petersburg‐ goodaccessibilitybyair,roadandrailfromcapitalarea‐ ideallocationontheshoresofSaimaa,ontheisland‐ charmingsmalltown‐ historicalsteamboats‐ forests,rocks,islands,aquaticenvironment‐ KolovesiandLinnasaariNationalparks‐ varietyofaccommodation(hotels,cottages,etc.)‐ knowledgeofhealingandrehabilitationpractices‐ vitallakeenvironment‐ interactionbetweenmanandnature‐ thewoodenchurchofKerimäki‐ MunicipalityofPunkaharjuwitharidgeandhistoryrelatedRussianTsar

CoreWellbeingResourcesandAttractions

- uniquelakeenvironment,Saimaalake,Saimaascenery,beautifullakelandscape- naturalandculturalresources- resourcesconnectedtolakes- strongcultureandhistory(Operafestivals,RetrettiArtCentre,Olavinlinna

medievalcastle)- idealforactivenature‐basedtourism- uniquelivingenvironmentforbothhabitants,workersandtourists- Traditionalhealing/therapeutic/wellbeingresources- localpeople,businesses,hospitality- goodoldhistory- KolovesiandLinnansaarinationalparks‐ certainkindofexoticism‐ competentandcapablebusinesses(e.g.SaimaaHoliday)‐ networkofwellbeingbusinesses(pastrehalibitationcentres)‐ Oldhistoricalspaandcasino

WellbeingDestinationPolicyandPlanning

‐ cooperationbetweenmunicipalities,townandSavonlinnaRegionFederationofMunicipalities(1.1.2013SavonlinnaBusinessServicesLtd)

‐ strongroleoftownintourismplanningandpolicy‐ strongactorsintheregion(SavonlinnaTravelltd,SavonlinnaRegion,Centrefor

Expertise,CentreforTourismStudiesintheUniversityofEasternFinland)


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While examining the supporting factors the interviewees mentioned the ideal location of Savonlinna as a key asset. The accessibility from St. Petersburg and the Helsinki metropolitan area were likewise considered important. The potential for attracting tourists from Russia also emerged. Other supporting factors mentioned were mainly connected to natural resources and infrastructure, e.g. forests, cliffs, islands, cottages, steamboats. The Savonlinna spirit was also mentioned by some respondents. The role and actions of Savonlinna town and Savonlinna Region Federation of Municipalities (1.1.2013 Savonlinna Business Services Ltd) were highly appreciated in connection with wellbeing destination policy and planning. The planning and policy in the region are guided by national, regional and local tourism strategies. At present Savonlinna has its own tourism development and town planning projects in the city centre. Projects also include planning activities for new spa and wellbeing facilities.

Destination development and management received only few comments. The strong role of the town and regional policymakers was mentioned as well as the importance of Savonlinna Travel Ltd. Educational resources were also mentioned by some. There were also some critical comments among the responses. Some respondents perceived that Savonlinna region is in stagnation phase, partly due to the public‐led development work, partly because of poor cooperation and networking. Competition between entrepreneurs was seen as a threatening factor, not as a strengthening one. A lot of small businesses operate in the region and this was seen as fragmenting the operating environment and leading to a situation where this could constitute an entry barrier to new businesses. As one entrepreneur said: “In my opinion this is terribly fragmented, so that there are, you know, a lot of little businesses operating there in their own holes.” Conclusion The first aim of this paper was to ascertain how local actors perceive the situation and positioning of Savonlinna in the wellbeing/wellness tourism context and how they perceive the presence of water as a source of wellbeing for locals and tourists. Secondly, the aim was to test if the model of a sustainable wellness destination developed by Sheldon & Park, 2009, adapted from Ritchie and Crouch 2003, could be used when defining Savonlinna in the context of wellbeing/wellness tourism. The overall finding of the interviews is that Savonlinna was perceived more as a destination product with tangible and intangible components. In addition there was much discussion on Savonlinna’s assets for wellbeing tourism. However, the interviewees pointed out that in practice there is still much to be done to achieve the status for Savonlinna town of a sustainable wellbeing tourism destination. At the moment, such status is more in the minds of respondents than on a tangible, practical level. As noted earlier in the case of one rehabilitation center (see Tuohino & Kangas 2009) one of the greatest challenges for wellbeing tourism is the still untapped opportunities in the region. Currently the wellbeing segment in Savonlinna region is still limited and


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fragmentary. The presence of water and lakes was recognized and they were seen as the town’s main resource. However, the use of lakes in the wellbeing context was difficult for the interviewees to envisage. Among the interviewees there was a strong vision of wellbeing tourism development around the lakes but the main question was how in practice to exploit lakes in tourism product development. None of the interviewees mentioned the strategies while describing the frameworks of Savonlinna in the wellbeing context in spite of the guidelines provided by existing national, regional, and local tourism development strategies. In general it was apparent in the interviews that the interviewees analyzed Savonlinna as a general tourism destination not as a specialized wellbeing tourism destination. However, it emerged that the model by Sheldon and Park can indeed be implemented in the case of Savonlinna and used in evaluating the attributes of the town. Given the many discussions at local level on Savonlinna’s prospects in wellbeing tourism, the third aim of the paper was to find out whether in the future Savonlinna can be seen as a sustainable wellbeing destination. According to the findings presented in this paper there is still a lot of work to be done before Savonlinna can really be seen as a sustainable wellbeing tourism destination. As one of the interviewees said, Savonlinna is still an underachiever given the resources available. Discussion In the tourism strategies of Finland and the Finnish Tourist Board, as well as on the regional level, wellbeing tourism is deemed one main future branch of tourism. The findings presented in this article, however, suggest that in the Savonlinna region there is a need for future efforts if Savonlinna wants to be profiled as a wellbeing tourism destination. Nor is the wellbeing destination development model of Sheldon and Park used here claimed to be exclusive or exhaustive, but is presented as a tool to be further developed but also as a management tool to kickstart the wellbeing tourism development in Savonlinna. Generally speaking, the Finnish wellbeing tourism concept is in a critical phase. Wellbeing tourism in general in Finland is in the process of formalization and the implementation and updating of the wellbeing tourism strategy are in the process. The wellbeing tourism concept still lacks conceptualization and the near future will tell how its structure and content will be focused and determined (see Konu et al., 2011). The future risk not only on the national, but also on regional level is that there will be not one “Finnish wellbeing concept” but a heterogeneous set of wellbeing concepts (see Konu et al., 2011). A similar phenomenon may occur in the Savonlinna region, where different actors have dissimilar views on future development. This may lead to a situation in which a common profile as a wellbeing tourism destination is fragmented. The geographical location close to Russian boarder and St. Petersburg was recognized as a supporting factor. However, existing Russian tourist segment in the region is remarkable. Are they taken for granted? Or is it so, that their potentiality in wellbeing tourism is not recognized yet? In the Savonlinna region, the development process should adopt a bottom‐up approach and acknowledge the importance of co‐operation and networking among the former


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rehabilitation centers. To gain sustainable wellbeing tourism destination status, there is also a need for profiling and specialization of the centers to avoid competition between them. Together they will also reinforce the image of the region as a wellbeing tourism destination. At present there is a lack of wellbeing products even though the region has a strong operational culture of SMTEs and the R&D know‐how on the entrepreneurial and educational levels. The challenge is how these positive assets should in future be turned into cooperation, networking and first of all into saleable wellbeing tourism products. At the local level there have been a lot of discussions about tourism development and the responses and roles of private and public actors. This has led to a situation in which the general development atmosphere is, if not negative, at least a little less than positive. The accessibility of the Savonlinna region may be also one critical issue in future although the interviewees did refer to this. The risk is that in future the region will be increasingly dependent on private cars. Public transportation declines year after year. The local press has indeed discussed public support for air traffic, but less attention has been paid to other means of public transportation. Ultimately, to answer the question appearing in the title of the paper, Savonlinna is in the early stages on the way to becoming a sustainable (wellbeing) tourism destination. Both supporting and core resources are there; but the question is how to manage all these diverse and eclectic resources to ensure sustainable wellbeing products in future and how can the rivalry between entrepreneurs be turned into a strength. By the words of one interviewee to ensure the cooperation of different actors “We ought to understand that this head‐on competition is not the solution to go forward, we should understand that the only solution is to develop products together, make services together, so that there is sure to be enough for everybody and that in the long run everybody gets most out of it”.

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AGRITOURISM FOR SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ARMENIA

by

Vardan Urutyan & Arthur Grigoryan

International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education Foundation

COPYRIGHT © 2013 BY AUTHORS. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. READERS MAY TAKE VERBATIM COPIES OF THIS DOCUMENT FOR NON‐COMMERCIAL PURPOSES BY ANY MEANS, PROVIDED THAT THIS COPYRIGHT NOTICE APPEARS ON ALL SUCH COPIES.

Abstract Agritourism is one of business activities, which channel additional incomes to rural communities, thus contributing to reduction of rural poverty and hampering excessive influx of rural population to cities, keeping a country in a demographic balance by its regions. Factors like historical heritage sites, natural environment, sporting and recreational activities, and certainly the rural daily routine are among many, which motivate people for national and international agritourism. Rural communities in Armenia mainly consist of self‐sufficient family farms, which do not have sufficient production capacities to turn into commercial farms; neither have much differentiation of their products to enjoy any extra profits from less competitive sectors of the economy. The situation is definitely not very encouraging for an Armenian farmer to stay and work in the village, while wider job prospects lure these families to cities in Armenia or abroad. Outflow of rural population can potentially deteriorate production base of agricultural commodities and leave productive agricultural plots abandoned, thus deteriorating quality of the latter. The entire rural sustainability issue now rises, when economic, social, and environmental constituents of sustainable rural life are being deteriorated. Armenia, with numerous factors which can turn certain rural communities to agritourism heaven, has not yet adopted any comprehensive strategy on development of this field. There have been sporadic initiatives to contribute to agritourism development in rural areas of the country, but either business models of the established businesses did not prove to be vital or the parties that initiated agritourism movement in rural areas were not very persistent in their intents. This paper analyzes potential capabilities of Armenia for development of agritourism or rural tourism, understand the hindering factors for development of the field, and come up with possible business models. Introduction to Business Models


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Agriculture, as the world’s oldest profession, has traditionally been undertaken as a family scale activity, first for the self‐subsistence of farm manager and his family members, and later on as a for‐profit activity. Historically, majority of farmers who started to socialize and to operate at different geographical areas, used to have one common characteristic: resistance to evolution. The overall evolutional process in business usually happens due to sporadic innovations that take place within different aspects of an organization. This fact used to create an innovative lag of the agribusiness enterprises, compared to other industries of the economy like manufacturing, financial intermediary services, information technologies, etc. Apart from the limited high value‐add and branded processing sectors, agribusiness enterprises operate in an environment, where products are far less differentiated that in other sectors In general. This fact places many agribusiness enterprises in a narrow‐profit niche, making them highly volatile to even minor price fluctuations on the one hand, and inability to invest substantial funds for innovative processes on the other hand. This creates a vicious cycle, where inability or unwillingness to invest in innovations hinders the firm’s ability to generate more profit. Innovation is the single most important factor for competitive advantage. The latter is based on those unique factors, than can place the firm in a better position and enable it to generate above average profits until the factors that created the competitive advantage are not copied by competitors or until the point is reached when market is saturated with the product or services offered by the firm. The core for competitive advantage in a company is developed by overlapping three components of competitiveness: knowledge, network, and ethics. Knowledge: This competitive advantage is utilized if every individual in a company is provided opportunities to reveal and apply his/her talent/skills and continuously upgrade them in accordance with modern developments and technology. The knowledge component can create product and process innovations in the organization, and therefore fortify the overall competitive advantage. The knowledge component can also include in itself the type of business model that the company will apply, which can be categorized as a managerial or entrepreneurial knowledge/talent. Network: The network component includes in itself all the strategic partnerships and alliances that a company can have to create synergy, ease the market access, cost reduction, etc. Ethics: In post industrial era, when many sectors are saturated with suppliers, the competitive advantage is often based on non‐monetary values. The managerial and business practices based on ethical values, as competitive advantages, are developed and shaped by cultural values of the society and therefore are hard to copy, and the companies can certainly capitalize on them. The discussion above can be translated into a business model discussion or, in other words, what and how a small‐holder should do to generate profit and to maximize it from the given and the prospective batch of resources. Vorley (2009) refers to the MIT Sloan to describe a


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business model as follows: “A business model is the way by which a business creates and captures value within a market network of producers, suppliers and consumers, or, in short, ‘what a company does and how it makes money from doing it’”. Considering the elaborative business models described by Alexander Osterwalder (a business model innovator), putting everything into basic terms, the agribusiness models can be split into buyer‐driven and producer driven models, with some mixed cases. However, the adoption of a certain business model by a small holder does not per se guarantee a competitive advantage. A business model is simply a systematic depiction and structuring of “what” and “how” the company does. The actual “what” and ”how” depend on the managerial factors, and in case of small scale agribusinesses, depend on the director/founder of the business, his/her skills, managerial talent, vision, goals, and the business team. Some authors (Hergnyan et al, 2012; Jatib et al, 2003), along with macroeconomic and microeconomic factors, stress the importance of executive education of the organization’s managerial staff as key components for innovative processes in agribusiness and food sector, which can probably be generalized and applied to all industries. Agritourism for Sustainability Tourism in general, is synthesized by mass and alternative tourism. The characteristics of mass tourism are the large number of people searching for a holiday related to their own culture in popular destinations. Alternative tourism is sometimes referred to as “special interest tourism” or “responsible tourism” and it is usually taken to mean alternative forms of tourism which give emphasis on the contact and understanding of inhabitants’ way of living and the local natural environment.” (Smith and Eadington, 1992). According to Sznajder et al (2009) agro‐tourism [the term agritourism is more commonly used: the author] comes from the word “agro” which means “soil” and “agronomos” which refers to a person managing a land estate, while tourism is a form of active recreation away from one’s place of residence that is inspired by cognitive, recreational and sport needs. Rural tourism is a form of alternative tourism which is characterised by its location in rural areas having the features of small‐scale enterprise, contact with nature and traditional societies and their practices. Rural tourism and agritourism are commonly confused terms, yet agritourism can be considered as a subcategory of rural tourism. According to Cândea et al (2000) agritourism is "a person’s moving in a clean rural village, picturesque, with a particular agriculture, completed in residence for at least 24 hours in a peasant household consumption of local products and food and cohabitation observation, assistance and co‐participation in local social community by enabling full compliance action.” Agritourism is gathering strong support from small communities as rural people have realized benefits of sustainable development. Agritourism includes a wide variety of farm activities ranging from a weekend‐stay for picking fruit or feeding animals to several days’ stay and contributing labor for planting crops or building greenhouses. The Euranek (2004) notices that agritourism can provide sustainability for both urban and rural communities. It has several functions in the society: job placement, maintaining rural areas through infrastructure development, bringing income to rural communities, preserving natural


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resources, and education of the urban community. The sustainable opportunities that agritourism delivers to rural areas consist promotion of the preservation of local customs and traditions, creation of new employment alternatives, and development of alternative markets for the local products (Garcia and Lopes, 2006). Sustainable development, according to International Institute for Sustainable Development, requires “economic as well as environmental and social inquiry”. People willing to go for agritouristic places are concerned about environment, and yet they know and accept the fact that local people who work in these places need to have some profits out of it, after all. But yet, they also want and prefer to see that all those actions are being taken under the slogan of protecting the environment.” The principles of alternative tourism are lying on the need of sustainability that emerges from the negative impact of mass tourism on the environment and the socio‐cultural identity of the host communities or countries. The owners of the hotels and the guest houses pay extra attention to the environment and they do the best they can in order to preserve their local nature and yet to satisfy the needs of the tired city dwellers. It should be noticed that the notion of agritourism is closely linked with sustainability, because agritourism focuses on responsible engagement into touristic activities, and unlike mass tourism, it has a high component of environmental awareness and learning. Tourists’ understanding of rural life, agricultural work, possible environmental challenges in the area, and most importantly their engagement into daily agricultural activities has a potential to create a stronger bond between rural and urban population. On the other hand, engagement of individuals in agritourism creates a better ground for educational institutions to involve agritourism as a course in their programs and provide a better insight to students of complimentarily between sustainability and agritourism. Universities offering degrees in agribusiness management may find the course of agritourism as a good addition in their curriculum menu for provision of better‐rounded education and business diversification ideas to students. Agritourism in Armenia The term agritourism is new in Armenia but agritourism practices date back to many years. At Soviet times agritourism already existed in rural areas of Armenia to certain extent. The idea of such form of tourism was behind holidays of citizens of urban areas who visited villages, rented a room in a village and lived there for the summertime. They stayed with the households, being engaged in gardening and household activities, fruit‐ and vegetable picking, production of dairy products, etc. This form of organized holidays can be categorized as initiation of agritourism in Armenia. Nowadays, wineries (processor‐host model of agritourism described later on) are the key form of agritourism in Armenia. There are other forms of agritourism organized in Armenia, which, however, are sporadic (farm tours, farm visits and stays, on‐farm sales, festivals and fairs, animal watching, bird watching, garden tours, wildlife viewing, est.). Currently there are some business initiatives merging in Armenia, which come both from private investors and from development organizations. Agritourism enterprise, as a business enterprise, requires less investment capital than a conventional urban or rural hotel. Thus, a


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slight increase in demand for agritourism in Armenia can channel substantial investment funds to rural areas. As for international initiatives, the Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development (CARD) has been recently promoting the agritourism movement in Armenia in parallel with advisory and funding assistance to some agribusiness startups. Simultaneously, the International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education (ICARE) has been recently active in assessing opportunities to involve agritourism management courses in its curriculum, thus targeting to fortify the knowledge base and motivate generation of entrepreneurial ideas in Armenia. For the agritourism sector to become a tangible income‐earning and employing sphere in Armenia, the current opportunities need to be assessed and continuous work has to be implemented to eliminate weaknesses of the sector. The situation in the country can be described as follows:

Strengths Weaknesses

- Abundance of natural attractions and

historical sites.

- Relatively low competition on regional

scale.

- New experience differentiated from

traditional mass tourism travel routes.

- High transportation costs for international

visitors.

- Insufficient infrastructure.

- Lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and

experience.

- Low quality of existing accommodation

facilities.

Opportunities Threats

- Merging recreational activities and sports

with agritourism.

- Involvement of rural youth in agritourism

activities.

- Creation of a regional tourism network and

database.

- Expansion of tourism industry into

protected areas.

- Increasing regional competition in mid

and long term.

Agritourism Models Development of tourism is closely linked with development of regional infrastructure, and though it has a smaller role for agritourism than for mass tourism, infrastructure still plays a crucial role for attracting investment capital and building up agritourism around it. This makes development of infrastructure one of the primary goals of central policy developers and local authorities. However, the process of infrastructure development should go in parallel with other agritourism motivating actions such as knowledge development, expertise sharing and clarification of legal and regulation framework for particular business types. Agritourism and rural tourism can be defined as every form of touristic activities taking place out of city or town for at least short‐term accommodation involved, however, unlike rural tourism, agritourism assumes direct engagement in agricultural activities. It is not really necessary for a visitor to be accommodated on a farm in order to categorize that as agritourism. A person staying on farm but not participating in agricultural works is involved in rural tourism but not in agritourism. In contrast, a person staying in a rural hotel but


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participating in agricultural works during the stay can be considered as one involved in agribusiness. The fact of engagement into agricultural activities draws a borderline between rural tourism and agritourism. Thus, all the agritouristic models described below assume engagement of visitors in agricultural activities. There are numerous forms of agritouristic activities, all involving accommodation in order to be defined as agritourism though. When analyzing the agritouristic enterprises according to the business initiator, a few groups can emerge: private investor(s), local governments, various forms of national and international development projects and programs, or any combination of these. However, initiation of an idea and the business startup is only the initial stage of the entire business activity, which must be followed up by skillful management to sustain and prosper. Thus, categorization of agritouristic enterprises according to the host can spread the light on how various agritourism models operate and who bares the major decision‐making role for these businesses. Farmer‐host In farmer‐host model the farmer is usually the initiator of agritourism enterprise. This usually takes form of a family business when the farm manager stays actively involved in agricultural activities, while the other members of the family run the accommodation facility, which is usually located right on the farm area. This model provides low opportunities for capital access (Graph 1), the only source of which is usually the income earned from farming or capital earned by the agritourism firm itself, which is being reinvested in the business. Lack of the managerial capacity is yet another bottleneck that a farm‐host may face, unless some family members acquired business administration education and are actively involved in running the firm. Graph 1: Managerial Capacity versus Access to Capital per agritourism enterprise model

Hired employees, including the management staff, are usually the family members or local residents, thus a farmer‐host has high contribution to local employment (Graph 2) and


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therefore has a better impact on local community development than many other agritouristic models do. Villager‐host The villager‐host model has many similarities with farmer‐host model, with the main difference that the family which runs the firm is not involved in farming activities, or that farming does not constitute the main income source for this family. Yet, this model, along with the others described, assumes that visitors are involved in agricultural activities during the stay. This involvement can happen in villager’s small garden or other farmer’s agricultural field. The villager‐host(s) usually has higher educational background and has worked or still works on high‐skilled positions in the village (school teachers, local government or other administrative positions, food processing plant, etc.). Due to higher educational background and administrative network, the initiators of villager‐host model have higher managerial capacity (Graph 1) and might even have a better access to capital than a farm‐host has. The villager‐host model too, like the farmer‐host model, is usually run by the family members of local residents, thus it has a better impact on local employment and local community development (Graph 2) than other models may have. Farmer Cooperative‐host The farmer cooperative – host model represents a more elaborated version of the farmer‐host model. A cooperative is an entity based on user‐own, user‐control, and user‐benefit principles. An agritourism facility owned and controlled by farmer cooperative enlarges the pool of financial and knowledge‐based resources that can be engaged in operation, thus it provides better opportunities for raising capital and more options for strengthening managerial capacity (Graph 1). The agritourism business is owned by each member and the benefits are proportionally distributed to the members. The cooperative form of agritouristic enterprise provides an opportunity to hire external specialists to carry out the managerial, accounting, or legal tasks of the organization and is not limited to the family members of each member‐farmer. The expanded network of farmer cooperative‐host model creates better marketing opportunities for the agritourism enterprise. Although the farmer cooperative–host model might outsource some external labor to carry out its managerial functions, it operates with high engagement of large number of local people in the business. Periodical engagement of the member‐farmers into business activities has a potential to create a springboard effect and boost family‐business initiatives in the community, which can even create synergies with the existing agritourism facility, like provision of logistics for the host, sales of local products, guided tours, etc. Thus, the farmer cooperative‐host model has a potential to have a high positive impact on development of local community (Graph 2).


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Graph 2: Economic Impact on Local Community per agritourism enterprise model

Processor‐host This model of agritourism enterprise has become widespread among food processing companies which operate in rural areas. In their efforts to diversify the source of revenue, support their brand, market the existing products, and engage a service component in their business activities, numerous processors operating in agri‐food sector offer accommodation facilities, usually situated nearby their main production facilities. Processor‐host model has high managerial capacity (Graph 1) due to its current administrative and decision‐making activities which can achieve synergy with the activities of the agritourism facility. This model has a relatively easy access to capital from profits of the existing production and sales. By its economic impact on local community the processor‐host model has a mediocre position (Graph 2), since it will often outsource the high‐ and mid‐line management from urban areas and hire only limited number of people from local community for low‐level positions requiring a limited set of skills. Rural Hotel‐host The rural hotel‐host is similar to any urban hotel by its organizational model, which, however, provides a wide range of agritouristic services and products. This type of business is usually founded by person or people who are not directly engaged in farming in the given community, who have sufficient financial resources to build and run the accommodation and the supporting facility. A classic example of rural hotel‐host would be a person/people living in urban area who wants to invest capital in rural hotel facility. The managerial positions in this model would most probably be outsourced from urban area, while the lower level positions would be filled by local residents. This form of business would usually have high managerial capacity due to outsourced managerial staff, and have wider capital access opportunities from its initial investors (Graph 1). However, the rural‐hotel model usually has moderate impact on local community development, because its managerial positions are outsourced in most of the cases. Summer Camp‐host The summer camp‐host model can be anything between rural hotel‐host and villager‐host models, so it can be initiated and run by both local villagers or by urban investors. The term summer camp does not really limit its functions to summer period only and it can be equally operated as a winter camp. The major characteristic of this model is the age group of the visitors, usually children or young unmarried people, who spend a few weeks in the camp.


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This model can provide certain employment to local people, but the firm would usually outsource the managerial positions, thus it usually has a low economic impact on local community (Graph 2). Case Studies Areni Winery (processor‐host model in Armenia) Areni winery was established in 1994 by 12 farmers. Later, most of the farmers left the company, so the only shareholders were Rafik Simonyan with his brothers and Michael Grigoryan (later "Kimley"). Now the Company has a capacity to receive more than 300 tons of grapes during a season, while in 2001 this figure did not exceed 100 tons. One of the new directions of the Company operations is sales to tourists. New business direction provides an “experience” for visitors while generating supplemental income for the owner. Experiences provided to visitors usually take the form of entertainment discovery and learning in wine making and wine tasting. Short tour at the facility is accompanied by wine sales. As a result of the project, Areni winery on average hosted 60 clients a day and tentatively calculated made more than 40,000 USD incomes within 4 month period in 2012. In addition, agritourism business created new possibilities for wine market as the 50% of visitors buy in average one bottle of wine at the end of the tour. Vamos Traditional Village (villager‐host model in Greece). www.vamossa.gr It was the idea of a few young men who decided to give another view of Greece through their village. They understood that the mass tourism is capturing the majority of the places offered for summer vacation. Giving the accent on the old churches, road streets, traditional houses and places they created a fresh new picture of the forgotten Crete, a place known for its mass tourism resorts. In addition, they offer some extra activities and programs through which they envision to give extra value to their customers, trying to present what they kept from their tradition and are willing to share with the new generations coming here to experience something new, unknown and mystique for them. Nowadays, the village is far famous and attractive not only for Greeks, but also for foreign people. Located between Chania and Rethymnon and the foothills of White Mountains, with a short distance of the Cretan Sea, Vamos is now the most famous village for alternative way of spending vacation. Visitors can visit nearby farms early in the morning and help with the olive gathering before enjoying a light meal with the locals under the olive trees. Cheese making is another activity that visitors can participate in. Visitors may visit the local "rakokazana" the places where raki (local alcoholic drink) is produced. Moreover, there are numerous traditional shops where visitors can purchase everything from pasta to fruit flavored liquors, wine, raki, honey, Cretan herbs, home‐made soap, a variety of cheeses, and souvenirs from the local crafts. Traditional cottage Eleonas (rural hotel‐host model in Greece). www.eleonas.gr The traditional cottage Eleonora is situated near village Zaros in Crete islandIt is characterized as an agritourism activity preserving traditional culture. Eleonas offers alternative types of tourism. It offers 20 rural lodges placed in nice environment with a


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restaurant that is bases on Cretan diet with large variety of local products, especially olive oil, which is used in almost all dishes. One of the famous activities, especially for female visitors, is cheese‐making course where they have a chance to participate in the actual process of cheese‐making. Eleonos also offers animal breeding and many other farming activities. Bio hotel Ustoichivo Selo (rural hotel‐host model in Bulgaria) Bio hotel Ustoichivo Selo is established in 1993 and is located near Sevlievo, Bulgaria, near the river Rosica and the park Chernichkite, giving excellent opportunities for a walk in the nature. The hotel is situated on 30 hectares of land. The premises are secured and guarded, also having playgrounds for children, zoo corners, farm, and parking. The four buildings of the complex can accommodate 115 tourists. The complex also has center for trainings in agro‐sciences, ecology, folklore, craftsmanship and tourism. It also has conference rooms for seminars and meetings. Another attraction the hotel has is the inn “Bulgarski Maistor” with 150 places for guests, with many pictures representing moments for the “History of great Bulgaria”. Other facilities the resort has are three opened pools, cave with Jacuzzi, vegetable and fruit garden. A botanic garden is nearby. Workshops of carpentry and pottery are held every week engaging the visitors of the hotel in the process. Grignano Organic Holiday Farm/ Bio Ecological Farm (farmer‐host model in Italy). www.agriturismogrignano.it It is established in 1996 after reconstructed from an agricultural estate that had been abandoned for years in the district of Vetralla within the Viterbo province, which is situated near a borderline where the last remaining houses give way to still unspoiled countryside. This modern organic farm is surrounded by a shadow of oak woods that make a countryside atmosphere and as well as fully respecting and appreciating the original environment. This enterprise contains an organic farm of about 7 hectares that produces olive oil, vegetables, fruit, and forage as well as raises bullocks, pigs and other farm animals. It contains a modern workshop which produces and packs jams, pulped tomatoes, plum tomatoes, and ready‐to‐use sauces. The Grignano farm gives an opportunity of outdoor recreations, educational experiences, accommodations, direct agricultural sales and entertainment. Outdoor recreations include horseback riding, wildlife viewing and photography, free fishing, camping/picnicking (combined), fee hunting, wagon/sleigh rides, cross‐country skiing, etc. Educational experiences are school tours, historical tours, exotic animal farm, garden/farm tours and crop tours. The accommodation includes farm/ranch vacations, bed and breakfast inn and guest ranch. Conclusion Agritourism is one of the ways for differentiating income sources and providing employment in rural communities. Understanding the various models of agritouristic enterprises can help understand the pathways to encourage stakeholder groups for initiation of agritourism enterprises. Apart from engagement of visitors in agricultural works, agritourism also provides learning and awareness rising opportunities for visitors, thus agritourism can also


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be considered as an educational process with an important social role of bringing sustainability to rural areas. Armenia has many opportunities for agritourism the start of which is already given, but for that to happen the weaknesses have to be overcome or at least their effect has to be minimized. Mere definition and description of organizational models of agritouristic enterprises has to be joined with systemized managerial and entrepreneurial education of tourism and agritourism on graduate and undergraduate levels. Innovation and managerial talent need to be injected into the field to make the best use of theoretical knowledge on agritourism models and sustainability concepts. References Cândea, M., Erdeli, G., Simon, T., (2000), România otenţial turistic şi turism, Bucharest University Publishing House. Casadesus‐Masanell, R., Ricart, J., E., (2009), From Strategy and Business Models and Tactics, Harvard Business School Available online at: http://www.hbs.edu/research/pdf/10‐036.pdf Casadesus‐Masanell, R., Ricart, J., E., (2007), Competing Through Business Models, IESE Business School, University of Navarra Available online at: http://www.iese.edu/research/pdfs/DI‐0713‐E.pdf Euranek, European Educational and Development Association, (2004), Alternative forms of occupation ‐ continuing vocational Training in Agricultural Regions, Country report and training needs assessment for Greece. Available online at: http://www.euranek.com/alter‐agro/pdf/study1_en.pdf Hergnyan, M., Hovhannisyan, S., (2012), National Competitiveness Report of Armenia 2011‐2012, EV research center, Yerevan, Armenia Available online at: http://www.evconsulting.am/media/documents/BRAINWORK/ACR2011‐2012_eng.pdf Jatib, M., I., Vilella, F., Ordoñez, H., Napolitano, G., and Palau, H., (2003), Agribusiness Executive Education and Knowledge Exchange: New Mechanisms of Knowledge Management Involving the University, Private Firm Stakeholders and Public Sector, International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, Vol 5 Iss 3 Kapiki, S., (2012), Current and Future Trends in Tourism and Hospitality. The Case of Greece, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki Lobo, R 2009, Helpful Agricultural Tourism (Agritourism) Definitions, University of California Division of Agriculture & Natural Resources


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Available online at: http://www.sfc.ucdavis.edu/AGRITOURISM/definition.html Lopes, P. E., Garcia, F. J. K., (2006), Agrotourism, Sustainable Tourism and Ultraperipheral Areas: The Case of Canary Islands, University of La Laguna, Spain Lundy, M., (2007), New Forms of Collective Action by Small‐Scale Growers. Input for the World Development Report 2008. Santiago, Chile. Available online at: http://www.rimisp.org/getdoc.php?docid=9855 Schwab, K., (2012), The Global Competitiveness Report 2012‐2013, World Economic Forum. Available online at: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2012‐13.pdf Shepherd, A., (2007), Approaches to Linking Producers to Markets. FAO Rural Infrastructure and Agro‐Industries Division, Rome. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/ag/ags/subjects/en/agmarket/linkages/agsf13.pdf Smith, V., Eadington, W., (1992), Tourism Alternatives, Potentials and Problems in the Development of Tourism, Wiley, Chichester. Sznajder, M., Przezborska, L., Scrimgeour, F., (2009), Agritourism, CABI Publications, USA Vorley, B., Lundy, M., MacGregor, J., (2009), Business Models that are Inclusive of Small Farmers, FAO and UNIDO 2009. Agro‐industries for Development (C.A. da Silva et al.) Available online at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ags/docs/marketing/Workshops/Vietnam_2008/Business‐Models_shepherd.pdf


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SUSTAINABILITY PRAXIS ON DESTINATIONS: CASE OF “DOOMSDAY” IN ŞİRİNCE VILLAGE ON 21st OF DECEMBER

by

Burcin Kirlar, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Serdar Sunnetcioglu, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Abstract Şirince village in the western province of Izmir, Turkey, is one of the two destinations (the other one is Bugarach village in France) prophesized to survive doomsday predictions based on Mayan calendar. The aim of this study is to discuss the effects of the case of “Doomsday” in Şirince village on 21th of December within the framework of sustainability through the viewpoints of local business owners. Semi‐structured interview technique was applied to 12 local business owners in Şirince village on 20th of December 2012 for this study. Data from the in‐depth interviews were evaluated via content analysis. Results indicate that Şirince village does not have sufficient carrying capacity in terms of environmental damage, infrastructure and superstructure facilities and safety for such kind of a large‐scale event, ‐especially for one‐time events like this one. It is also seen that media had a huge impact on the growth of this event but demand was limited for “Doomsday” in Şirince. Keywords: Sustainability, event tourism, one‐time events, Şirince, 21th of December,

doomsday, carrying capacity. Introduction Especially in the last 50 years, the importance of environmental issues and the concept of sustainability and sustainable development came into existence. Considering the environment is a source of tourism and tourism is a sector that affects the environment, the relationship between tourism and environment acquires an important dimension (Demir ve Çevirgen, 2006: 133). In the delicate relationship between tourism and environment a vicious circle can start when certain attractions are intensely promoted by destinations, and the ensuing tourist inflow results in environmental degradation and the eventual aversion towards the destination. Prevention of such a vicious circle requires management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled, while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity and life support systems. Sustainable tourism products are those which are operated in harmony with the local environment, community, and cultures, so that these become the permanent beneficiaries and not the victims of tourism development (Santonocito, 2009: 388). In recent years, there is an increasing interest in spiritual cases and issues. Such cases may have repercussions among broad masses of people. The Mayan prophecy has sparked that there will be a tourism boom in Şirince village and it was expected to host more than 60,000 visitors according to local media and the news received coverage extensively both in the mainstream and social media. This case study is thought to be important to contribute to the literature in scope of this subject.


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It is also important to consider events that have particular effects on destinations from the point of sustainable tourism. As the result of events, which bring large crowds of people together, the concept of tourism carrying capacity stands out. Tourism carrying capacity assessment, has recently become an important issue for sustainable tourism development (Turumbic, 2005:2). Method In this study, within the framework of sustainability, the effects of the case of “Doomsday”, that can be named as one‐time event (Getz, 2008: 407), in Şirince village on 21th of December is discussed through the viewpoints of local businesses. Within the scope of this research, semi‐structured interview technique was applied to 12 local business owners in Şirince village on 20th of December 2012. These local businesses include hotels, restaurants, cafes and shops –wine, oil, jewelery and souvenir shops. Data that are the results of in‐depth‐interviews were evaluated via content analysis. Findings As the result of the interviews with local business owners in Şirince related to “Doomsday on 21th of December”, findings obtained within the scope of sustainable tourism focused on “carrying capacity”. Rest of the findings derived from the research is related to the impact of the media over the destination and marketing strategies of local people and business owners. According to Butler (1999: 9), particular attention is paid to three specific features related to the applicability of sustainable development to tourism, namely carrying capacity, control over tourism and mass or conventional tourism. Our research findings related to the carrying capacity include environment, infrastructure and superstructure facilities and safety issues (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Problems that may arise in relation to carrying capacity

A number of conclusions have also been reached as a result of the analysis of the interviews conducted with local business owners about the impact of the media on Şirince. According to this, while some of the research participants arguing that the publicities will contribute to the area, rest of the participants have the opinion that this event might have negative

Carrying Capacity

Environment

Infrastructure and superstructure

facilities

Bed capacity

Parking areas

ToiletsSafety


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effects on Şirince. The main factor on the positive evaluations of this event by participants is that the name of the region took place in the media for a long time without any spending. The reason of three participants’ seeing this event positively is that besides the promotion of village, local business owners will earn a financial gain that day. As a result of the observations and interviews, findings also showed that local business owners operated a number of marketing activities on products, services and pricing basis special for “Doomsday”. Some of the special product and service preparations of local businesses for “Doomsday” are shown on Table 2. Table 2. Special preparations of local businesses for “Doomsday”

Product Service

Food and Beverage

Doomsday wine

Doomsday menu (see Table 3)

Recreational Facilities

Doomsday party

Belly‐dancer

Live music for doomsday

Doomsday Rap Group:

“Kıyamet‐i Şirince”

(Doomsday of Şirince)

Souvenirs

Doomsday music CD

Perfume, Mayan figured T‐shirts,

glasses, postcards, key rings and

mesir paste

“Doomsday Menu” prepared meticulously by a restaurant is figured on Table 3. As restaurant manager stated this menu was created by the mails of their customers and each food or beverage is given specific names for that day. Table 3. The special “Doomsday Menu” prepared by a restaurant

Doomsday Soup

Heaven Kebab

Fire on Rice

Forbidden Apple Dessert

Last Breath Tea

It is seen that local business owners were not generally in a pricing policy special to that day and only two companies were in the thought of increasing their prices parallel to demand.

Mesir paste is a kind of traditional paste and it is a mixture of 41 different types of plants and spices. It

has a delicious taste and smell and gives strength to the body, freshens the hearth, increases attention,

calms nerves, purifies blood, softens breast, clears dysuria up, whets and it is good for dyspnea,

dizziness, backache, lumbago, sciatica and rheumatism.


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Results and Discussion Results of this study indicate that Şirince village doesn’t have sufficient carrying capacity in terms of environmental damage, infrastructure and superstructure facilities and safety for such kind of events, ‐especially for one‐time events like this one. Earlier events also support this result. As Lee mentioned (2011: 1297), tourism demand should be properly balanced with the carrying capacity for sustainable ecotourism. Results also show that media had a huge influence in the growth of this event. In spite of being reminisced with such kind of a large‐scale event is positively accepted, people of Şirince got nervous due to intense media coverage. Although local businesses pointed both carrying capacity and getting bored of the media pressure as valid issues, they still wanted to benefit from the commercial opportunities brought by this event. As a result, they developed specific goods and services or increased the number of their stocks for doomsday. According to official records, the highest number of people in Şirince on the day of December 21 ‐ “Doomsday” ‐ reached only 3.850 and the number of visits for the day was a mere total of five thousand. Thus the numbers reflected by media did not actualize as expected. As mentioned before media played a very important role in the growth of this event but the reason of expectations’ not being met might be the speculations created by media. It is believed that people who had intended to come to Şirince were worried about emergence of a chaos. Therefore, it is seen that the role of the media is highly effective in publicizing events and people can be drawn into the destinations by spreading rumors. However, the opposite is also true. Major one‐time or recurring events of limited duration, are developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination (Getz, 2008: 407). Media, and particularly news, because of their high credibility and market penetration may be the only image formation agents capable of changing an area’s image dramatically in a short period of time (Gartner, 1994). Announced in Turkey and in the world, the image of Şirince was influenced from this event. But how this image is perceived by customers is not known. Therefore this topic can be addressed in future studies. Data obtained from literature shows that viewpoints of local people of Şirince about tourism are generally positive (Türkmen et.al, 2012: 297). As a result of findings of this case, it is understood that local business owners have both positive and negative views about the doomsday scenario. The reasons of negative views concentrate on its being a one‐time event and that it might damage the village due to the limited carrying capacity of Şirince,. At this point, importance of the concept of sustainability is more visible. Finally, if the expected number of people had come to Şirince on 21st of December for “Doomsday Scenario”, the village would not have been able to manage this sustainability praxis under these circumstances. Therefore, in case of another large‐scale event, local authorities and businesses should pay more attention about the situation and instead of insufficient precautions they should also try to protect environment and cultural values to carry out tourism activities in a sustainable manner.


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References Butler, R. (1999). Sustainable tourism: A state‐of‐the‐art review. Tourism Geographies: An

International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, 1(1): 7‐25. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616689908721291) Access Date: 12.12.2012 Demir, C. and Çevirgen, A. (2006). Turizm ve Çevre Yönetimi Sürdürülebilir Gelişme

Yaklaşımı. Ankara: Nobel Publishing. Gartner, C. W. (1986). Temporal Influences on Image Change. Annals of Tourism Research,

13(4): 635‐644. Getz, D. (2008). Event Tourism: Definition, Evolution, and Research. Tourism Management,

29: 403‐428. Lee, S. (2011). Carrying Capacity of Sustainable Tourism Based on the Balance Concept

between Ecological Damage Loading and Recovery Capacity. Journal of Coastal Research, 64: 1297‐1301.

Santonocito, S. D. (2009). Sustainable Tourism and Carrying Capacity in the Mediterranean Area Focus on Sicily. 3rd International Scientific Conference, 24/25/26 October 2009, 387‐398.

Trumbic, I. (2005). Tourism Carrying Capacity Assessment in the Mediterranean Coastal Tourist Destinations. Proceedings of the 14th Biennial Coastal Zone Conference. New Orleans, Louisiana.

Türkmen, E., Türkmen, S. and İlban, M. O. (2012). Turizmin Sosyo‐Kültürel Etkileri ve Şirince Halkının Algılamaları. 13. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi,

Antalya, 6‐9 Aralık 2012, 281‐300.


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ETHNIC MINORITIES AS TOURISM ENTREPRENEURS: THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

by

Ceren Miral, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey Sonay Kaygalak, Batman University, Turkey Rezzan Ersoy, Giresun University, Turkey

Abstract Most tourism activities excluding the e‐tourism activities as matter of their nature (service taker and provider) take place face to face between people. In addition tourism activities encourage bonding between people both for tourists and the tourism services providers. Tourism has a multicultural environment. Multicultural environment brings various different cultures, languages and life styles together. Turkey is a country comprised of people belonging to several different cultures in the same and wide geography. As well as in the West coast of the Turkey in Aegean Region, different cultural groups of people or people having different ethnic origins have been living together for many years. Izmir and near cities in the Aegean Region are the homes of mostly Levantines, Greeks, Jewish people and rarely Armenians.

In this paper there are two research questions: what does it mean to be the other (ethnic minority) as tourism entrepreneurs in the Turkish tourism industry and how are these ‘other’ entrepreneurs involved in sustainable tourism development? ., The research methodology in this paper is qualitative. Semi‐structured interviews are conducted with tourism entrepreneurs belonging to different cultural groups and identities. Semi structured interview technique is a commonly used interview method, allowing for a deep understanding of participants` perceptions, thoughts and behaviors.

In general, understanding the other fosters respect to others` cultural beliefs and lifestyle and this in turn will contribute to peace and harmony amongst groups. In the light of these research questions, being the ‘other’ entrepreneur in sustainable tourism development in Turkey is evaluated. Furthermore, this research aims to highlight the advantages and disadvantages different cultural groups have in Turkish tourism industry as well as their overall importance for sustainable tourism development.

Introduction Tourism creates cohesion for many different cultural groups. One of the major cities in Turkey, Izmir is a good example in terms of multiculturality, including many culturally oriented groups such as Levantines, Greeks, Jewish people and rarely Armenians. Izmir is a vital tourism destination for Turkey. In 2012, 1 million 369 thousands international tourists arrived to Izmir. Tourism industry in Izmir includes wide variety of enterprises from multinational hotel chains to locally‐owned tour operators.

Literature Review Ethnicity is considered as the entirety of social relationships and processes that are constructed by cultural differences reframing and maintaining common discourses. Identity


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should be understood as a relationship between agent and structure that is invoked through intentional agency (Hitchcock, 2010). Ethnic identity is considered as recapitulating to notions of common origin, history, culture and race. According to the essentialist point of view, cultural and historical patrimony of the most visible population is taken into account in the case of emphasizing the idiosyncratic features of that population and where the “other” is situated. The constructivist approach mainly accentuates the social interactions between the groups and their shared cultural, social, economic and historical characteristics (Grünewald, 2006).

The main challenge for tourism in that regard is how it will situate and relate itself with ethnicity. Is it a form of ethnic relations where the tourists from different nations seek out the exotic and foreign cultures or will tourism situate itself as a part of social and global construction of cultures by historical, cultural and economic connections? Being other as an entrepreneur in a country can be considered as a dramatic example by being a part of this social and global construction process bilaterally. Izmir is a good example in this case as being a city comprising many different cultures and entrepreneurs from different cultural, national and ideological identities as well.

A tourism entrepreneur can be defined as `a creator of a touristic enterprise motivated by monetary and/or non‐monetary reasons to pursue a perceived market opportunity legally, marginally, or illegally` (Khun et al., 2002). Entrepreneurship can be defined as creating and building something of value from practically nothing (Timmons, 1994). Therefore, entrepreneurship is a process related to inventing something and locally owned. The research on regions where different ethnic origin people lived together a new concept of entrepreneurship has created the ethnic entrepreneurship. There are some studies in literature about ethnic entrepreneurship (Yang, Wall, 2009; Yang et al., 2008; Li, 2007; Hitchcock, 2000; Min, Bozorgmehr, 2000). In some regions ethnic entrepreneurs create organizations to help each other and improve regional development.

Tourism enterprises in developing countries include multinational corporations, medium‐sized enterprises and locally owned small‐scale businesses(Echtner 1995). Entrepreneurs play a significant role in tourism development in regions where multinational and international firms may not enter tourism market (Chang, 2011). Thus tourism entrepreneurs especially in rural and ethnic communities are push motivators for the development tourism and responsible for the sustainable tourism development. Their involvement in sustainable tourism development helps using natural resources more efficiently in the region.

The concept of sustainability has been effective in all sectors as well as in tourism industry. The tourism industry owes its existence to natural, cultural and historical resources. Therefore, one cannot mention about a touristic attractiveness in a destroyed natural, cultural and historical resources. In this respect, the concept of sustainability is vital importance for the industry (Akşit, 2007). Sustainable tourism, which benefits from tourism while reducing costs, rose from the need to preserve natural and human resources (Jackson and Morpeth, 2000,). Thus, both to avoid the effects of mass tourism and to impress the tourists that are interested in the environment, sustainability practices have emerged in this context (Aoki, 2002).


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Methodology In this paper there are two research questions are hold:; what does it mean to be the ‘other’ (ethnic minority) as tourism entrepreneurs in the Turkish tourism industry and how are these ‘other’ entrepreneurs involved in sustainable tourism development? These research questions and the subject of this research is suitable for qualitative research method and research design is flexible. Also the number of participants who are involved in this research is limited. So regarding these reasons the research methodology in this paper is qualitative. The methodological approach in this paper is case study. Case study can be defined as “a holistic empirical inquiry used to gain an in‐depth understanding of a contemporary phenomenon in its real‐life context, using multiple sources of evidence” (Beeton, 2005; cited in Ritchie, Burns, Palmer (Eds.)., 2005).

Data is gathered by semi‐structured interview technique. Semi‐structured interviews are conducted with tourism entrepreneurs who belong to different cultural groups and identities.. Semi‐structured interview technique is a commonly used interview method allowing for deep understanding of participants` perceptions, thoughts and behaviors. The purpose of semi‐structured interview technique is to identify similarities, parallels and differences between the information given by participants (Brannigan, 1985 cited in Mil, 2007).

The interview process is still in progress. Questions in the interview form were based on the literature review. After creating the question form and identifying participants to be interviewed, interview requests were sent by email and telephone starting in January 2013. In those requests objectives and significance of the study were mentioned. Interviews have been going on since February, in participants` offices based on their time schedule. Depending on their time schedule, the researchers have arrived 15 minutes before the interview time.

In the interview process first of all subject of the research is introduced to the participants. Interviews took place one by one. In the interview process to provide confidentiality participants are told their name and surname and business administrations` name would be kept private and answers would be used just for academic research purposes. Moreover, to prevent conflict, questions are followed by a written form and asked to participants. Order of questions is changed in order to be flexible related to the interview process. As a result of participants` behaviors and responses questions are asked again by several ways.

Findings Research paper is still in progress. Findings and discussion part will be completed and shared at the presentation.

Conclusion The evaluation will be done when the research is completed.


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References Ballesteros, E. R., Ramirez, M. H. (2007) “Identity and community—Reflections on the

development of mining heritage tourism in Southern Spain”, Tourism Management 28, 677‐687.

Beeton, S. “The Case Study in Tourism Research: a Multi‐method Case Study Approach” in Ritchie B., Burns, P., Palmer, C. (Eds.) (2005) Tourism Research Methods Integrating Theory with Practice, CABI Publishing, London.

Chang, J. (2011) `Introduction: Entrepreneurship in Tourism and Hospitality: The Role of SMEs`, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 16(5), 467‐469.

Çakır, M. (2010) “Kültürlerarası İletişimin Bir Yönü: Özün Ötekileştirilerek Yabancılaştırılması”, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi 21(1), 75‐84.

Duran, E. (2011) ”Turizm, Kültür ve Kimlik İlişkisi; Turizmde Toplumsal ve Kültürel Kimliğin Sürdürülebilirliği”, İstanbul Ticaret üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 10(19), 289‐313.

Echtner, C.M. (1995) `Entrepreneurial training in developing countries`, Annals of Tourism Research, 22(1), 119–134.

Grünewald, R. A., (2006) Tourism and Ethnicity, Horiz.antropol (1), http://socialsciences.scielo.org/pdf/s_ha/v1nse/scs_a01.pdf, (04.02.2013) .

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture, New York: Doubleday. Hitchcock, M. (2010) “Ethnicity and Tourism Entrepreneurship in Java and Bali,” Current

Issues in Tourism, 3(3). Hobsbawm, E.J. , Ranger, T. (Eds.) (1983) The invention of tradition, Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge. Khoon Y. Koh PhD & Timothy S. Hatten PhD (2002): The Tourism Entrepreneur, International

Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3:1, 21‐48. Levy, S. E. , Hawkins, D. E. (2009) “Peace Through Tourism: Commerce Based Principles and

Practices”, Journal of Business Ethics 89, 569‐585. Reisinger, Y., Turner, L. (1998) ”Cross‐Cultural Differences in Tourism: A Strategy for Tourism

Marketers”, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 7(4),79‐106. Kartarı, A. (2006) Farklılıklarla Yaşamak: Kültürlerarası İletişim. 2. Baskı Ankara: Ürün

Yayınları. McIntosh, A. J., Hinch, T., Ingram, T. (2002) “Cultural Identity and Tourism”, International

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Abraham Pizam, Ph.D. Dean, Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida [email protected] Abraham Pizam is Dean and Linda Chapin Eminent Scholar Chair in Tourism Management in the Rosen College of Hospitality Management, at the University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, U.S.A. Professor Pizam is widely known in the field of Hospitality and Tourism Management and has conducted research projects, lectured, and served as a consultant in more

than 30 countries. He has held various academic positions, in the U.S.A, U.K., France, Austria, Australia, New‐Zealand, Singapore, Israel and Switzerland, has authored more than 160 scientific publications and ten books, is the Editor‐in‐Chief of the International Journal of Hospitality Management and serves on the editorial boards of 20 academic journals. Professor Pizam has conducted consulting and research projects for a variety of international, national and regional tourism organizations. Professor Pizam holds a Master’s degree from New York University and a Ph.D. from Cornell University, and is the recipient of several academic awards.

Anahit Voskanyan, Lecturer Lecturer – Chair, Tourism and New Technologies in Servicing, European Regional Educational Academy, Yerevan, Armenia [email protected] Anahit is a post‐graduate student and tour‐manager of Lore Travel agency. As a lecturer of tourism faculty for seven years, she has been teaching different subjects in the tourism sphere. She started activities in this field in 2006. After having graduated from Tourism MA Program at European Regional Educational Academy, she was offered the position as the Assistant to Dean

of Tourism and World Economics Faculties at EREA (this work was closely connected with teaching process) and at the same time she started delivering a course of lectures. In the course of these years her teaching experience grew and now she is a full time lecturer. Also as a post‐graduate student she is doing a research on “Main Issues of Innovation Management in Tourism Sphere of Armenia”. She studies contemporary aspects of tourism sphere, which contributes to the periodical update of teaching materials. Besides teaching, she has taken part in a number of tourism development projects in Armenia.


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Anja Tuohino University of Eastern Finland, Centre for Tourism Studies [email protected] Anja Tuohino is the Development Manager at the Centre for Tourism Studies at the University of Eastern Finland. Her research interests are in wellness and wellbeing tourism, lake tourism development, and innovation policy. She also has extensive experience with several tourism development projects.

Armin Zerunyan Hilton Worldwide Country General Manager Full Service Hotels, Turkey [email protected] Armin Zerunyan, born in 1963 in Istanbul, is the Hilton Worldwide Turkey Country General Manager, in charge of Full Service Properties, with a total portfolio of 8 hotels including Hilton and Conrad Brands, since January 2011. Before his promotion to the Country General Manager, he was the Cluster

General Manager of the Hilton Worldwide Properties in Istanbul since August 2007, in charge of 3 hotels (Hilton Istanbul, Conrad Istanbul, Hilton ParkSA Istanbul) with a total inventory of 1207 rooms. He was the General Manager of the Hilton Prague between February 2003 and July 2007, the largest Hilton Hotel in the Continental Europe with 788 rooms with an adjacent Congress Center for 1200 persons. Before Prague, he held the position of opening General Manager of the Hilton Sofia from August 2000 until February 2003, the first Hilton property in Bulgaria which is a 245 room property that became market leader within its first full year despite of an increasingly challenging competitive environment and difficult trading conditions. He held his first General Manager position in UAE, at the Hilton Fujairah, from July 1999 until August 2000. Hilton Fujairah is a resort type boutique hotel with 92 rooms, beach front, and extensive gardens. During this period, master plan renovation of all public areas was completed and the market share leadership was maintained despite increasingly challenging trading conditions. Zerunyan was the Executive Assistant Manager of the Hilton Dresden in Germany from March 1997 until June 1999 and he was managing Hilton’s most complex food and beverage operation in Europe with 13 outlets, Congress Center and River Boat catering operation. Zerunyan is the Secretary of the International Hotel & Restaurant Association, IH‐RA, since April 2013, Vice President of the Turkish Hotel Association (TUROB) since February 2013 and its Board Member since February 2008. He has been appointed as a board member of the American‐Turkish Council (ATC) in December 2010.He is also a member of Istanbul Rotary Club since January 2008. He was the founding board member of Meeting Professionals International chapter in Istanbul (MPI) from November 2009 until August 2012, board member of the American Chamber of Commerce in İstanbul (ABFT) from April 2008 until


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January 2010, head of chapter of Czech Association of Hotels and Restaurants from May 2006 to July 2007, head of the Tourism Committee of the American Chamber of Commerce in the Czech Republic between December 2004 and July 2007 and the board member of the American Chamber of Commerce in Bulgaria between January 2002 and February 2003. Mr. Zerunyan was graduated from the Vocational High School of Tourism and Hotel Management in İstanbul in 1982, followed by the bachelor’s degree at the faculty of Business Administration of Marmara University in İstanbul in 1986 and had a second bachelor of arts degree at the Department of Hotel/Restaurant/Tourism Administration of the Alaska Pacific University, Anchorage, Alaska, USA in 1987.

Artak Manukyan, Ph.D. Adjunct Associate Professor, ASUE [email protected] Dr. Artak Manukyan is Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Economics of Armenian State University of Economics. He received his PhD at the Economic Research Institute in 2002. Dr. Manukyan started his research career with the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland in 2003, as a visiting scholar. Dr. Manukyan is an author of more than35 research publications and also 2 monographs. Dr. Manukyan has more than 7 years of

teaching experience in the travel and tourism field. He has served as team leader/coordinator in a large number of research/education projects in Armenia and abroad.

Asli D.A. Tasci, Ph.D. Department of Tourism Recreation and Sport Management University of Florida [email protected] Asli D.A. Tasci, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the field of tourism in the Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management at the University of Florida. She received her doctoral degree in 2003 from the Department of Park Recreation and Tourism Resources at Michigan State University, with an

emphasis in destination marketing. From 2003‐2010, she served as a faculty member, an Erasmus Coordinator, and a department head in the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Mugla University, Turkey. In 2007‐2008, she was a visiting assistant professor at the School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR, China. Tasci is a member of the Travel and Tourism Research Association, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism, and the International Tourism Studies Association. She has served as a reviewer for Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research and


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Tourism Review, while also serving as ad‐hoc reviewer for publication outlets such as the Annals of Tourism Research Tourism Management, and the International Journal of Tourism Research. Her research interests include tourism and hospitality marketing, particularly consumer behavior, image and branding, sociology of tourism and research methodology. She has completed a number of studies in different countries and has explored marketing related subjects, particularly consumer behavior in multi‐cultural settings. Totality of her research contributes to the theory of consumer‐based brand equity in tourism and hospitality context, in diverse level of products, different geographies and cultures.

Burcin Kirlar, Master’s Student Dokuz Eylul University Tourism Management Department Izmir, Turkey [email protected] Burcin Kirlar graduated from Tourist Guidance Department of Ege University in 2009. She worked in the hospitality sector between the years 2007 and 2009. After graduation, she worked as a tour guide for two years during which she also completed her master’s degree in the Turkish Art Department of Ege University. In 2011,

she started to work as a research assistant in Hospitality Management Department of Pamukkale University as part of Scholar Training Program. In the middle of 2012, she was nominated to Dokuz Eylul University as a research assistant and started her master’s degree in Tourism Management Department. She is currently working on her dissertation about Disability Tourism and Accessibility of Hotel Establishments in Izmir, Turkey.

Carnot Nelson, PhD University of South Florida and Bilkent University [email protected] Carnot Nelson received his bachelor’s degree in Psychology from the University of Wisconsin‐Madison in 1963 and his doctorate in Social Psychology from Columbia University in 1966. He served on the faculties of Emory and The Johns Hopkins before joining the Psychology Department at the University of South Florida in 1971 where he became a Professor Emeritus in 2006. He also was an Intergovernmental Personnel Act fellow at the National Institute of

Education. In 2006‐2007 he was a Senior Fulbright Lecturer at Hacettepe and Middle East Technical Universities in Ankara Turkey. In 2009‐2010, 2012‐2013 and is presently a Visiting Professor of Psychology at Bilkent University in Ankara Turkey. He is the author of over 40 articles in refereed journals and is a fellow of the American Psychological Association and American Psychology Society. His present research focuses on a cross‐national perspective on both supervisor‐subordinate relationships and emotional labor, the regulation of employees own emotions to meet organizational expectations despite their own feelings.


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Fevzi Okumus, Ph.D. Professor, Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida [email protected] Dr. Fevzi Okumus is the Editor of the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management (IJCHM), which as a Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) journal. Dr. Okumus is also the founding chair of the Hospitality Services Department at the UCF Rosen College of Hospitality Management. He received his PhD in Strategic Hotel Management in 2000 at Oxford Brookes

University, UK. His research areas include strategy implementation, change management, competitive advantage, learning organizations, crisis management, cross‐cultural management, destination marketing and developing countries. He has widely published in leading journals, including Annals of Tourism Research, Service Industries Journal, Tourism Management, Management Decision, International Journal of Hospitality Management, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management and Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research. He has over 55 refereed journal articles and over 160 academic publications (refereed journal articles, book chapters, conference presentations etc). Dr. Okumus serves on the editorial board of 12 international journals in the hospitality and tourism field.

Gurhan Aktas, Ph.D. Dokuz Eylul University E‐mail: [email protected] Dr. Gurhan Aktas (BA in Business at Hacettepe University, Turkey; MSc in Tourism Management at University of Surrey, UK and; PhD in Tourism Marketing at Bournemouth University, UK) is currently working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Tourism Management, Faculty of Business, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey. In addition to delivering both undergraduate and postgraduate courses in the fields of: destination management and

planning; tourism geography; tourism marketing, and; current issues in tourism planning, he has written book chapters, articles and conference papers on: crisis management in tourist destinations; visitor attractions; urban tourism; special events and tourist destinations, and; alternative tourism forms. The book he has edited, Tourism Geography of Turkey, was published in 2008. He has been the Turkish Team Leader for the project "Multilateral University Consortium to Strengthen Tourism Education, Research and Industry Outreach" jointly conducted by Dokuz Eylul University, University of Florida, and Armenian State University of Economics.


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Hasmik Amiryan, Master’s Student Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo E‐mail: [email protected]

Hasmik Amiryan is a 2nd year Master’s student in Innovative Tourism Development (2011‐2013) at Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Portugal. Her previous education includes: Master’s degree majoring in International Economic Relations, Armenian State University of Economics, Yerevan, Armenia (not completed); bachelor of Economics majoring in International Economic Relations, Armenian State University of Economics,

Yerevan, Armenia; and exchange student majoring in Tourism Management, Alexander Technological Institution of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.

John J. Downes Business Environment Improvement Team Leader, EDMC President Emeritus of the International Forum of Travel and Tourism Advocates (IFTTA) Fellow of the Institute of Travel and Tourism (F.Inst.T.T.) [email protected] John Downes is the Team Leader for the Business Environment Improvement component of USAID’s Enterprise Development and Market Competitiveness Programme. He has considerable experience as an International Travel and Tourism Law Consultant.

Acknowledged as a world expert in Tourism Law by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation, he is considered by his peers in the International Forum of Travel and Tourism Advocates (IFTTA – the international organisation of tourism lawyers, of which he is President Emeritus) as the foremost expert in international tourism law. He has acted on behalf of the UNWTO, UNDP, European Commission, SNV (Dutch Aid Agency), USAID in Tourism Law projects throughout the world including Albania, Armenia, Bahrain, Barbados and the CARIFORUM States of the APC, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dubai, Eritrea, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Lesotho, Libya, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, Palestinian Territories, Papua New Guinea, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Vietnam and Zanzibar. He has considerable experience in drafting Tourism Legislation around the world and has devised and advised on PPP frameworks for tourism development. He was the legal advisor for the leasing of 11 islands in the Maldives. He was also the PPP legal adviser for the Budva and Lake Skadar developments in Montenegro and for the Southern Tourism Corridor in Armenia. He has undertaken work on behalf of a range of private sector businesses and entities, including Ernst and Young, Deloitte & Touché, Chemonics International Inc., Universal Federation of Travel Agents Associations, Airtours PLC, RCI International, FIAVET (Italy), GOPAS (Germany), Agri‐consulting (Belgium), Tourism Development International (USA),


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AGER (Belgium), IDI Ltd (Ireland), Guild of Travel Management Companies, Association of British Travel Agents, Institute of Travel and Tourism, Maxwell Stamp (UK), Law Society of Scotland and JE Austin (USA), Human Dynamics (Austria), the Commonwealth Secretariat, EU BizClim Office, CARICOM Secretariat. An acclaimed speaker at conferences and congresses around the world and has been regular broadcaster for the BBC and other broadcasting organisations. He was former Head of Law and Governor of the University of Abertay Dundee in Scotland. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Travel and Tourism, National Examiner in Travel Law for the City and Guilds of London Institute and was a Visiting professor at the Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management.

Joohee Chae, Ph.D. Student University of Exeter Business School [email protected] Joohee is at the last stage of her PhD in Tourism Management at the University of Exeter in the UK, investigating the change in demand of ski tourism in Japan and the relationship between the image of skiing, tourist motivation and ski resort developments in terms of socio‐cultural factors. She did a MA in Tourism at Rikkyo University in Japan where she also worked as a research assistant

and teaching assistant after completing a BBA in Hospitality and Tourism Management at Sejong University in Korea. Her primary research goals are directed toward understanding tourist values and motivation and their impact on tourist consumption behavior and sustainable destination development using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Joohee also has wider interest in the relationship between peace and tourism, tourist values, happiness and unconscious level.

Kaye Chon, Ph.D. Dean, School of Hotel & Tourism Management The Hong Kong Polytechnic University [email protected] A former hotel manager and tourism industry consultant, Prof. Kaye Chon (Ph.D., CHE) is Chair Professor and Director of the School of Hotel and Tourism Management at The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, a position which he has assumed since year 2000. Prof. Chon was previously Professor and Director of Research and Director of Tourism Industry Institute at the

University of Houston’s Conrad N. Hilton College in Houston, Texas, United States. Prof. Chon is a graduate of the University of Maryland (AA), Georgia State University (BSc), University of Nevada, Las Vegas (MSc), and Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University (Ph.D.). Prof. Chon is recognized internationally for his research, scholarship and academic leadership in the areas of Hospitality Management, Quality Services, and Hospitality Industry Marketing. He has presented lectures, seminars and speeches in more than 50 countries


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across all continents of the world. In his university teaching that spans over 24 years, Prof. Chon twice received “Teaching Excellence Award” and four times received “Research Excellence Award,” including the John Wiley & Sons Award and Howard B. Meek Award from International CHRIE, Martin Oppermann Memorial Award from the International Society of Travel & Tourism Educators (ISTTE), Michael D. Olsen Award from the University of Delaware, and Founders Award in Research from Purdue University and the University of South Carolina, all for his lifetime contribution to scholarship and research in tourism/hospitality. In 2003, he received the prestigious FTA Hospitality Humanitarian Leadership Award from Fred Tibbitts and Associates of New York for his leadership and community services in global hospitality industry development. In 2003, he was also recognized by his alma mater Georgia State University as the “Most Outstanding Alumni in 30 Years History.” Prof. Chon is the past Chairman of the International Society of Travel & Tourism Educators and currently member of the United Nations World Tourism Organisation’s Education Council Steering Committee. He is in Who’s Who In The World.

Kelly J. Semrad, Ph.D. Associate Director Eric Friedheim Tourism Institute University of Florida Assistant Professor Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida [email protected] Dr. Kelly J. Semrad, currently serves in a dual role as the associate

director for the University of Florida’s Eric Friedheim Tourism Institute and is a newly appointed assistant professor at the Rosen College of Hospitality Management at the University of Central Florida. She has 15 years of professional experience in the hospitality and special event industries. Her prominent area of research involves the application of econometric case study designs to hospitality firms. Dr. Semrad has presented more than 35 research presentations at international conferences, has published in renowned academic journals, and has served on teams that have provided evaluations and technical reports to tourism and hospitality organizations worldwide. She is the recipient of numerous research and teaching awards and has also served as an invited visiting professor at multiple universities. Her teaching portfolio is extensive having taught more than 30 different courses (2001 – 2013) in the fields of hospitality, event, and sports management. Dr. Semrad served as the chair for the tourism and hospitality curriculum development committee at the University Of Florida (UF); and, was the degree underwriter for a Bachelor of Science degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management at UF. Kelly welcomes the opportunity to share methods pertaining to designing an undergraduate program in tourism and hospitality management that represents a fusion of expectations from the industry and educators with the ATA Fellows and conference delegates.


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Mahmood A. Khan, Ph.D. Professor, Hospitality & Tourism Management Virginia Tech’s Northern Virginia Center [email protected] Dr. Mahmood A. Khan has served in teaching, research and administrative positions for past 38 years, working at major U.S. universities. He served as the Head of the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, for 11 years. He is also the Founder‐Director of the Hospitality Program at the National Capital Region campus of Virginia Tech. Dr. Khan is a Fulbright

Scholar and has received several awards including the Steven Fletcher Award for his outstanding contribution to hospitality education and research. He is also a recipient of John Wiley & Sons Award for lifetime contribution to outstanding research and scholarship; Donald K. Tressler Award for scholarship; and Cesar Ritz Award for scholarly contribution. He has served on the Board of Governors of the Educational Foundation of the International Franchise Association, on the Board of Directors of the Virginia Hospitality and Tourism Association, as a Trustee of the International College of Hospitality Management and as a Trustee on the Foundation of the Hospitality Sales and Marketing Association’s International Association. He is also a member of several hospitality professional associations. Dr. Khan is the author of seven books including Restaurant Franchising; Concepts of Foodservice Operations and Management; Encyclopedia of Hospitality and Tourism Management; and Nutrition for Foodservice Managers. He has traveled extensively and lectured nationally and internationally. He has been invited by national and international corporations to serve as a speaker, keynote speaker, and seminar presenter on different topics related to hospitality and tourism management. He has presented seminars in different countries. He has given over 100 presentations and served as keynote speaker at various national and international meetings. He has travelled to 36 different countries as consultant to various public and private organizations including USAID. He has conducted Institutes and Workshops for various management and service corporations as well as training programs in different areas related to consumer research, service management, consumer preferences, foodservice management, developing management skills, entrepreneurship, franchising and marketing. Dr. Khan serves as Associate Editor of the Cornell Hospitality Quarterly and as Chief Acquisition Editor for Apple Academic Publications, in addition to being on advisory boards of several professional journals.

Manush Simonyan, Master’s Student Armenian State University of Economics, Armenia [email protected] Manush is a first year Master’s student at the Armenian State University of Economics. Her specialization is tourism management. In the Business Management department. Currently she is also working as an accountant at Alfa Pharm pharmaceutical CJSC. She strives to use her theoretical knowledge in practice and improve her

professional skills.


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Mathilda van Niekerk, Ph.D. University of Central Florida Rosen College of Hospitality Management [email protected] Dr. van Niekerk earned an honors BA degree in Tourism and Recreation Management, a master’s degree in Tourism, and a PhD in Tourism Management. Dr. Van Niekerk is the author or co‐author of more than 61 scientific publications, textbooks and industry reports. She serves on editorial boards of several academic journals. She has taught 21 graduate and

undergraduate courses in tourism development and management, destination and event marketing and event management. Dr. van Niekerk has extensive experience in leadership positions and of managing organizational budgets and events. Before joining the Rosen College of Hospitality Management in Orlando, Florida she held senior management positions at different institutions in both the higher education sector and local government sector in South Africa. She was Head of the Tourism Section at the Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa a position she held for five years. She then joined the Mbombela Local Municipality as Senior Manager responsible for the Local Economic Development, Tourism and Trade. During the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa she was also the cluster leader in Nelspruit, one of the Host Cities responsible for marketing, communications, events and tourism. Her commitment and her competence as an event organizer, visionary and leader are also evident in the fact that she has been an owner and director of a successful business enterprise in the private sector, where she was nominated in the professional category as a national finalist in the ABSA Business Woman of the Year award in South Africa.

Michael Sagas, Ph.D. Department of Tourism Recreation and Sport Management University of Florida [email protected] Michael Sagas, Ed.D., began his tenure at UF in 2008 as Department Chair and as Professor of Sport Management. Sagas came to UF from Texas A&M University where he was an associate professor and chair of the Division of Sport Management. Sagas also founded and served as the director of the Center for Sport Management Research and Education from 2006‐2008.

Sagas’ primary line of inquiry in the field of sport management has been focused on the continued under‐representation and differential treatment of women and minorities in coaching and athletics administration at the intercollegiate athletics level. The general goal of this research has been to provide theoretical and practical insights needed by scholars, policy makers and managers to identify the barriers that limit the status, development, advancement and well‐being of women and minority employees and sports teams.


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Murat Usta, Ph.D. Student Dokuz Eylul University [email protected] Murat Usta is a PhD candidate and a research assistant in the Department of Tourism Management at Dokuz Eylul University. His master’s degree was also from the same department. He is currently at the final stage of his studies. His research interests include reputation management, tourism marketing, and communications. Muzaffer (Muzzo) Uysal, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Pamplin College of Business Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University [email protected] Muzaffer (Muzzo) Uysal is a professor of tourism in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech). He has extensive experience in the travel and tourism field, authoring or

co‐authoring a significant number of articles in tourism, hospitality, and recreation journals, proceedings, book chapters, and monographs, and books related to tourism research methods, tourist service satisfaction, tourism and quality‐of‐life, and consumer psychology in tourism and hospitality settings. He also has conducted workshops and seminars on similar topics and field research in several countries. He is a member of International Academy for the Study of Tourism, the Academy of Leisure Sciences, and serves as co‐editor of Tourism Analysis: An Interdisciplinary Journal. In addition, he sits on the editorial boards of several journals, including Journal of Travel Research, and Annals of Tourism Research as resource editor. He also received a number of awards for Research, Excellence in International Education, and Teaching Excellence. His current research interests center on tourism demand/supply interaction, tourism development and QOL research in tourism.

Robertico Croes, Ph.D. Professor, Rosen College of Hospitality Management University of Central Florida [email protected] Chair, Department of Tourism, Events & Attractions; Professor Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of Central Florida Associate Director Dick Pope Sr. Institute for Tourism Studies. Dr. Croes is the author of two books and over 100 journal articles, book chapters and presentations throughout the world, including the Netherlands, Spain, Venezuela, Nicaragua,


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Costa Rica, Aruba, Curacao, the Bahamas, Ecuador, Barbados, and Puerto Rico. His research has also been presented in predominant industry and research conferences around the world including: South Africa, Hong Kong, Ireland, Turkey, Taiwan, and Trinidad and Tobago. His fields of interest include: econometrics applications in hospitality, tourism demand analysis/forecasting, tourism economic impact, competitive and sustainable tourism in tourism development analysis, tourism development applied to poverty alleviation and tourism development developing countries.

Roland H. Loog CMP, CDME, Executive Director Alachua County Visitors and Convention Bureau [email protected] Currently serves as Director of the Gainesville/Alachua County Visitors & Convention Bureau (VisitGainesville), in Gainesville Florida. Roland worked as Convention Sales Director prior to his promotion to Director. Mr. Loog has a Bachelor’s of Arts degree from the University of Florida. Upon promotion to Director, Roland pursued the premier designation for destination

management professionals and earned his Certified Destination Management Executive (CDME), status from Purdue University. He also earned his Certified Meeting Professional (CMP) designation from the Convention Industry Council. He has been in the hotel side of the hospitality industry for over 35 years, working in the resorts of New England and various Florida properties. Mr. Loog has been a General Manager, Director of Sales and Marketing, and a Food and Beverage Director for Radisson, Sheraton and Hilton Hotels. Roland was a partner in a very popular downtown Gainesville restaurant for 4 years before selling his partnership. Mr. Loog currently serves on various boards including: The Board of Directors for the University of Florida’s Eric Friedheim Tourism Institute for Tourism Research, The Board of Director of The Southeast Tourism Society, The North Central Florida Regional Planning Council’s Rural Tourism Task Force and currently serves as the area’s Film Commissioner. Mr. Loog has previously served on various other boards: past Chair of the Florida Association of Destination Marketing Organizations (FADMO), Customer Services Committee for Visit Florida. Roland’s published works include, The Future of CVB’s as part of Destination Management Association International’s combined library of work for Convention and Visitors Bureaus. Other memberships include: Destination Marketing Association International, Visit Florida Founding Partner, Southeast Tourism Society, Gainesville Sports Commission.


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Semih S. Yilmaz, Ph.D. Student Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management, University of Florida [email protected] After completing his degree in Tourism Management from Bogazici University, Turkey, Semih Yilmaz started working as a specialist for the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2007. During his post at the Ministry, Yilmaz completed a thesis on Tourism Ethics, participated in management of two European Union mobility projects and was involved in the

development of national vocational certification systems in tourism. Most recently, Yilmaz participated in a United Nations MDG‐F Joint Project entitled “Alliances for Culture Tourism in Eastern Anatolia,” as a Ministry representative. Semih Yilmaz is currently doing his doctoral studies at the UF Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management where he is also a research assistant for Dr. Asli Tasci. He has presented academic papers at several national and international conferences and co‐authored a journal article (in press) with Asli Tasci titled “Internet as an Information Source & Social Distance: Any Relationship?" (to be published in Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology). He is involved in the ATA Fellows project, a multilateral university consortium to strengthen tourism education, research & industry outreach in three partner countries (U.S.‐Turkey‐Armenia).

Sonay Kaygalak, Ph.D. Student Dokuz Eylul University [email protected] After graduating from Balikesir University, Tourist Guiding Department at 2009, Sonay Kaygalak worked as a tourist guide for nearly one year. She has been working as a research assistant in the Department of Tourism Management at Dokuz Eylul University since 2011, where she continues her education in Ph.D. She has experience especially in tourism sociology. Her master’s thesis was about authenticity in tourism.


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Svetlana Stepchenkova, Ph.D. Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management University of Florida [email protected] Svetlana Stepchenkova, Ph.D., is an assistant professor at the Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management at the University of Florida. The area of her research interests is destination management, marketing, and branding, with the focus on quantitative assessment of destination image using qualitative data. She is especially interested in influence of media messages on image formation, and destination image as a factor

in explaining destination choice. Dr. Stepchenkova also studies applications of information technologies in travel and tourism, particularly virtual travel communities, destination websites, and user‐generated content as a means of obtaining a competitive advantage in destination marketing and management. Dr. Stepchenkova publishes her research in the Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Management, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, as well as CyberPsychology & Behavior and Computers in Human Behavior. In 2011 Svetlana joined the Editorial Review Board of Journal of Travel Research. She also serves as a reviewer for Tourism Management, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, and Current Issues in Tourism.

Tamara Rátz, Ph.D. Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences [email protected] Tamara Rátz (PhD) is Director of Centre for Business Studies and Head of Tourism Department at the Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences in Hungary, and Visiting Professor at Karaganda University of Economic Sciences in Kazakhstan. She gained her PhD degree in Management Studies with a specialisation in Tourism from the Budapest University of Economic Sciences and Public Administration, Hungary. In addition to being Visiting

Lecturer at HAMK University of Applied Sciences in Finland between 1995 and 2011, she has taught various tourism‐related courses in Norway, the Netherlands, Poland, Bulgaria, the Ukraine, Romania and Turkey. In 2010, she received the national “Tourism Professor of the Year” award in Hungary. She is the author or co‐author of more than 150 publications on tourism, including a number of books on the impacts of tourism, attraction and visitor management, and health tourism and quality of life. She is actively involved in consultancy in tourism education and destination development, both in Hungary and abroad. Her current research interests include cultural and heritage tourism development and management, creativity and innovation in niche tourism development, and the role of tourism as a catalyst in European integration.


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Vardan Urutyan, Ph.D. Armenian State Agrarian University International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education Foundation, Agribusiness Department, Armenian State Agrarian University [email protected]

Dr. Vardan Urutyan, Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Agricultural Economics of Texas A&M University. Received his PhD at the Armenian State Economics Institute in 2003 and completed a postdoctoral program in Agribusiness Finance and Risk Management at the University of Guelph,

Canada. Dr. Urutyan started his career with the USDA Marketing Assistance Project in 2000, as Assistant/Advisor and Lecturer at the USDA‐funded Agribusiness Teaching Center (ATC), a joint Armenian‐U.S. agribusiness education program. Currently he is the Director of the International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education (ICARE) foundation and the Head of Agribusiness Department of the Armenian State Agrarian University since 2007. Dr. Urutyan has a rich teaching and extensive research experience in the area of rural finance, vertical coordination in agro‐food supply chains, agricultural cooperatives, as well as socio‐economic impact and sustainability assessments. He has served as team leader/coordinator in a large number of research/education projects in Armenia and abroad.

Yong Jae Ko, Ph.D. Department of Tourism Recreation and Sport Management University of Florida [email protected] Dr. Yong Jae Ko is an Associate Professor in the Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Management at the University of Florida. His primary research interests are (a) service marketing and (b) sport consumer behavior. A particular research interest includes consumer socio‐psychological constructs such as attitude, perception, and belief about sport organizations and their product brands, sport participation motivation/involvement, and

commitment/identification of sport consumers. This line of research has been extended to a variety of segments in the sport industry such as sport sponsorship, college sport, sport e‐business and martial arts. The overriding goal of this line of research is to develop an improved understanding of sport consumers’ decision‐making processes and provide sport organizations with managerial implications. Ultimately, his scholarly efforts will help communities improve quality of life for individuals and families through sport participation, with the added benefit of also improving their psychological and physical health. Many of his studies have been published in peer‐reviewed sport management and marketing journals (e.g., Journal of Sport Management, Sport Management Review, International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, and Sport Marketing Quarterly). He also published his research outcomes in the relevant premier journals related to these lines of research (e.g.,


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On behalf of all contributors, we thank the Editors for offering publication opportunity in these prestigious Journals:

Muzaffer Uysal, Tourism Analysis Rick Perdue, Journal of Travel Research Kaye Chon, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing Cihan Cobanoglu, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology Abraham Pizam, International Journal of Hospitality Management Dogan Gursoy, Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management Omar Moufakkir, Journal of Tourism and Peace Research (A special Issue) Fevzi Okumus, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Alan Fyall, B. Garrod, Youcheng Wang, Journal of Destination Marketing and Management Mahmood Khan, Advances in Hospitality & Tourism Management (Edited book series)

Journal of Marketing Management, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, and Annals of Tourism Research). Dr. Ko is a member of the Sport Marketing Association (SMA) and the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM). His professional service has been excellent as he routinely serve on various committees and advisory board in national and international sport organizations.

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