at the feet of giants: compatibilities (or lack thereof...
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At the Feet of Giants: Compatibilities (or lack thereof)
between Global Visions and Local Conditions
A Field Study on Environmental Education │ Lichinga, Mozambique
Department of Social Studies
Authors: Klaudia Medalion & Katarina Näslund
Tutor: Anders Nilsson
Examiner: Heiko Fritz
Peace and Development Work
4FU42E Master Thesis
Date of Submission: 2016-05-29
Date of Defense: 2016-06-03
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Abstract
The demands on our environment have reached vast levels, and climate change is often seen
as the world’s most pressing challenge, hindering some countries from achieving sustainable
development in the future. Low-developed countries, such as Mozambique, are those often
viewed as most likely to suffer the most from consequences of environmental degradation,
and global actors, such as United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), have emphasized the need for environmental education (EE) that can equip and
mobilize people, especially youth, for the right kind of change. There is little known,
however, of how suitable these global ideas are at the local level in a country like
Mozambique, with various environmental problems and a large youth population.
With this problem in mind, this study aims to increase the understanding of how the
global indicators for EE are reflected in national policy and local practice. The intention is to
compare the global, national and local indicators and identify possible gaps and similarities,
and draw conclusions about compatibilities between the global and most local level. Thus, a
three-week field study in Lichinga Municipality, in northern Mozambique was undertaken.
Empirical field data was mostly gathered through semi-structured interviews and direct
observations. In order to understand potential compatibilities between the global and local
level, a comparative analytical approach based on an inductive mode of inference was
applied, contrasting the indicators’ main messages.
The findings show that different indicators have different priorities which create
incompatibilities between different levels. The global indicator was found to be too general
and thus not very helpful especially for sustainable development on very local level, in this
case Lichinga Municipality. While young people presented good knowledge and awareness
about environmental issues, youth need resources and support to act as agents of change. As
of now, they do not have the ability to take on the expected responsibility at the local level.
For the global indicator to be successful on all levels, it is concluded that it must take local
conditions into considerations and move away from its universal nature.
Key Words: Environmental Education, Lichinga Municipality, Mozambique, Sustainable
Development, Youth
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Acknowledgements
This study was undertaken in the Spring of 2016 during four weeks in Mozambique. It was
made possible through the assistance and contributions of a number of people, whom we
wish to acknowledge. First of all, we want to express our gratitude to all our interviewees; for
opening up their homes and communities, and for their willingness to share their time and
thoughts with us.
Second, we would like to thank Jorge Malita for his practical help on the ground; from the
coordination of meetings to guided tours of Lichinga Municipality. We would here also like
to recognize our driver, Micael Cuinica, for always being five minutes away, ready to take us
where we needed to go.
Third, a big thank you goes out to our supervisors in the field, Anders Nilsson and Gunilla
Åkesson, for their invaluable assistance throughout this process. The study would not have
been made possible without their time and commitment, and we are grateful for their support,
guidance, and company during this journey.
Last but not least, we wish to thank our fellow research teams who experienced Mozambique
with us. We feel that it has been a very educating experience, helping us grow not only
academically and professionally but also on a personal level, and it would not have been the
same without all of you.
Obregada to everyone who has been supportive throughout this process. It has been a
perplexing yet amazing experience, filled with many different impressions and adventures,
and wonderful people that we will not soon forget.
Klaudia Medalion and Katarina Näslund
Växjö, Sweden │ May 29th
2016
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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Images and Annexes .......................................................................................................................... vi
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................... vii
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Problem Identification ......................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Research Questions .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Research Methods ................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5 Definitions............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.6 Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................................... 4
1.7 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................................................... 4
2. Methodology .............................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Research Design ................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Methods................................................................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Participants - Sampling and Interviews ............................................................................................... 8
2.4 Delimitations and Limitations .............................................................................................................. 9
3. Analytical Approach ................................................................................................................................ 10
3.1 Comparative Study based on Induction ............................................................................................. 10
3.2 Epistemological Reflection ................................................................................................................ 11
4. Literature Review ..................................................................................................................................... 13
4.1 Relation between Sustainable Development and Education .............................................................. 13
4.2 Transforming Utopia .......................................................................................................................... 14
4.3 Examples of Youth Involvement ....................................................................................................... 15
4.4 Shaping Pro-Environmental Behaviour ............................................................................................. 16
4.5 General Guidance of Study ................................................................................................................ 16
5. Background & Context ............................................................................................................................ 18
5.1 Area of Study ..................................................................................................................................... 18
5.1.1 Republic of Mozambique ............................................................................................................ 18
5.1.2 Niassa Province ........................................................................................................................... 19
5.1.3 Lichinga Municipality ................................................................................................................. 20
5.2 Environmental Context ...................................................................................................................... 20
5.3 Youth - “The Future Generation” ...................................................................................................... 22
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6. Findings - Environmental Education ....................................................................................................... 23
6.1 Global Indicators - “A Better Tomorrow Begins Today” .................................................................. 23
6.2 National Indicators - Mozambique .................................................................................................... 26
6.2.1 Eu e a Natureza - Nature and I ................................................................................................... 26
6.2.2. O Segredo da Vida - The Secret of Life ..................................................................................... 27
6.2.3 Por um Moçambique Verde, Belo e Próspero ............................................................................ 28
6.3 Local Indicators ................................................................................................................................. 30
6.3.1 Formal Environmental Education ............................................................................................... 30
6.3.2 Non-formal Environmental Education ........................................................................................ 32
6.3.3 Non-educational Institutions’ View on Environment ................................................................. 36
7. Findings - Local Level & Youth .............................................................................................................. 40
7.1 Youth in the Context of Lichinga Municipality ................................................................................. 40
7.2 Youth and their Knowledge about the Environment .......................................................................... 42
8. Analysis ................................................................................................................................................... 48
8.1 Local vs. Local ................................................................................................................................... 48
8.2 Local vs. National .............................................................................................................................. 49
8.3 National vs. Global ............................................................................................................................ 50
8.4 Global vs. Local ................................................................................................................................. 51
9. Conclusions .............................................................................................................................................. 53
9.1 Contrasting Messages ........................................................................................................................ 53
9.2 Future Sustainable Development in Lichinga? .................................................................................. 53
9.3 Concluding Remarks on Increasing Compatibilities.......................................................................... 54
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................. ix
Annexes ....................................................................................................................................................... xv
Annex 1. Glossary .................................................................................................................................... xv
Annex 2. Interview Guide ........................................................................................................................ xv
Annex 3. List of People Contacted .......................................................................................................xviii
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List of Images and Annexes
Image 1 Illustration of analytical approach ................................................................................... 10
Image 2 Map of Mozambique ........................................................................................................ 18
Image 3 River Muchenga ............................................................................................................... 38
Image 4 Garbage in school yard .................................................................................................... 44
Image 5 Effects of erosion ............................................................................................................. 45
Image 6 Simplified illustration of analytical approach .................................................................. 48
Annex 1 Glossary ........................................................................................................................... xv
Annex 2 Interview Guide ............................................................................................................... xv
Annex 3 List of People Contacted .............................................................................................. xviii
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List of Abbreviations
ANAMM National Municipality Association
CIF Climate Investment Funds
CTV Centro Terra Viva
DDECSR District Direction for Education, Culture, Sports and Recreation
EE Environmental Education
ESD Education for Sustainable Development
FOFeN Fórum das Organizações Femininas do Niassa
FRELIMO Mozambique Liberation Front
GAP Global Action Plan
IW Interview
MDM Democratic Movement of Mozambique
MICOA Ministry of Coordination of Environmental Affairs
NAYD Network of African Youths for Development
NCEA Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment
ND-GAIN University of Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index
NGO Non-governmental organisation
NRDC Natural Resources Defence Council
OJM Mozambique Youth Organisation
OMM Mozambique Women's Organisation
ORERA Organização Raparigas em Acção
PDE Provincial Direction of Education
PDLERD Provincial Direction for Land, Environment and Rural Development
RENAMO Mozambican National Resistance
ROADS Rede de Organizações para o Ambiente e Desenvolvimento Sustentável
SD Sustainable Development
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SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
UCA Union of Peasants Associations
UN United Nations
UNCDP United Nations Committee for Development Policy
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WCK Wildlife Clubs of Kenya
WWF World Wildlife Fund
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1. Introduction
This chapter presents the research problem, the purpose of this study as well as the research
questions. What is more, the chosen research methods are briefly presented, and ethical
considerations explained along with important definitions. In order to assist readers, the
structure of the thesis will be provided likewise.
1.1 Problem Identification
The way that the world has been treated in the past 50 years is no longer sustainable (MICOA
2009: 32). The demands on the environment have reached exceptional levels, and with it the
gap between the rich and poor. Natural resources - such as air, plants, water and animals -
provide us with ways to sustain ourselves and are thus vital for not only economic
development, but for human well-being as well. The phenomenon of climate change has by
the United Nations (UN) Secretary General been described as one of our time’s greatest
challenges (UNEP, 2016a), and could potentially undermine the ability of countries to
achieve sustainable development (SD) in the future, with low-developed countries often
viewed as most likely to suffer from the consequences that climate change may have on their
social and economic systems (UN, 2016). A bottom line here is a need for a sustainable use
of our natural resources, so that future generations will be able to sustain themselves as well
(UNEP, 2016b), which is argued to require certain knowledge, values, and consciousness
(UNESCO, 2014: 8).
It is argued that when young people have access to relevant education that can equip
and mobilize them for change, they are the future of development (WWF Sweden, 2015;
World Bank, 2007; UNESCO, 2014: 8). A study of youth between 15 – 35 years of age was
conducted for the 2011 African Union “Accelerating Youth Empowerment for Sustainable
Development” Summit with the aim to identify issues facing young people in Africa and
what they aspired to see on their continent in the future. Emerging opinions concerned the
understanding of climate change, and what respondents saw as their primary obligations and
responsibilities as youth for SD (NAYD, 2011). Internationally, to spread knowledge about
the environment and the sustainable utilization of natural resources, environmental education
(EE) has emerged as an area of expertise (MICOA, 2009: 1-2). It has gained its prominence
through a series of international events, from the 1972 UN Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm (MICOA, 2009: 1; Gough, 2013), to the more recent 2015 Paris
Climate Conference (UNESCO, 2015), emphasizing the involvement of youth in solving
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global environmental problems. However, Mozambique, a country that as of May 2016 is on
the list of least developed countries in the world (UNCDP, 2016) and which has a population
where 45 percent is under the age of 15 (Index Mundi, 2015), was not included in the NAYD
study. This, despite being prone to extreme climatic events and other environmental issues1,
posing barriers to SD (MICOA, 2009: 7).
Today, an aspect of Mozambique’s school curricula deals with environmental
conservation, and in this context, EE has been given importance where students should be
motivated to study their own reality. There is little known, however, what the conditions are
for SD through EE in this country, taking into account people’s dependency on natural
resources (Ibid.: 27, 35) and its young population. There is moreover limited knowledge on
how the global EE policy is translated into national educational efforts and of how these
contributes to SD, especially at the very local level in Mozambique. Out of this a question
appears, of how aware and knowledgeable Mozambican youth are towards the environment,
and to what extent the global indicator is compatible with national educational efforts and
local living conditions. On the backdrop of this, this study will be looking at the local level,
focusing on Lichinga Municipality in Niassa Province, to better understand the
compatibilities (or differences) between the global indicator on EE and local conditions.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this study is to increase the understanding of how the global indicator on EE
is reflected in national policy and local practice. This requires gaining a better understanding
of what environmental problems Lichinga Municipality faces and of how educational
messages about the environment are represented in youth’s awareness and knowledge
towards the environment. The intention is through analysis to identify possible gaps and
similarities between the local and the global, and draw conclusions about what this means for
SD for Lichinga in the future, but also of how the global message and the local conditions
can become more compatible. Hence, the local reality will be compared to what is nationally
as well as globally discussed in relation to EE.
1 For the sake of this study, the terms ‘environmental issues’ and ‘environmental problems’ will be used interchangeably.
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1.3 Research Questions
For the purpose of this study, the following research questions have been developed:
1. What are the perceived environmental problems in Lichinga, mainly among young
people and the educational sector?
2. How does formal and non-formal environmental education in Lichinga Municipality
discuss the environment with youth, and what knowledge about it do youth have?
3. To what extent are the global indicators compatible with the national educational
efforts and the living conditions at the most local level in a developing country, in this
case Mozambique?
1.4 Research Methods
In order to answer the research questions and fulfil the purpose, a qualitative research method
has been chosen, taking the form of both a desk study and the main approach of a field study.
The desk study aims to look into existing literature in order to map out the global indicators
of EE, as well as EE in Mozambique. The field study aims to increase understanding of the
environmental knowledge, awareness and living conditions of youth in Lichinga
Municipality, and is deemed necessary to identify discrepancies and similarities, and draw
conclusions about what this means for SD in the Municipality. Hence, a three week field
study was conducted in Lichinga, obtaining empirical field data mainly through the use of
semi-structured interviews and direct observations.
In order to understand potential compatibilities between the global and local level, the
analytical approach is policy oriented, or inspired, adopting a comparative approach based on
an inductive mode of inference, using the global indicators as the point of departure. Main
messages at the relevant levels - the global, national and local - will be identified and
contrasted against each other, as this provides a useful structure for drawing conclusions on
EE’s potential to create SD in Lichinga Municipality, but also of how global indicators and
local conditions in a developing country like Mozambique can be made more compatible.
1.5 Definitions
This research will look into two types of EE at the local level - formal and non-formal, in
order to gain more understanding into the area of study. Formal EE is what is developed
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within the formal educational system, through the inclusion of terms, concepts and notions
about environment in the curriculum. Non-formal EE, for the sake of this study, includes
more semi-structured ways in and out of the educational system through training, lectures and
educational materials prepared by different organisations and associations, as well as medias
such as the radio. (MICOA, 2009: 3-4)
Moreover, we acknowledge that in the overall global discussion, one refers to
‘environmental education’ (EE) and ‘education for sustainable development’ (ESD); this due
to a change in indicator in the 1980s (Gough, 2013). In this study, when the term
‘environmental education’ is used, it refers to the basic ideas of EE and ESD combined.
‘Sustainable development’ for the purpose of this study takes on the following
definition: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987: 41). The terms
“sustainability” and “sustainable development” will moreover be used interchangeably in this
paper. Furthermore, environmental issues refer to aspects of both human and natural activity
with harmful effects on environmental sustainability, which is globally seen as necessary for
the well being of the world and those living in it (Business Dictionary, 2016).
For the sake of this essay, ‘youth’ or ‘young people’ refer to children attending fifth
grade up until the age of 24. Fifth grade was chosen as this is where it was found that
environmental issues are being discussed in school. It was also found out that there were kids
of different ages attending this grade, hence this is why a lower age limit is not mentioned in
this research; only a maximum limit based on the United Nations (2013) and the World Bank
(2016b) definitions of youth.
1.6 Ethical Considerations
Participants were informed at the beginning of each interview about purpose of the research
and what the results were meant to be used for. It is important that any information collected
is presented in a true and accurate way, and that it will be ethically used, which is especially
important when working with children and young people (Schmit, 2006).
1.7 Thesis Structure
This thesis is divided into nine chapters. Chapter 1, the introduction, has just presented the
research problem along with the purpose and research questions of the thesis to provide the
reader with a brief description of the study.
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Chapter 2 offers an outline of the methods chosen for data collection along with the
delimitations and limitations of the study. Chapter 3 furthermore introduces the analytical
approach used to structure the findings.
Chapter 4 is composed of a literature review, focusing on the debate surrounding
environmental education, ending with a brief description of the general guidance of the study.
Chapter 5 moreover offers the reader an introduction to the context the study was carried out
in. Hence, brief background information about Mozambique, Niassa Province, and Lichinga
Municipality is found here, also looking into the state of the environment, and youth, in the
country.
Chapter 6 and 7 both touch upon the findings of the study. Chapter 6 deals with
findings regarding environmental education; the global, national, and local indicators.
Chapter 7 looks into the local level and youth in particular, presenting findings regarding
their living situation as well as their knowledge about the environment.
Chapter 8 presents the analysis, focusing on gaps and similarities between the
different indicators and provided messages. The thesis is then brought to a close with Chapter
9, which returns back to the initial problem and research questions, providing a summary of
the main arguments and conclusions.
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2. Methodology
This chapter explains the chosen research methods used in this study, along with a
description of participants and the way interviews were conducted. Moreover, limitations and
delimitations for this thesis are mentioned.
2.1 Research Design
Given the lack of earlier research at local level, and the linkages to global and national
policies on environmental education (EE), our interest called for two complementary
approaches; a desk study and the main approach of a field study. Together, these provide an
inductive mapping exercise for creating a systematic description of three fields: 1) the global
indicators for EE; 2) the content of the environmental components of the EE in Mozambique;
3) the knowledge, understanding and conditions of life of youth in Lichinga Municipality.
Field studies, according to Mikkelsen (2005: 49), provide information about people’s
lives, their ways of organizing themselves and about how they act in society. This study was
also designed in such a way that the actual process of empirical data collection was carried
out in the field; in other words, fieldwork was conducted within the frame of this research.
The field study in turn encompasses activities carried out in connection to the field, such as
the search for data sources, preparations for data collection and analysis, interpretations and
final analysis. This study aims for an explorative analysis of empirical data, gathered from
interviews with different stakeholders in Lichinga Municipality, thus adopting an inductive
approach (Ibid: 169). It was deemed the most suitable approach in order to fully be able to
gain understanding about youth’s living situation at the very local level in Mozambique,
about their understanding towards the environment, and about how educational activities deal
with perceived environmental problems.
A three week field study was carried out in the Municipality, which is situated in the
Niassa Province in northern Mozambique. We went into this study with a limited
understanding of the local reality, even if our proper choice of topic obviously displays a
certain, directed, kind of curiosity. Personal contact with people in their local environment,
where they feel comfortable, helped to provide more concrete and precise views on how the
local situation looks like.
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2.2 Methods
In the field of development studies, there is a complete toolbox of methods that are being
used within this context. Some of these techniques, as described by Mikkelsen (2005: 63),
have been used throughout this study in order to address the research problem. As she argues,
no matter what one chooses to study, there is a vast amount of information out there to be
found. Taking time to review secondary sources was thus necessary in order to understand
the global debate and reasoning regarding environmental issues and any proposed solutions.
(Ibid.: 87)
Out in the field, direct observations were made use of. In observing structures, social
differences, and people’s behaviour and actions, important information may be revealed that
are relevant for the study. Mikkelsen (2005: 88) moreover describes indicators as a unit of
information that can provide a basis for assessing a certain phenomenon. Considering the
inductive nature of this study, local as well as national and global indicators were used in line
with Mikkelsen’s (2005: 88) reasoning on key indicators. Local indicators refer to local
stakeholders’ criteria for what is significant regarding a certain phenomenon. (Ibid.) In this
case, the global indicators are based on contributions of international organisations regarding
EE, such as UNESCO and UNEP, due to EE having been developed out of UN led
international events. The national indicators refer to Mozambican educational efforts, and
more precisely educational textbooks and manuals for EE. These are supported by the
government and indicate what EE emphasises on the national level. All indicators are
moreover used to make comparisons possible, accordingly with the analytical approach2.
In order to collect empirical field data, semi-structured interviews were deemed as the
most suitable method for attaining in-depth information about specific issues (Kvale, 1997:
56)3, and to better understand the local reality in Lichinga Municipality. This method gives
more flexibility to interviewers in addressing issues but also allows participants to initiate
conversation; more attention is put into what interviewees feel is important (Longhurst, 2010:
103). Interviews were moreover carried out using interview guides (see Annex 2) with key
individuals (people expected to have a certain insight or opinion about the topic) as well as
focus groups and mixed groups. The main aim with using this method was to explore the
participants’ perspectives and thoughts, and to gain more understanding of their ideas,
2 See Chapter 3.
3 Translation by researchers (Medalion & Näslund) from Swedish to English.
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experiences and expectations related to environmental issues and EE, as well as the general
situation in their community.
Triangulation is used to cross-check information by looking at things from different
perspectives. In particular, both investigator triangulation as well as methodological
triangulation were used; the first in the sense that more than one person studied the same
situation, and the second in the sense that different methods were used in relation to the
object of study. (Mikkelsen, 2005: 96-97)
2.3 Participants - Sampling and Interviews
Sampling of interviews was done purposively through snowball sampling (Mikkelsen, 2005:
193), focusing on particular characteristics of the population believed to be able to provide
relevant information (Laerd Dissertations, 2012). Moreover, in connection with interviewees,
others stakeholders potentially able to provide additional information and opinions regarding
the subject were suggested, and thus the snowball kept rolling, growing bigger (Eriksson-
Zetterquist & Ahrne, 2011: 37)4. This way, a sufficient number of interviewees were gathered
in the end, sometimes on short notice. Some of the sectors in the Municipality that were
contacted were Municipality staff,5 associations and organisations, traditional leaders,
communities and committees, schools and youth, businesses, and religious leaders (see
Annex 3). Additionally, interviews were held in Maputo mainly with environmental
organisations, in order to get more information on environmental problems, EE, and the
situation of youth in Mozambique.
In total, 49 interviews were carried out. They were conducted with both males and
females. Talking to both sexes was one strategy for revealing differences between females
and males in the matter of experiences and opinions on the subject at hand, and result in more
comprehensive data (Mikkelsen, 2005: 172). The majority of the participants were however
male.
The interview guides were created for different stakeholders individually and most
questions were established in advance. As time went by questions were adjusted based on
information that was revealed. Questions remained open-ended so that follow-up questions
could be used to adapt into the existing situation, to get significant replies and more in-depth
views of the participant’s thoughts (Bryman, 2016: 10, 696).
4 Translation by researchers from Swedish to English.
5 I.e. those employed by the Municipality.
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2.4 Delimitations and Limitations
In order to get more in depth information, delimitation has been made to Lichinga
Municipality as the main area of study. This results in activities carried out being context
specific, and also context dependent. Within this context, the human factor poses a potential
limitation for the research. The view of the researchers held by the interviewees, and vice
versa, may have generated answers dependent upon this view. Going into this research,
however, the main limitation faced was our own view of the world as researchers, coming
from Poland and Sweden respectively, and with that any biases we may possess. The main
challenge was how to deal with this in facing the reality we were about to meet. This was
something that was discussed repeatedly during the time spent in Lichinga Municipality with
the entire research team, to remain aware about the fact that whatever prior knowledge, or
lack thereof, may have an impact on the way the research is conducted.
Relating back to the human factor, a language barrier was present. The official
language in Mozambique is Portuguese; a language that neither of the researchers speak.
During interviews other local languages were also used, also not spoken by the researchers.
Information hence necessarily had to pass through a third party. As expressions are different
in different languages, meanings may have gotten ‘lost in translation’, posing a limitation for
the research as well. This was especially true when on occasion using translators with more
limited knowledge in the English language, sometimes creating confusion in combination
with the researcher’s inability to speak the local languages. Some elements of relevance may
additionally have been excluded dependent upon the translator, as he or she may have
perceived certain information as invalid, irrelevant or not suitable under the circumstances.
These issues were however dealt with by cross-checking information.
What is more, interviews were sometimes carried out together with other student
research teams operating in Lichinga Municipality, meaning that at times many different
topics were discussed. This sometimes limited the ability of asking more detailed questions,
but on the other hand it gave opportunity to retrieve other useful information.
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3. Analytical Approach
This chapter presents the analytical approach and the point of departure taken by the
researchers in dealing with the research problem. The approach is based on an inductive
mode of inference, inspired by global policy on environmental education. The approach aims
to do comparisons rooted in the empirical level, focusing on gaps and compatibilities, to
later interpret reality.
3.1 Comparative Study based on Induction
To better understand the degree of compatibilities between the global indicators and the local
reality, this study adopts a comparative analytical approach inspired by an inductive mode of
inference. The approach is moreover inspired by the global indicators regarding
environmental education (EE) and sustainable development (SD), which will be presented in
Chapter 6. In other words, it is a somewhat policy oriented approach. Through comparison,
the opportunity to establish how the global indicators are reflected in national policy and
local practice, or the other way around, will be provided. This approach means to clarify
things, and through comparisons conceptualize reality. To illustrate the line of thinking
graphically, the following tool has been developed (see Image 1):
Image 1 Illustration of analytical approach
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Comparisons will be done through first identifying the main messages at each level
regarding EE; the global, national, and local. Data will be approached inductively, identifying
the most important concepts behind those ways of thinking. Then, the analytical step entails
placing the messages against one another, in search for possible gaps and similarities, to
determine the scope of compatibility between the global indicators, the national educational
efforts, and the living conditions in Lichinga Municipality.
3.2 Epistemological Reflection
Going into this study unaware of what may be found, with limited knowledge and pre-
understanding, but with the aim to clarify, describe and create understanding about a certain
reality, this study adopts an inductive approach. It is one method within the social sciences to
move from one thing to something else. Induction is, according to Danermark et al. (2002:
77, 79-80, 85), a process where one from a number of a few observations can see similarities,
which one can draw conclusions about, without leaving the empirical level. When applying
induction, conclusions entail the addition of new knowledge that goes beyond what may exist
in a premise. The idea is to start from a certain unknown reality, and through observations try
to make relevant descriptions of “what is”; i.e. of what we can know. (Ibid.)
There are uncertainties with this way of working. When using induction, there is a
risk that the wrong conclusions may be drawn. There is, it is argued, knowledge that we can
never reach and conclusions we can never draw, irrespective of how well grounded any
premises are. Also, which rings true in the case of this field study, when one research realities
that are prone to change, induction becomes even more uncertain. When one studies people’s
actions, their attitudes and values, one is studying factors that are dependent upon certain
circumstances to function, just like certain societal structures. This provides little opportunity
to draw general conclusions from individual observations. This study is however inspired by
induction, thus not aiming to draw general conclusions. The purpose is rather to see if and
how the global indicators are compatible with local environmental conscience and education.
Through the comparative element, similarities and dissimilarities may be clarified and thus
providing new insight into the reality, whilst being well grounded in the empirical data.
Through contrasts, meanings may emerge in a clear way. (Ibid.: 87, 133)
In inductive terms, it could mean that the messages that are extracted from the data
may not necessarily be the same thing as the conceptualizations possible to make. However,
due to this study being policy oriented, the conceptualization of reality will be represented by
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messages we see. As Danermark et al. (2002: 29) argues, it is not a question of different ways
of seeing things, but rather that we see different things. This is because reality is
differentiated, with conflicting interests and competing interpretations. (Ibid.)
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4. Literature Review
Due to challenges of sustainable development and environmental issues, it is argued that
changes in the way people behave and think, not only in relation to each other but also to
ecosystems that are supporting their way of living, are required. To make necessary
difference, people thus need to gain special knowledge, skills and values and youth is seen by
many as main driver for this change and the central element in creating a sustainable future
(UNESCO, 2014: 23; World Bank, 2007: 26). What follows in this chapter is a review of
existing literature on the subject of environmental education, aiming to display to the reader
the nature of the scientific debate.
4.1 Relation between Sustainable Development and Education
In the Global Action Plan (GAP) on Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), the way
that young people live and the habits they develop is believed to have a major impact on the
future. Youth are believed to have great potential to push sustainable development (SD)
forward (UNESCO, 2014: 22). Ahmad Alhendawi, United Nations Secretary General’s
Envoy on Youth has expressed that, “[Y]oung people are not the problem or not the liability.
They are the opportunity [...].” (Elite Daily, 2015) SD is a contested term, however. When it
comes to environmental educationists, Le Grange (2013) argues that they have widely
conflicting views on the relationship between sustainability and environmental education
(EE), where some see SD as the main goal of EE while others feel that development comes
with objectives that should rather be added to EE. Some scholars, Le Grange (2013)
continues, have expressed that educating for sustainability suggests an instrumentalist view
of education, claiming it to even be anti-educational in some sense. For him, the question of
how we should live emerges strongly in today’s day and age where the planet is degrading.
What should be taught in educational institutions emerge as a question here as well. In the
context of South Africa, Le Grange (2013) refers to aspects of SD being introduced in
education, but emphasizes that focus should be shifted more towards ‘needs’ and what they
may entail. This, it is argued, would help make more sense out of the term ‘sustainable
development’, and provide more space to criticize educational programmes that are often
embedded in Western progress stories (Ibid).
14
4.2 Transforming Utopia
Lotz-Sisitka (2008) takes a critical standpoint against the ”internationally accepted”, claiming
that the policy literature on ESD promotes what she calls “utopian concepts” of SD. Hopes
for youth are often utopian in nature as well, she argues, and young people are often seen as
the hope for the future. Looking into youth in the context of South Africa, she examines how
concepts as those put forward by UNESCO can be engaged within practice; in a society that
at the time of the study experienced xenophobic violence, high levels of crime and
disenfranchisement. She here acknowledges that much of the world’s youth is facing similar
conditions and challenges as the South African youth. Lotz-Sisitka (2008) claims that utopia
is most likely to keep shaping education, referring to the documents and intentions of the UN
Decade of ESD and the Earth Charter, and to aspirations for the future of youth in society.
Her final argument is that in order to avoid valuable utopian concepts6 from becoming doxic
knowledge - i.e. knowledge based on opinion - a reflexive realist approach may be needed to
steer education towards engaging with these concepts. Through approaching utopianism this
way, there is a potential for engaged youth practices in contemporary society. (Ibid)
Percy-Smith and Burns (2013) argue, referring back to other researchers, that one
cannot treat EE as just another discipline for youth to learn. The approach to learning for
sustainability needs to be more transformative, so that a consciousness for the environment
develops along with the ability to create a more sustainable future in their communities. This
is something that Percy-Smith and Burns (2013) argue has been difficult to achieve in
practice. They aimed to explore the roles of schools in creating sustainable communities,
particularly interested in what role youth could take in initiating change and the capacity for
developing the role of schools beyond the main task of educating children. Three factors were
found as challenging for youth to shoulder the role as agents of change: 1) the extent to which
they had developed a sense of agency; 2) opportunities for youth to take initiatives and
engage themselves within and outside of school, and 3) the recognition by adults of youth’s
competence to take on the necessary role. Percy-Smith and Burns (2013) argue that skills and
knowledge about sustainability and environment must be acquired outside the formal school
setting, in the context of everyday life, involving more than just young people. As a
conclusion, they argue for greater autonomy for youth to act in self-determining ways
without being restricted by adults, but that adults still have a crucial role to play with young
people in providing support and facilitation, as well as co-learners. (Ibid)
6 Such as democracy, sustainability, and social justice
15
4.3 Examples of Youth Involvement
Ana et al. (2009) are some of the researchers rooting for EE, arguing it is key to SD. They
argue however that in terms of structure and practices in schools in most of the developing
world, demands have gone unmet. In a study made of environmental clubs in secondary
schools in Nigeria working to promote environmental educational practices, it was found that
having these clubs in schools was something that increased awareness and good
environmental practices. Before these clubs were established, it was found that general
sanitation and classroom hygiene were poor in schools, and that littering of waste was out of
control. With the club, environmental awareness among students had arguably increased and
a noticeable improvement in the environment was found. The argument is that once students
are motivated and guided, they will have the abilities to be agents of change, and show
environmentally conscious behaviour. Despite the presence of the clubs, however, the
researchers found a lack of improvement regarding environmental problems like air quality
and noise. (Ibid.)
According to McDuff (2000), EE was not a priority in school curricula in the past in
general, due to a lack of time, funding and resources. That is why environmental clubs gained
huge responsibility and importance in reaching young people and shaping their
environmental awareness and interest, and mobilizing them for action. Today, Wildlife Clubs
of Kenya (WCK) is the largest non-governmental EE organization for young people in Africa
(WCK, 2013). WCK was a starting point for the wildlife club movement in the world, and
was the first organization of its kind in Africa, and its growth has contributed to the creation
of environmental clubs in the rest of the continent. What is more, many leading Kenyan
conservationists were members of wildlife clubs as students. WCK is a perfect example,
according to McDuff, for both current and future EE initiatives worldwide on how to work
with and engage young people. WCK was an initiative of students, and by being members of
this organization young people felt they were influencing policy; they are making a change.
Some of them recognized the role they played in conservation and realized that their attitudes
changed after joining the club. The analysis of WCK’s successful work provides good insight
and inspiration for future directions for EE in general. (McDuff, 2000)
16
4.4 Shaping Pro-Environmental Behaviour
Chawla and Cushing (2007) present factors influencing responsible environmental behaviour
and suggest useful implications for environmental educators, by analyzing different studies
including diverse samples from around the world. The research involves answers from adults
from different countries and professions, yet similar results were achieved. Most of the
respondents identified their childhood experience of nature like camping, hiking, fishing as
significant factors. Involvement in organizations like scouts or environmental clubs played a
big part in shaping their environmental behaviour, and so did the influence of role models.
These findings clearly suggests that experiencing activities connected to nature during
childhood and youth times with good role models who show an interest in nature are key
factors for young people to be more engaged and aware about the environment. Involvement
in educational programs and environmental clubs helps gaining specific knowledge about
environmental issues and learning necessary environmental action skills. Other studies
analyzed by Chawla and Cushing (2007) show what factors make young people start self
environmental action. According to the findings, gender, socioeconomic status, and
environmental attitudes and knowledge are responsible for that. In general, girls present
better pro-environmental behaviour than boys. What is more, young people in disadvantaged
communities have been more engaged in conservation work. Knowledge and positive
attitudes towards environment are also important factors to start action for environment.
Educators cannot change young people’s gender or socioeconomic status but they can try to
understand how those factors influence youth behaviour and, as studies show, make sure they
have opportunities to gain knowledge, create positive attitudes about the environment and
practice action skills. Furthermore, behaviour change is more likely to be obtained by
extended programs. In addition young people need to feel that they are able to realize some of
their ideas and that their efforts are taken seriously. The feeling of empowerment and abilities
to take part in decision-making would make them feel more confident and positive about
solving environmental problems. (Ibid.)
4.5 General Guidance of Study
In summary, education is found to have a role to play in shaping a sustainable future;
however, some researchers find the approach based on too idealistic concepts and that a more
transformative approach is needed. Environmental clubs have been found to increase both
17
youth involvement and awareness, even if environmental problems still persist. It is only
from the field of psychology that a usable theory emerges, focusing on factors that may
influence pro-environmental behaviour. As this study does not aim to look at behaviour nor
make a decision on whether education has a role to play, it will not go in the direction of the
scientific debate presented here. Rather, the point of departure will be taken in the global
policy on EE, and look at the compatibilities between it and the local level. The study will
thus be guided by the global indicators, looking into what extent it comes through in
Mozambican educational efforts, in order to determine what the conditions for
implementation are at the very local level.
18
5. Background & Context
In order to provide reader with introductory information to better understand the research
context, this chapter will provide general information about Mozambique, Niassa Province,
and Lichinga Municipality. Environmental problems and the impact of climate change on
national level will also be described, along with the situation of young people in general.
5.1 Area of Study
5.1.1 Republic of Mozambique
Mozambique (see Image 2) is situated in south-east Africa, and is one of several countries
living with a colonial legacy. The Portuguese first
arrived here in the fifteenth century, in a country still to
this day characterized by subsistence agriculture. The
majority of the area under cultivation is rainfall
dependent, and very sensitive to climate change.
(Abrahamsson & Nilsson, 1995: 17) The country
became independent in 1975 but civil war erupted
around 1980, with a peace agreement in the early 1990s
eventually marking the transition to peace. It resulted in
the first democratic elections of 1994 with the
Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO)7 coming
out as winners. The most recent election was held in
2014, where FRELIMO gained a strong majority in the
parliament (World Bank, 2016b).
Mozambique is a low income country and a
high economic growth over the past few decades has
had limited impact on poverty reduction; geographical distribution of poverty is very uneven.
Currently, adult literacy rates are at 56 percent, and the average life expectancy is just 50.3
years. The country also faces increasing malnutrition, and malaria remains the most common
cause of death; it is responsible for 35 percent of child mortality and 29 percent for the
general population. Adding to that, Mozambique reportedly has one of the lowest levels of
water consumption in the world. (Ibid.)
7 Nowadays FRELIMO is a political party.
Image 2 Map of Mozambique (Irish Aid, 2016)
19
There are eleven provinces, roughly 150 districts, and 53 municipalities in the
country. The first 33 municipalities were created in 1998 after the implementation of the
municipal legislation in early 1997. In a study of the municipal development ten years after
its implementation, it was found that despite certain progress, around 70 percent of the urban
population lived in villages featuring slums, unregulated economic growth, lack of
infrastructure and common services like water, sanitation, solid waste removal, sewage and
energy, and where homes were made of poor materials. Access to safe water remained a
serious problem for most of the municipal population, and sanitary facilities in municipalities
were poorly developed. (ANAMM, 2009: 15-16) One of these 53 municipalities is Lichinga,
situated in the Niassa Province.
5.1.2 Niassa Province
Niassa Province is a sparsely populated province situated in the northwest part of
Mozambique and has passed through various social, economic and political changes through
history. The nineteenth century was dominated with serious conflicts between rival local
chiefs trying to dominate and take control over communities, with slave trade being common
at the time, considerably reducing the population. Niassa became more isolated and its
development slowed down significantly, and in the twentieth century, the colonial system
came to northern Mozambique (Åkesson & Nilsson, 2006: 98 – 99).
In 1964, armed liberation struggle against Portuguese colonialism started and people
in Niassa were strongly engaged and supportive towards FRELIMO. After Independence,
Niassa became a place where the new government decided to put criminals, dissidents,
traitors and oppositional proponents in order to re-educate them which was not supported by
local people. Also, ambitious plans were presented to exploit huge amounts of land and
initiate large-scale agriculture projects due to the Province’s rich natural resources, from
forests and fertile lands to different minerals. Results of the plans were however far from
expected. (Ibid.)
In 1983, the government created another project of reallocation of unemployed people
and criminals from larger cities and sent them all without any preparation to Niassa Province.
Repeatedly, people experienced what many consider to be a punishment from the
government. Niassa remained isolated, excluded from public priority investment list and
lacking social infrastructure like schools, health units and roads until end of the 1990s. Work
of the provincial government and donors has enabled Niassa to get more attention on national
20
level, and again put it back on the developmental map. Nowadays, the situation in the
province is much better as schools, health sector and transport systems have been improved,
but Niassa still faces various development difficulties. (Ibid.)
5.1.3 Lichinga Municipality
The Municipality of Lichinga has an area of 290 square kilometres. The population was
measured to 141 724 inhabitants in 2011, but today’s figures are very uncertain8. The
Municipality is moreover distributed into four Postos Administrativos, and structured into 15
Bairros. It is also the capital of Niassa Province, and has been a Municipality since February
2009, with a Municipality Assembly composed of 30 FRELIMO and nine Mozambican
National Resistance (RENAMO) representatives9. The Municipality Council consists of a
President and eight Vereadores working in different sectors. What is more, responsibility for
some sectors is divided among Province, District and Municipality. As an example, in talks
with the Provincial Direction for Education (PDE), it was found that responsibility for the
education sector lies with the District, and not with the Municipality. Lichinga’s economy is
mostly depended on agriculture, and small industries working in the city are mainly
connected with processing agriculture products. Infrastructure is still at the early stage, being
developed slowly. The population is very diverse in cultural ethnic groups with
predominance of Yaos, Macuas, Nyanjas and religions, such as Muslim, Catholic and
Anglican. (Conselho Municipal da Cidade, 2011: 1 - 3)
5.2 Environmental Context
According to different sources, when it comes to climate change, Mozambique is one of
Africa’s most vulnerable countries. (NCEA, 2015: 1; Government of Mozambique, 2011: 3;
Irish Aid, 2015: 8) As one of the poorest countries in the world, Mozambique ranks third
among the African countries most exposed to risks from extreme weather events in the form
of floods, cyclones, and droughts (CIF, 2016). What makes it especially vulnerable is not
only more frequent extreme weather events but also still high level of poverty and weak
institutional development. Socio-economic issues in Mozambique play a huge role in
increasing negative climate change effects and decreasing people’s capacities to adapt.
(NCEA, 2015: 1)
8 In 2013, for example, numbers for Lichinga District reported a total population of 117,404 (Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 2013: 11).
9 In interviews it was found that the Assembly is now represented by 70 percent FRELIMO and 30 percent MDM members.
21
The University of Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index (ND-GAIN) presents the
country’s vulnerability to climate change and its readiness to improve resilience. As it is
explained in by the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA),
“[v]ulnerability measures the exposure, sensitivity, and ability to cope with
climate related hazards by accounting for the overall status of food, water,
environment, health, and infrastructure within a country. Readiness targets those
portions of the economy, governance and society that affect the speed and
efficiency of adaptation.” (NCEA, 2015: 1)
As for 2013, Mozambique was the 31st most vulnerable country and the 38th least ready
country according to the ND-GAIN (2014). With these scores, Mozambique is in need for
urgent action, more investments, and more innovations to improve and be able to combat
climate change effects (Ibid.). As reported by World Wildlife Fund (2016b), consequences of
environmental problems in Mozambique might result in great deforestation problems as
people rely on trees to survive and the population is growing fast. Together with poor
farming practices, deforestation is contributing to sedimentation of rivers. Unsustainable use
of resources has not only lead to decreasing harvests of fish and other resources, but also
resulted in reduced incomes and increased poverty for people. Rural wastewater management
systems along with poor sanitation is insufficient, exposing people to outbreaks of different
diseases. (Ibid.)
Lichinga Municipality has reportedly many environmental problems facing the city.
The city is located on a plateau making it vulnerable to erosion, and occasionally the area is
hit by earthquakes. Another big problem is the lack of proper equipment to collect and
remove garbage and maintain quality of roads. Also, water supply systems in the city are
being neglected. As principal challenges, the Municipality has presented rehabilitating green
areas around the city, combating erosion, expanding energy and water supplies for Bairros,
improving road access in Bairros, and increasing the number of health units and schools.
(Conselho Municipal da Cidade, 2011: 3 - 4) During the field study, it moreover became
clear that the main environmental issues facing Lichinga Municipality are, according to
citizens: deforestation and tree-cutting, accumulated garbage, uncontrollable fires, erosion,
sanitation, and lack of potable and clean water.
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5.3 Youth - “The Future Generation”
Globally, youth are often seen as key actors in everything from raising awareness to
conserving nature and promoting sustainable lifestyles (UNFCCC, 2013). They are seen as
the generation possessing the power to drive the necessary change towards an
environmentally resilient future (UNFCCC, 2008). In an UNEP study, a majority of youth
claimed to feel the effects of climate change, and believed they are the ones that can make a
difference on this issue (UNEP, 2008). However, in a more recent study, over 80 percent felt
in need of more information in order to prevent climate change and other environmental
problems (UNEP, 2011).
In Mozambique youth is defined as any individual between the age of 15 to 35
(Ministério da Juventude e Desportos, 2012: 6).10
The historical evolution of birth rates has
modelled a structure of very young population11
, where 45 percent is under 15 years of age
and nearly two out of three Mozambicans (65 percent) are younger than 25. In 2013, 47
percent of the Niassa Province population was under 15 years of age, which gives reason to
believe that youth is the main resource of the country. This young age structure allows for
economic growth opportunities, but it also puts a great burden on the country's resources,
including in the areas of health and education. The total population is also growing at an
annual rate of 2.8 percent; a rate that if it continues will result in the population having
doubled in 25 years. (Population Reference Bureau, 2013)12
In the Commonwealth Youth Development Index which measures youth development
in 170 countries according to five key aspects (education, employment, political participation,
civic participation and health and wellbeing), Mozambique was presented as country with
low youth development levels and placed 159 out of 170 countries taken into consideration in
this report. (The Commonwealth, 2013: 10, 14) Mozambique has moreover had a pattern of
more boys than girls attending school, and big differences between school enrolment in urban
and rural areas. Half of the young people attending secondary school has also had a tendency
to belong to the 20 percent of the country’s richest households, with girls from poorer
families having less than half the odds of participating in comparison with boys from similar
families. (Population Reference Bureau, 2013)
10
Translation by researchers from Portuguese to English. 11
The total population is estimated to 20 336 795 inhabitants (Ministério da Juventude e Desportos, 2012: 6) 12
Translation by researches from Portuguese to English.
23
6. Findings - Environmental Education
In this chapter, a review will be provided of the global and national indicators on
environmental education. Additionally, formal and non-formal environmental education at
the local level will be presented, answering the first part of the fourth research question. To
provide a more in depth view into how environmental issues are dealt with and discussed, a
review of non-educational institutions at the local level is also given.
6.1 Global Indicators - “A Better Tomorrow Begins Today”
Sustainable development (SD) is a hot topic today that concerns social, economic as well as
environmental aspects. The global discussion surrounding it takes into consideration that we
are living in a time where nearly 1.4 billion people live in extreme poverty13
(Addison, 2011)
and where the world is also facing climate change with effects not only threatening
communities, but also health, economies and national security (NRDC, 2016). Concerns for
the environment dates back to the 1970s, however, and the concept of environmental
education (EE) emerged and developed out of a series of international events about the global
environment; from the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, the
1977 Intergovernmental Conference of Environmental Education in Tbilisi, the 1992 UN
Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (MICOA, 2009: 1; Gough, 2013), and
the more recent 2015 Paris Climate Conference (UNESCO, 2015). The goal of EE has long
been seen as developing an aware and concerned population about the environment and
environmental issues, in order to solve the problems that the world is facing (Stevenson et al,
2013).
Even in the late 1970s, human activities were recognized as having harmful and
potentially permanent consequences for the environment, along with the realization that
certain problems within one country’s context could affect the world and humanity as a
whole. The reasoning surrounding environmental problems at this time was that they were
also not just due to harmful use of natural resources, but that they included problems with
inadequate housing, bad sanitary conditions and malnutrition, as well as faulty production
practices; problems often stemming from poverty. To solve the environmental problems, the
role of education was emphasized as vital. It was argued that EE should be integrated into
formal education, in order to provide the necessary knowledge, understanding, values and
skills that the population may need to find solutions to environmental problems. Non-formal
13
On less than US$1.25 a day.
24
education had its role to play in this as well. (UNESCO, 1977: 11-12) It was especially
emphasised that young people should be actively involved in working towards solving
problems associated with the environment, at all levels (Stevenson et al., 2013). It is declared
that:
“Environmental education, properly understood, should constitute a comprehensive
lifelong education, one responsive to changes in a rapidly changing world. It should
prepare the individual for life through an understanding of the major problems of the
contemporary world, and the provision of skills and attributes needed to play a
productive role towards improving life and protecting the environment with due
regard given to ethical values. [...] It helps reveal the enduring continuity which links
the acts of today to the consequences for tomorrow.” (UNESCO, 1977: 24)
In the late 1980s, most policy areas began to surround SD and sustainability, leading to the
development of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Characteristics common for
EE and ESD is that they concern developing capacities for taking action on environmental
and sustainability issues, apart from obtaining the right knowledge and understanding,
attitudes and values. It also does not only take place in formal institutional settings, but
within non-formal settings as well. (Gough, 2013)
The international community has during the past decade attempted to tackle the issue
of world development by setting up a series of global goals. As recently as September 2015,
world leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development which main purpose is
to unite all countries and have them work together to end poverty, hunger and inequality
worldwide. 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were created as guidelines to follow
in achieving development, replacing the Millennium Development Goals that were agreed
upon in 2000. (UNDP, 2016) Apart from addressing the fundamental causes of poverty and
the universal need for development for all people, the SDGs have a number of goals that
target issues such as climate change, sustainable consumption, innovation and the importance
of peace and justice (UNDP, 2015). The goals are meant to figure as guidelines for UN
member states to use to frame their agendas and policies for next 15 years (EurActiv, 2015).
One of the goals argues that if people want to achieve SD, our ecological footprint has
to be reduced by changing how we consume and produce goods and resources. Reducing
resource use, land degradation, pollution, declining soil fertility, unsustainable water use or
overfishing is necessary to increase quality of life. (UN, 2015a) Additionally, with the rise of
global temperatures as a consequence of climate change, the number of people affected by
25
water scarcity is projected to increase. Furthermore, because of climate change, more floods
and other water-related disasters are happening in the world. (UN, 2015b) Hence, in a decade
when climate change is heavily affecting planet and the environment, individuals and
societies should have proper knowledge, skills and values to create more peaceful and
sustainable world. ESD has a critical role in that change as it “is about shaping a better
tomorrow for all – and it must start today.” (UNESCO, 2014: 8)
ESD is internationally recognized as an integral element of quality education and it
has been integrated into many global frameworks and conventions related to key areas of SD;
climate change, biodiversity, disaster risk reduction, sustainable consumption and production.
In 2013, UNESCO approved the Global Action Programme (GAP) on ESD. The main aim of
the GAP is to generate concrete actions for ESD and in order to provide decision-makers,
stakeholders and actors with suggestions for the implementation of the GAP, a roadmap was
created as a guideline. Two objectives of the program are: “to reorient education and learning
so that everyone has the opportunity to acquire the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes
that empower them to contribute to sustainable development [and] to strengthen education
and learning in all agendas, programmes and activities that promote sustainable
development” (UNESCO, 2014: 14). GAP is directed to groups that are especially vulnerable
to the impacts of climate change and unsustainable development (Ibid.).
GAP emphasizes ‘Learning outcomes’ and ‘Societal transformation’. Through GAP,
it is expected that ESD will be integrated into national and regional policy frameworks and
education related processes. Stakeholders in education are guided to ensure integration of
ESD into the various processes and structures of the sector; resources need to be allocated
and mobilised to turn these policies into actions. Young people should moreover be provided
with opportunities to take part of information on the impacts their daily actions may have,
and examples given by GAP to provide this is the development of free smart-phone apps that
provide information on ESD and sustainable lifestyles. Local authorities should moreover set
up local ESD centres, so that the integration of ESD programmes can be integrated into
community processes. To transform society, students need to be equipped with skills for
‘green jobs’. Youth also need to be motivated to become ‘global citizens’, engaging
themselves locally and globally, to find solutions to global challenges and the creation of a
sustainable world. (Ibid: 12, 17, 22-25)
In summary, the main message provided through the global indicators is that EE needs to be
integrated into all levels of education, and that individuals need to be equipped to deal with
26
the biggest problems that the contemporary world is facing, with stakeholders using their
own resources to make this a reality. Contemporary problems are emphasized as the
potential of actions of one part of the world inflicting harm in other places, and the biggest
problem being climate change. SD is the goal, which can (partly) be achieved through the
reduction of the ecological footprint. There is a message of responsibility for the whole
world, and that youth are the ones who can drive the necessary change to create a better
tomorrow. It is a very general message provided, emphasizing the need for the right
knowledge and skills “to contribute to sustainable development,” and the uses of new
technology and ESD programmes are listed as key ways of ensuring this.
6.2 National Indicators - Mozambique
6.2.1 Eu e a Natureza14 - Nature and I
In the national textbook for fifth grade natural sciences, authored by Mondego et al. (2014),
the environment is described as everything that exists around us. This includes plants,
animals, humans, rivers and seas, land and air. Talking about the ‘environment’ means
talking about how these factors relate to one another. The book communicates that humans
need to use the world’s natural resources (such as land, water, oil, coal, and minerals) in order
to survive, but emphasises the importance of not using them in such an extent that we run out
of them. The resources can and should be used in a sustainable manner; i.e., so that future
generations also can make use of the resources. In Mozambique, as in the rest of the world,
the misuse of natural resources causes problems that affect the environment, such as:
desertification, depletion of animal resources, and pollution.” (Mondego et al., 2014: 5)
The book brings up a lot of issues that the environment faces, in a Mozambican
context. Its main messages regard ground, air, and water pollution. Concepts such as
accumulated garbage is emphasised as a something that pollutes both soil, water and air and
which transmits diseases. Students are instructed that garbage should be put in suitable places
- in garbage containers - to avoid environmental contamination. Water is moreover defined as
something indispensable to our daily life. Students are meant to learn that drinking water
must be colourless, odourless, flavourless and without harmful substances. Stagnated water is
something that is mentioned as a source for malaria, and something that must be avoided.
(Ibid.: 8-9, 23, 83)
14
Translation of source from Portuguese to English by researches.
27
Gases and particles from fires, cars, and factories are related to the concept of air
pollution. In relation to this, there is an argument for cities having to have plenty of spaces
with trees, in order to improve the quality of air we breathe. Overall, the book seems to aim at
teaching students that excessive tree-cutting as well as bushfires contribute to desertification,
and that whenever a tree is cut, one should replanted. It is necessary to prevent wildfires, and
without vegetation, rain and wind can cause soil erosion. Cities as well as the countryside
should be kept clean, where trash should be thrown and collected in appropriate containers
and locations. (Ibid.: 10-11)
6.2.2. O Segredo da Vida15 - The Secret of Life
The seventh grade national textbook for natural science, authored by Grachane & Muller
(2009), is a continuation of what students are meant to learn in fifth grade. The book, besides
describing and explaining certain natural phenomena, has many images, press texts,
summaries of material and questions to check what students have learned. Health,
conservation of soils, water and development, hunting and fishing, temperature, energy, and
the environment in general are the main topics discussed. The idea is to in a fun way, by
adding various activities and interesting experiments, present the most important topics and
make kids better understand the phenomena of nature. (Grachane & Muller, 2009: 2)
A fifth of the world population does not have access to clean water, and the
importance of this resource for the development of both country and people is highlighted. It
is a fundamental factor for all living beings, ensuring their existence; there is no life without
water. Humans need water for activities ranging from drinking and cooking, to washing
dishes and cleaning, but also for transport and trade. Water is also important for animals and
agriculture. Students learn about the negative effects of water pollution and are able to reflect
on what causes it, what the consequences are, how throwing garbage affects water and
everyone consuming it, and how rational management of water helps to keep it clean and
healthy. The book argues that Mozambique’s economy is mainly based on revenues from the
exploitation of natural resources, such as water, and that the prosperity of the country
depends on it. That is why a rational and responsible use of water and other resources is
crucial for Mozambique’s development. The definition of sustainable management of natural
resources given to students is: “using existing resources so that they meet the needs of the
present without compromising the needs of future generations.” (Ibid.: 16-17, 23)
15
Translation of source from Portuguese to English by researches.
28
Huge emphasis is moreover put into soil conservation. Soil allows people to produce
food and sustain their lives through agriculture activities, and thus has great importance.
Students learn about both human and natural factors that influence soil in positive and
negative ways. Erosion by wind and rain happens mostly due to deforestation, and the
accumulation of waste and contamination by different pollutants from industries are
negatively affecting soils. Uncontrolled bush fires are too frequent and soils are suffering
from them. The loss of nutrients in agricultural soils due to repeated utilization of
monocultures is also common. The degradation of soil may cause enormous problems for all
living beings that depend on it so it is necessary to protect and preserve the soils. Some ideas
on how to do that were presented in the book, most of them focusing on agriculture, ranging
from planting trees to developing irrigation systems. (Ibid.: 24-31)
The book refers to an article, “Forests under threat”, where students can discover how
tree-cutting is connected with many problems affecting soils. In Africa, selling firewood and
charcoal has become a profitable business, so people are frequently cutting trees. In
Mozambique, forests cover roughly 75 percent of the country and are in danger because of
uncontrollable fires, exploitation of wood, and tree-cutting for firewood and charcoal. For
each 20 trees cut there is only one tree replanted. That is why, to avoid desertification and
many other problems connected with lack of trees, it is crucial to plant new trees and promote
reforestation. (Ibid.: 26)
6.2.3 Por um Moçambique Verde, Belo e Próspero16
In working towards solving environmental problems within the Mozambican context, the
Ministry of Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA) has released an EE manual
with messages regarding natural resource management, means of sanitation, climatic
changes, droughts and desertification. Educators are instructed to direct their work towards
students as a group, with the expectation to create responsible individuals to the environment.
It is argued that working with students helps tackle community problems by taking advantage
of the curriculum within schools. Messages about the environment should be prepared so that
changes are triggered in the target group. In order to stimulate motivation, one must be able
to convince people that a certain problem is affecting them. (MICOA, 2009: 8)
Management of natural resources refers to a rational process of using them in a non-
destructive way, guaranteeing them for future generations. These resources are seen as any
16
“For a Green, Beautiful and Prosperous Mozambique”; source translated from Portuguese to English by researches.
29
element of the natural environment such as air, water, soil, forest, wildlife and minerals. The
principal problems contributing to the degradation of these resources are first of all burnings;
the act of using fire to for example clear crop residues and pasture areas, and can be done in
both controlled and uncontrolled ways. While some are caused naturally, about 90 percent,
however, is due to human activities. To avoid them, one should comply with appropriate
rules and techniques, to ward off large economic, social and environmental losses. Erosion is
another problem contributing to natural resource degradation. It can be the result of natural
accumulation of soil, but also due to human intervention, and is something causing
widespread damage across Mozambique. (Ibid.: 12-17)
Deforestation is seen as highly detrimental to the functioning of ecosystems, often
killing many animal species in the process. There are some phenomena that stand out as
causes of deforestation, such as uncontrollable fires, wood exploitation, and the opening of
areas for agriculture or pasture for livestock. The destruction of forests contributes to the
development of the greenhouse effect, causing global warming. Apart from deforestation, the
burning of fossil fuels, wildfires and air pollution are also listed as causes of climate change.
Mozambique reportedly experience at least one extreme climatic event each year, causing the
population to live in a situation of constant threat and instability. (Ibid.: 19-20, 35-36)
A lack of appropriate legislation, irregular waste collection, demographic growth and
excessive consumption are some factors listed as causes for accumulation of solid waste. The
accumulation of waste, or garbage, can have serious consequences for air and waters, and for
human health. (Ibid.: 30-31)
In conclusion, it is visible that the sustainable use of natural resources is very important,
along with creating environmentally responsible individuals. Agriculture is crucial, as
emphasis is put into protecting soils and that erosion can be avoided by introducing
agricultural solutions. Environmental problems are affecting people’s health and the main
message regarding garbage is that it needs to be thrown in special places and containers.
Water is presented as a vital resource for people’s survival. To combat deforestation, which
causes erosion, planting trees is a good solution; something mentioned on the national level
very often. Last but not least, in the EE manual, global warming is mentioned and students
are made aware of what SD is.
30
6.3 Local Indicators
To remind the reader, formal environmental education refers to formal educational systems,
while non-formal EE to trainings etcetera carried out by different organisations and
associations, as well as medias such as the radio. The findings are here presented
accordingly with the most significant environmental problems that interviewees emphasized.
6.3.1 Formal Environmental Education
In total, five educational institutions were visited, falling under the umbrella of formal EE.
The extent to which the environment and environmental issues were discussed varied, but
what they had in common was that in interviews, it was spoken about in a very general way.
Erosion for example, was not discussed, and the issue of water only mentioned briefly in one
primary school and found discussed in one environmental club at another school. In one
primary school, there were no trained teachers or any special activities relating to
environmental issues, and in one secondary school, a group of youth said that they do not
discuss the environment at all in school. In another primary school, the fifth grade natural
science book (see 6.2.1) was spotted, and one teacher said that while the environment is “an
important topic”, the children still had more to learn. At this school, it was explained that the
nature and environmental issues are discussed only in fifth grade natural science, and some of
the main messages relate to protecting the local environment, mostly by preventing
uncontrollable fires, and being careful with water. At the Agrarian Institute, environmental
issues were more or less discussed within the context of agricultural production.
Tree-cutting & Deforestation
In A Luta Continua Primary School, in Bairro Chiuaula, one of the staff claimed that through
natural science class and the environmental club, knowledge about the environment and
environmental problems is transmitted. Kids learn about the importance of trees and
replanting. The direction of the school mentioned that due to the “One student, one tree”
program being introduced in Mozambique and promoted by the former President of the
Republic, the school tries to plant some trees every year. However, the direction of the school
agreed that planted trees are not growing as they should, as no one is taking care of them
during summer holidays. (IW, 2016/04/05) The teacher in charge of the environmental club
mentioned that the idea was to start planting new trees, but due to the school’s location in the
Bairro people often come and destroy trees, thus it is not so easy to maintain them. This
31
teacher moreover disclosed that she had no special training in environmental issues. In
general, she believed that if teachers were trained it would be easier to keep these kind of
clubs going in schools, and increase awareness. (IW, 2016/04/21)
Accumulated Garbage
In the Bairro Chiuaula school the environmental club teacher said that the issue of garbage
around the school has previously been discussed frequently with the children, and that the
school had been in contact with the Municipality about it as well. According to her, while
some of the students may be the ones throwing garbage around the school, there are more
“outsiders” causing problems. She argued that the Municipality needs to have more
discussions with the community, about where garbage should go, as once when officials
came to take the garbage away, people soon began to throw it around the school again. It has
resulted in a lot of health problems for the children, and when it rains, it smells a lot in the
classrooms. The teacher says that the school has tried to discuss the situation with the
community but that the problem still persists, with people coming in the night to throw their
garbage away. In her environmental club, there is a high level of awareness about this issue,
she says, and the content of the EE manual (see 6.2.3) is read aloud and discussed during
meetings. (IW, 2016/04/21)
In Cerâmica, it was found that there was not a specific program for environmental
issues in school, but that when journadas de trabalho are organised to clean up the Bairro,
the school is informed and tries to mobilize its pupils to participate. (IW, 2016/04/11)
Sanitation
In Sambula primary school, sanitation was emphasized as an important topic for the children
by one of the teachers, (IW, 2016/04/19) and in Bairro Chiuaula sanitation is discussed due
to recurring problems at the beginning of the school year of students writing on the
blackboards with feces. “There could be many reasons for why that happens”, the teacher
said, which is why discussions are necessary; students must learn what the consequences of
their actions are. (IW, 2016/04/21)
To summarize, the main message provided by formal EE at the local level is that there is a
need to make the community more aware of the issues that the Municipality is facing. Whilst
the discussions regarding environment varied and were very general, emphasis is mostly put
on the importance of replanting trees, but that the community does not seem to understand
32
this importance. Garbage acknowledged as an issue, affecting the health of youth in schools,
and again the community’s awareness is mentioned as a source of the problem. Sanitation is
moreover important to discuss with children under the umbrella of environmental problems,
relating back to staying healthy. Also, there is an expressed need for more trained teachers
within the area of environmental issues.
6.3.2 Non-formal Environmental Education
In this section, the reader will find that Maputo-based non-formal environmental education
institutions have been included within the scope of the local indicators. This is in order to
provide an idea of how non-formal EE can work. In the Analysis (see Chapter 8), these are
however not treated as a part of the local context.
Tree-cutting & Deforestation
One Maputo based organisation working with environmental protection and EE, Livaningo,
made a point to explain how in Mozambique charcoal is a source of livelihood, and how trees
are used by 80 percent of the population for cooking. Avoiding deforestation and protecting
trees in this situation is a big issue. (IW, 2016/04/28) Progresso operates in Lichinga, and
have an element of EE in their literate course, where they have discussed this issue, with
emphasis on deforestation. In the past, they have distributed some tree plants, and are now
teaching about caring for trees as deforestation is a huge problem in province. They
emphasize a sustainable use of natural resources. Mostly, their work focuses on agriculture
and they have technicians training farmers to plant seeds. (IW, 2016/04/21) Estamos, an
organisation working on empowering communities and improving their living conditions, are
mostly in the Macula district training communities about the importance of avoiding tree-
cutting, and also on how to use other methods than fire for agriculture. (IW, 2016/04/16)
Organização Raparigas em Acção17
(ORERA) is an organization in Lichinga Municipality
working with young girls, with the main focus of preventing early pregnancies and marriages,
that happen to discuss deforestation and its risk with the young people they work with, as “it
may create climate change for us and others”. (IW, 2016/04/14)
Rede de Organizações para o Ambiente e Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ROADS), a
network for organisations working with SD,18
believe kids need to learn more about how to
treat forests and trees, so they can take this knowledge back to their communities, families
17
‘Organization Girls in Action’. 18
‘Network for Environment and Sustainable Development Organizations’.
33
and friends. In communities, ROADS furthermore works to strengthen natural resource
committees by organizing study circles and raising subjects like deforestation, replanting, or
effective use of wood. (IW, 2016/04/22)
Centro Terra Viva (CTV), an NGO operating from Maputo aiming to protect and
promote sustainable development, are for example running environmental clubs in schools.
Additionally, one of their initiatives is creating, printing and distributing books about the
environment to primary school children with short stories with many colourful illustrations.
They aim to educate children and make them aware of environmental problems present in
their everyday lives, and in the interview it was argued that “if we want to make a difference
we have to start at young age so when kids become adults they will know how to behave”.
One message they are trying to get across is that it is okay to get firewood, as long as it is
done in the least harmful way. Preventing forests from devastation is very important and
beneficial, especially replanting trees should be implemented more often as forests play
varied and rich function in people’s lives. (IW, 2016/04/27)
Accumulated Garbage
ORERA cooperate with other organizations in Lichinga, covering topics such as
environmental preservation. The organization has in the past discussed sustainability with the
girls they work with, and in particular the garbage situation in the Municipality and the
importance of keeping clean. ORERA has also on its own organized journadas de trabalho
for youth to take part in. The organization also aims to teach young people the importance of
recycling, and according to the organization itself the messages have been received well by
the girls. (IW, 2016/04/14)
In Maputo, CTV discusses the garbage situation in that part of the country, and in
material they provide to children and schools there are short stories relating to waste
management. For CTV, it is how one presents information that creates interest for an issue,
and Maputo Municipality is not giving proper information regarding citizen's' responsibility
about garbage. One of the biggest problems is that there is a lack of information regarding
environmental issues among teachers. If teachers were properly trained, one could change the
views of both children and teachers, which would provide motivation, and better citizens. If it
was taught in schools, everyone would know where the trash should go. “Here in Maputo
people should know better, because we have better conditions for better knowledge", one
CTV representative said. (IW, 2016/04/27)
34
Livaningo has worked on the garbage situation in Maputo for almost fifteen years. “It
is not just about closing the dumps,” one of the representatives said, “there are over 2000
people working there, collecting garbage to sell.” Hence, garbage comes with other issues
than just accumulation; it becomes a way for people to sustain themselves, and Livaningo
argues that if the dumps are to be closed, new activities must be found for these people. The
organization has started a participatory monitoring project of the garbage situation in roughly
20 Bairros in Maputo. Here, people can use a phone service to report problems related to
different areas, from a lack of garbage collection to informal dumps and accumulated waste
in drains. Livaningo also has a "Green School Strategy", with a special focus on children.
"We have to catch problems in the beginning," a representative said, and the objective with
the strategy is to change the mentality and behaviour of both kids and teachers. Livaningo
argues, just like CTV, that there is a lack of knowledge among teachers about waste
management. (IW, 2016/04/28)
Uncontrollable fires
ORERA discusses with youth topics like uncontrollable fires and explains how they can kill
animals, and make soils infertile. (IW, 2016/04/14) Additionally, Estamos is working on a
project funded by the United States regarding controlled fires however no specific
information about this project was received. (IW, 2016/04/16) CTV material in turn
communicates that forests help regulate the global climate, so if they are burned carbon is
released into the atmosphere causing greenhouse effect. (IW, 2016/04/27)
Erosion
Radio Mozambique produces three programmes in Lichinga: one for kids aged four to 14;
one for adolescents aged 14 to 18, and one for what they consider as youth; those aged 18 to
34. The topics that are covered are “universal”, discussing everything from the importance of
reading to keeping up good dialogue with your partner. In 2016, one of the programmes
directed towards adolescents dealt with erosion and the preservation of the environment. A
debate was held between students of Escola Secundária Paulo Samuel Kankhomba and a
school from another district, and there was also an interview held with an expert on the
subject. According to the station, they have “a lot” of listeners, which they have deducted
from comments and messages they receive from media like Facebook, and also from what
has been received through their phone lines. (IW, 2016/04/25)
35
Sanitation
Progresso is one organization in Lichinga that has a component of the environment and
sanitation in their alphabetization work, but there were no detailed information given of
exactly what this entails. The organisation’s focus is first and foremost working with
illiteracy and training of teachers, mostly for adult education. (IW, 2016/04/21)
Water
One of the main topics Estamos is working with is water governance. They work on water
and sanitation, monitoring budgets for water and its quality. They also had some projects
funded externally connected with building wells. What is more, for a period of time, Certeza
pills19
were given to people in rural areas with lack of clean water, in order to make it
drinkable. Estamos believes music is a way to send message to people, increase awareness,
mobilize and educate them on issues like health and the environment. (IW, 2016/04/16)
Fórum das Organizações Femininas do Niassa (FOFeN), an organisation working to
contribute to the empowerment of women in Niassa Province, also brought up the water
situation, saying it has improved a bit during last 15 years with the government opening more
wells not only in the city but in the district area as well. However, in remote areas some wells
are not working due to difficulties finding spare parts and someone who can be responsible
for that. The Government said there are plans for building new wells, but none about
repairing the broken ones already existing. As FOFeN’s Coordinator claimed, men do not
care as much about water as it is a female task. (IW, 2016/04/20)
Water sanitation was moreover a topic discussed by ROADS in their community
study circles (IW, 2016/04/22). When in Maputo, representatives of Livaningo mentioned
problems with water in the country, especially the pollution of water through accumulated
garbage in drains (IW, 2016/04/28).
Non-formal EE’s main message include planting trees in order to stop deforestation and its
negative effects along with a sustainable use of resources. In terms of garbage, Lichinga
based organizations mentioned it but without details, and more importance was put into
keeping yourself and the environment clean likewise recycling. Erosion is seen as a problem
and solutions must be considered in terms of environmental preservation. The lack of clean
drinking water is perceived as a big obstacle, with people throwing garbage into water
19
A water treatment product, consisting of diluted sodium hypochlorite solution.
36
sources which can affect wells. What is more, in many Bairros water wells are broken and
people do not have access to water.
6.3.3 Non-educational Institutions’ View on Environment
What will follow in this section is a recount of how non-educational institutions in Lichinga
Municipality view and deal with environmental issues. As previously mentioned, the issues
found in Lichinga were deforestation and tree-cutting, accumulated garbage, uncontrollable
fires, erosion, sanitation, and lack of potable and clean water. In general, both Provincial
Directions and District Directions mention similar problems relating to the environment,
where erosion and uncontrolled fires were often only mentioned briefly and not discussed in
much detail, in comparison to other topics. Moving around in Lichinga Municipality, it
quickly became apparent however the extent of the erosion problems that it faces, especially
out in the Bairros. The roads were sometimes almost impassable with very uneven surfaces,
and on one occasion the research team’s car got stuck, requiring help from the nearby
community to get away.
One reoccurring thing was the belief that there is an importance in talking to kids
about the environment and how to preserve it. The District Direction for Education, Culture,
Sports and Recreation (DDECSR) said that “we all have the responsibility”, meaning that it is
important to go to schools and talk about environmental issues as it is not only a government
problem. Everyone should be aware, and journadas de trabalho ought to be regularly
organized at schools. (IW, 2016/04/20)
The Provincial Direction for Land, Environment and Rural Development (PDLERD)
works with environmental prevention, carrying out educational activities with and for
communities where youth is the main focal point of the work. According to PDLERD, youth
is the part of the population that better absorbs information and is able to transmit it to their
families. In discussions with the Direction, they made a point of saying that climate change is
visible in the area due to an increase of floods as well as rising temperatures. (IW,
2016/04/20)
Tree-cutting & Deforestation
According to PDE, educators are out there participating in environmental preservation and
are instructing students about it as well. Deforestation was brought up as a problem at the
same time as being a way for families to sustain themselves; people cutting trees for charcoal
and firewood to sell. It is argued that youth are taught about replanting in order to manage
37
this problem, and the national program “One student, one tree” was recalled. PDE means it is
important to turn theory into action. (IW, 2016/04/06)
The survival aspect of trees was confirmed in talks with the Governor of Niassa, who
emphasized that illegal tree-cutting is still happening, by people's need of firewood to make
some profit. Besides from the poverty aspect, the Governor argued that there are perceptions
of climate change in relation to cutting trees, as some people say that "it used to be cold here;
now it is warm". The Governor argued that there cannot be SD if one destroys the local
environment; one must preserve it so that next generations can use the resources too. "There
is no development without sustainability", and he argued that practices respecting the
environment while increasing profitability must be promoted. (IW, 2016/04/08)
Accumulated garbage
When visiting Bairro Cerâmica, accumulated garbage was presented as one pressing
environmental problem by local leaders; visible for the research team as well. The Governor
of Niassa on this issue argued that the Municipality is in a transition process, where different
generations have different approaches to garbage and waste management. His argument was
that environmental education is important, and that currently “we are failing” in terms of
education. The Government would like “youth to hate garbage, but instead they love it.”20
(IW, 2016/04/08)
In discussion with PDLERD, it was found that it is the Municipality that is in charge
of the daily work relating to garbage, whilst the Province follows up and monitors the work
(IW, 2016/04/20). The Urban Services of the Municipality stated that the Municipality is
currently “not using the recommended system” for garbage removal, which should be done
with proper garbage trucks that can compact the garbage. Instead, removal is done with
regular trucks, people shovelling garbage up on lorry platforms. For the Municipality, there is
a vision of one day contracting a private actor to handle garbage collection, but due to a lack
of resources the current system must continue. (IW, 2016/04/15)
The Services argue that communication about proper places to put garbage is done
through community leaders, and that frequency of collection is to be done every day in the
urban areas, whilst in the Bairros each 15 days, but meant that they were aware that
frequency was not always as it should. According to the Services, the population is not
respecting the designated places for garbage, which is why the situation is as it is. They
20
This is however not in line with what was found in conversations with youth themselves.
38
however mentioned they were aware of garbage collection operators dumping collected
garbage in other places than the designated city dump. When speaking to youth about this
issue, it was found that frequency of collection was nowhere near standards and
understanding regarding the proper location of dumps varied. (IW, 2016/04/15)
According to PDLERD, all the departments and public sectors participate in
journadas de trabalho to clean the streets twice a month, and there has reportedly been a high
level of participation (IW, 2016/04/20). The research team did join in for one during the time
spent in Lichinga, and on the street where cleaning was carried out there was a great influx of
participants.
Sanitation
In meetings with the Municipality, sanitation was raised as a problem when discussing issues
facing the area. The Urban Services argued that they work on this issue in the urban
environment, trying to guarantee hygiene in the Municipality. One important factor for
solution was the removal of garbage, along with education. The latter was argued needing to
be worked on more, in order to make children more aware of and care about the environment.
(IW, 2016/04/15)
Water
Observations provided information of the accumulated
garbage situation in the Municipality causing problems for
the water situation, as accumulation could be spotted in
several water sources. Walking along the River Muchenga in
Bairro Cerâmica, it was apparent that a majority of the
population use the river as a dump (see Image 3).
The Urban Services moreover work with water
related tasks, energy, and roads in urban areas. Unorganized
living situations were discussed as a problem for the
environment, as it blocks natural flows of water causing
floods when it rains. (IW, 2016/04/15) The Governor also
mentioned this problem with urban soil; of people building
houses where they shouldn't, causing problems for water
flows. Also on the issue of water, the Governor argued that
Image 3 River Muchenga
39
“38 percent of the population in Niassa Province have access to potable water; in Lichinga it
is 21 percent of the population”. He stated that there should be more water committees
working in Bairros and repairing broken wells. (IW, 2016/04/08)
40
7. Findings - Local Level & Youth
This chapter aims to answer the second part of research question four. Also, a description of
youth’s living situation and the problems they are facing will be provided to offer the reader
a more in depth view of the Lichinga Municipality context.
7.1 Youth in the Context of Lichinga Municipality
For the research team, the most apparent environmental problem was the garbage as it was
noticeable all over the Municipality; there were several official and unofficial dumps visible
and garbage thrown on school yards and in rivers. Apart from these issues, there are problems
with low incomes and limited resources. People experience limitations in social services, like
healthcare and education, and as one interviewee said; “development exists and doesn’t at the
same time,” (IW, 2016/04/18) meaning that the government seems to focus on areas that are
more productive rather than those most vulnerable.
In terms of how people organise themselves, distinctions are made between ‘urban’
and ‘rural families’, where in urban areas people experience a more ‘modern’ way of living
with electricity and sometimes running water. The basis for livelihood is here sometimes an
actual salary, while in the more rural areas people work at their machambas, selling whatever
surplus they may generate. There is a lack of resources in the Municipality to solve a lot of
the visible problems, and as one of the local leaders said, “people here do what they can to
survive.” (IW, 2016/04/09) Everyday lives of youth thus differ slightly from Bairro to
Bairro, but they all face similar challenges that may limit them in their personal
development.
In general, the youth in Lichinga Municipality come from large families, where the
number of children ranges from five to sometimes slightly above ten on average. Out in
Bairro Sambula, which is more rural with an apparent lack of drinking water and energy,
youth often abandon school to go out into the machambas with their parents, or follow in
their parents’ footsteps once on their own. There is a lack of employment opportunities, and
obvious differences between girls and boys.
The female youth help out more at home, whilst the young men either run small-scale
businesses or work out in the machambas. Early pregnancies and marriages are a problem,
and while some girls may want to go to school, parents are in general not too keen on sending
41
their kids there.21
A Municipality staff-member added that “each family is different. They
teach children things that may differ in comparison to the educational system.” (IW,
2016/04/19)
Looking at the number of children enrolled in school, deficiencies in the educational
system can be noted. “Many do not understand the importance of education” (IW,
2016/04/06), one interviewee said, claiming that the education sector has not managed to
satisfy youth’s needs; the part of the population highly dependent upon education. Youth thus
live in a high vulnerability context, often resulted by them dropping out of school at an early
age, sometimes provoked by traditional cultural practices as initiation rites. Many of the
youth still have big dreams for the future, wanting to continue to university. This concerns
both those who had been out of school for a while, and those who were still attending. For
those out of school, the main issue is finding steady employment, most getting by on small
jobs, and for those attending school, the main obstacles often referred to their living
conditions. Some felt guided by certain sets of norms placing certain limitations upon them,
while others felt more limited by their parents and available resources. As a lawyer spoken to
in Maputo said, there are sometimes generational confrontations in Mozambican society,
where the elders believe they have the right to decide (IW, 2016/04/27). Some of the young
people moreover felt constrained by other’s views of them, resulting in a lot of self-doubt
regarding what they may be capable of in the future. “If you’re poor,” one girl said, “it’s even
worse.” (IW, 2016/04/14)
To sum up, young people perceived their living situation as difficult. They lack job
opportunities, already in school they think about their future and dreams and all the
obstacles there are there for them to meet their goals. In rural areas living conditions are
bad as people lack clean water, proper healthcare or energy supply. Furthermore, in rural
areas sometimes grownups still have traditional mentality and they are very selective in their
support towards their kids and their future.
21
When visiting a local primary school, observations showed that out of a class normally consisting of 45 children only eleven were present; all
boys. In another class of normally 82 students, only 13 were present whereof only two were girls.
42
7.2 Youth and their Knowledge about the Environment
Tree-cutting & Deforestation
A boy in Escola Secundária Paulo Samuel Kankhomba raised the issue of tree-cutting; that it
is done excessively, and people are not planting new ones. It is a common problem in
Lichinga, and students commented that tree-cutting should not be done in exaggerated way as
it can cause erosion. Students, as a solution to environmental problems, emphasised proper
education and making people realize they have to respect their environment. As one girl said:
“we shouldn't just rely on the municipality”, meaning the community should come together to
try to fix the situation. (IW, 2016/04/14)
Students of the Bairro Chiuaula environmental club mentioned the desire to protect
trees as not only an important issue, but also reason for joining the club; this, along with the
desire to learn how to protect the environment, and learn how to plant trees. Youth here saw
trees as a source of oxygen necessary for breathing but also something providing shade,
fruits, charcoal, and which protects against fires and erosion. “When you have trees, you have
water" one student said, emphasising that when a tree is cut, for charcoal for example,
planting a new one is essential. As young people, to protect the environment, the students
said they could opt for planting trees, or create forests reserves. (IW, 2016/04/21)
At the Agrarian Institute, students said that “climate change is a fact in Niassa”; they
had all experienced the temperature rising, and discussed this being due to many trees in the
area being taken down. One young man emphasized that these kind of changes in the
environment may affect the health of the people. (IW, 2016/04/25)
Accumulated Garbage
During field work in Bairro Cerâmica, closer to the city centre, the concept of journadas de
trabalho first appeared. These are voluntary working days organized on the back of initiatives
taken within the Bairro. The Régulo said that sometimes when a problem occurs within the
community, perhaps related to the environment, they try to mobilize people and motivate
them to work towards solving the problem at hand. There are efforts to motivate people to do
this work for free, convincing them that there is another benefit in the end than payment, such
as a cleaner Bairro. (IW, 2016/04/09) In discussions with a group of boys in their early
twenties, it was found that some of them had participated in a journada de trabalho, cleaning
the nearby market.
43
“When they talked about it, I was convinced. I saw where they put the trash, and knew it
was bad. I didn’t want it to be that way.” (IW, 2016/04/12; 23-year-old male)
As the interview went on, it became apparent that the issue of accumulated garbage –
something also emphasized by the Régulo as a problem – was something that preoccupied
youth in Cerâmica. The young men said that they all think about it, and about why it happens.
One boy said that his family pays a fee for garbage collection and as he explained it is
common that those paying expect Municipality to pick up the trash and hence they can throw
it anywhere. In connection to this, another boy said that the Municipality should provide the
community with containers to place the trash in, and another inserted that the accumulation of
garbage in the wrong places leads to an increase in malaria, due to stagnated water. However,
one boy brought up another point of view saying that there is a problem of people not
understanding where to throw the garbage. “We should all know where,” he said. “We must
find out.” Parallels were drawn to hygiene, and that people did not possess the right “ethics”
to throw the garbage in the right places. (IW, 2016/04/12)
In discussion with secondary school students, many pointed to similar issues as the
boys in Cerâmica. Parallels were drawn between garbage and malaria, and youth here felt that
the Municipality should provide containers in order to avoid solid waste accumulating in
water sources. One boy said he wanted Lichinga to be the “cleanest city in the world”,
because that would mean the number of deaths connected to malaria would be reduced.
Conflicting opinions between what the youth believed the Municipality should do and what
they themselves should do emerged, with one girl saying that the students themselves could
come together and try to fix the problems they see, meaning they cannot simply rely on the
Municipality to take responsibility. The students all had their own ways of treating garbage at
home, several having a special place or it. Some put it into a hole in the ground and cover it
up. After additional inquiry, it turned out that all kinds of garbage are placed in these holes,
and not just foodstuffs. Confusion of where to put the garbage afterwards also still remained.
(IW, 2016/04/14)
The students experience an irregularity in garbage collection, where it can take
several months before something happens. The issue of behaviour was here raised by one
boy, claiming that they were placing garbage closer to where they are rather than where they
should, meaning that containers may not solve the current problem. Additionally, one
participant said that the Municipality cannot take all the blame. “They don’t have the
resources enough, but they try”. However, one boy was very critical towards the Municipality
44
in this sense, saying that “the authorities could keep the city clean if they wanted to, but they
only do if the President of the Republic comes to visit." Another participant said that he had
seen how they dealt with garbage in Maputo, and that collection occurs every day. He argued
that the same could be done in Lichinga, if responsibility was distributed in groups. (IW,
2016/04/12)
In the Bairro Chiuaula
school, the problem of
accumulated garbage was an
apparent issue. Piles of it were
visible from the classroom
windows (see Image 4),
surrounding the entire school
grounds. In discussions with the
school’s environmental club,
consisting of students between fifth and seventh grade, it was found that the kids had learnt
that there should be a hole for garbage within the home and that it should be done in a correct
way; something they said that they try to communicate back to their parents. On the topic of
solid waste, the students believed that people in the Municipality throw it anywhere due to
the lack of proper containers. “People don’t know where to put it”, they said, and argued that
it should be thrown in one special place. (IW, 2016/04/21)
Uncontrollable fires
When speaking to young members of the Union of Peasants Associations (UCA)22
, it was
observed that they lacked an understanding of what ‘environment’ is, and had to be guided by
the translator in the right direction. Issues mentioned by those present were then
uncontrollable fires and tree-cutting. For these young farmers good condition of soils is
crucial for them and their livelihoods and uncontrolled fires, exploitation of forests, as well as
tree-cutting destroy them. (IW, 2016/04/15) In line with this reasoning, both young men and
women interviewed in Bairro Sambula mentioned uncontrolled fires as one of the main
environmental problems, some of those attending school enjoyed natural science as this gives
attention to the issue. (IW, 2016/04/19)
22
Interviewees were young people with the average age of 24, mostly women
Image 4 Garbage in school yard
45
Agrarian Institute students, with high interest in sustainable agriculture, believe that
agriculture is the foundation for development in Mozambique. Environmental issues are
important for farmers and they for example mentioned discussing uncontrollable fires. As
they said, government authorities have tried to work on programs for uncontrollable fires, but
the population is poor and produce charcoal by cutting trees in order to survive and earn
money. Additionally, when fires are used to open fields they cause soil degradation;
something by them deemed as coincident with the environment. (IW, 2016/04/25)
Students from the Chiuaula environmental club found importance in avoiding the
burning of trees. As they said, they communicate to their parents what they learn; for
instance, to avoid smoking out in the fields due to the damage it can cause. Avoiding fires is
important as uncontrolled ones may kill animals, and what is more, smoke creates air
pollution. One boy said fires also need to be avoided to keep homes from catching fire, and
when using fire, firewalls need to be created. (IW, 2016/04/21)
Erosion
In Cerâmica, there are four roads leading into
the Bairro, and it is extremely difficult for
people to move around when it rains, even if
the area is fairly close to the city. One of the
interviewed young boys mentioned that he
had previously done voluntary work in
improving the roads of the Bairro; roads that
during field work visits were visibly damaged
caused by erosion (see Image 5). When visiting Bairro Sambula, a somewhat more rural area
of the Municipality, interviews were held with a group of young boys between the ages of 16
to 27. Most of them were occupied with doing the same thing that their parents were doing;
that is, working out in the machambas. Working in the way that they were doing, they meant
that most now about “environmental things”; erosion being one of those things. To combat
erosion, they said one needs to plant “strong grass” in inclinations, to avoid water breaking
down the soil (IW, 2016/04/19).
When talking to the environmental club, one boy said that he had joined the club
because he wanted to learn how to protect the environment, and emphasized learning how to
avoid erosion. Some were aware of erosion potentially being harmful to their homes, and the
solution they gave to avoid the problem was to plant more trees. (IW, 2016/04/21) Moreover,
Image 5 Effects of erosion
46
the 12th
graders of Escola Secundária Paulo Samuel Kankhomba were, despite environmental
issues apparently not being discussed on a regular basis, aware of the fact erosion is
something that can be caused by excessive tree-cutting. (IW, 2016/04/14)
Sanitation
In Cerâmica, the young people meant that if you keep your house clean, you will keep your
community clean in turn (IW, 2016/04/12), and when talking to students of the Agrarian
Institute, it was found that in their studies they discuss sanitation and irrigation as information
that they are meant to transmit to farmers out in the communities. It is in this context rather
more connected towards agriculture and problems within rural production than to
environmental issues. Sanitation is here connected to animal installations at farms, and that
these should be created in such a way to reduce costs and practices that may damage the
farmers’ productions. (IW, 2016/04/25)
Water
The issue of clean water was mentioned several times by 12th
grade students in Escola
Secundária Paulo Samuel Kankhomba, mostly in connection to litter and garbage. Lack of
clean drinking water, or just water in general was highlighted, and the way garbage affects
water and contributes to the spread of diseases like malaria or diarrhoea; something the
students mentioned as a common occurrence. One boy said he would like Lichinga to be "the
cleanest city in the world" as it would reduce the number of deaths connected to malaria
(caused by stagnated and polluted water). Another boy expressed his concern about the lack
of drinking water in Niassa province, and taking into account the presence of Lake Niassa, he
suggested using water from the lake to support cities with water. (IW, 2016/04/14)
Young boys in their early twenties in Bairro Cerâmica briefly mentioned water as a
problem in relation to waste. One of them explained that “when it’s raining [garbage] creates
water stagnation which is a perfect place for mosquitoes to lay their eggs, and because of that
different diseases as malaria are spread”. (IW, 2016/04/12)
In Bairro Sambula, when asked about environmental problems, a group of young men
mentioned the lack of water during the dry season. In the same Bairro, a group of girls
between 11 and 16 years old, all from big families, said that their chores at home include
fetching water and firewood, and when asked about what they like about natural science class
in school, they emphasized importance of talking about “precious water” as well as plants,
agriculture and growing vegetables. (IW, 2016/04/19)
47
For the students of the Bairro Chiuaula environmental club, it was necessary to learn
how to be careful with water. The water is important to keep kids in good health and without
it there is no life. Water is crucial for irrigation and farmers need it very much as well for
their animals. Furthermore, water is required if one wants to take a bath or wash clothes and
naturally, clean water is a must when one wants to drink it. (IW, 2016/04/21)
Young people are aware of environmental problems and they think about them. They see
trees as useful because they provide shadow, fruits and charcoal so it is crucial to replant
them, and they can explain the consequences of deforestation and uncontrollable fires for
soils. Sanitation means for them keeping themselves and their environment clean. Moreover,
water has huge meaning and access to clean water is important not only for their health but
also agriculture and animals. Concern about garbage situation was more visible among kids
living in urban areas while kids in rural areas recognize the problem and are aware of it but
they do not see it as the most important. According to young people, municipality needs to
provide more containers and prepare special places to store garbage and collect it regularly.
Currently there is general uncertainty of where the proper places to put garbage in are in the
city and as people pay garbage fee they suppose they can put in anywhere. Youth think
double responsibility is crucial to solve this problem.
48
8. Analysis
In this chapter, we will revisit the illustration of the comparative approach presented in
Chapter 3 (see Image 6), focusing on gaps and similarities between the different indicators
and their messages, especially looking to answer how compatible the global indicators are
with national educational efforts regarding environmental education, and local conditions.
Apart from comparing the local indicators with the national and global, and the global with
the national, it was found necessary to make comparisons within the local level itself. Thus,
four themes were developed - Local vs. Local, Local vs. National, National vs. Global,
Global vs. Local.
8.1 Local vs. Local
The knowledge and awareness of youth stand in contrast with formal environmental
education in Lichinga Municipality. At a first glance, comparison makes it seem as if formal
environmental education (EE) does not make a priority to teach and discuss environmental
issues in detail, but youth still possess a lot of awareness and knowledge.
Formal EE does make a point to emphasise that community awareness needs to be
increased; this while youth showed a high level of awareness. This becomes especially
interesting as some of the youth emphasised “proper education” as a solution to the
Image 6 Simplified illustration of analytical approach
49
environmental problems Lichinga is facing, while formal EE did not seem to reflect on the
role that they could play in raising awareness for the community as a whole. Instead it sees
the Municipality as the one that should ensure community awareness.
Youth in Lichinga are found to be quite aware of erosion problems, but it is difficult
to detect what message non-formal EE means to communicate regarding this issue. While
some youth know how erosion should be avoided, it is still an apparent problem in the
Municipality based on observations.
Comparisons show that priorities differ, as formal EE highlight deforestation and tree-
cutting, while for youth garbage seems to be more of a preoccupation. Despite youth being
aware of how garbage ought to be treated, however, the problem in the community still
prevails. Youth in turn disagree between themselves on what their responsibility is as young
people, and what the Municipality should do to improve the situation.
Comparing non-formal EE with youth, preferences were found to differ as well:
garbage seems to be the priority issue for youth, while Lichinga based organisations direct
most of their efforts towards the importance of trees and agriculture, emphasising a
sustainable use of resources. They did not make a point to discuss the garbage issue, and their
previous work did not show much done in relation to it. However, compatibilities were found
in relation to water, where non-formal EE emphasise it as one of the main problems, and its
concerns are mirrored in youth’s awareness.
8.2 Local vs. National
Important to mention here is the difficulty to analyze formal EE as people were sometimes
more interested in presenting information about school statistics during interviews, than the
importance of the environment or what is necessary to teach youth about.
At the national level, garbage is not given a lot of priority. National voices say
garbage needs to be thrown in special places, which mirrors what the youth know about it.
Many of the schools visited had garbage around the yards, and even if students are
encouraged to participate in voluntary cleaning days, the problem still remains in the
community. One observation made in one school was of two girls cleaning after the end of
the day, but garbage is reportedly and visibly still present in every school anyway. There are
moreover no containers to place garbage in anywhere in the city, and when visiting the local
“landfill”, collected garbage was found simply dumped in a different place out in the open
instead of on the streets of the city.
50
Youth were aware of the importance of water in relation to the environment,
mentioning things that can be found corresponding to the national indicators: one must avoid
throwing litter into water sources, and that there is no life without water, both for humans and
animals. One boy even said that when there are trees around, there is water, hinting of
ecology knowledge; of how different factors interact with each other. It is however important
to mention how observations showed apparent problems with wastewater, lack of potable
water and broken wells in Lichinga Municipality.
At national level, importance is mostly put into bad effects of erosion on agriculture,
but talking with youth and representatives of non-educational institutions shows that people
see erosion as a problem not only for agriculture but also for their housing situation and
quality of roads. The main solution is seen as replanting trees, which shows some
incompatibility between what is seen as important on national level and how people at the
local level perceive it.
Non-formal education mirrors national messages with focus on replanting trees and
agriculture. The national indicators are more focused on agriculture and importance of
protecting soils while youth at the local level prioritize planting trees and coping with the
garbage situation in the city. In young people’s view, the municipality needs to provide
resources at the same time as they have to contribute with proper cleaning and garbage
collection; they understand it as double responsibility.
Overall, youth have a more local focus on problems, consequences, and ideas for
solutions than what the national indicators provide and discuss. Whilst sustainable use of
natural resources is highlighted on the national level, it is not discussed in the same way at
the local level. This however relates back to the understanding of what ‘sustainability’ is, and
based on comparisons, the local level leans more towards a ‘day-to-day’ approach.
8.3 National vs. Global
The global message is rather unspecified, at the same time as it is very specific in what it
aims to do; climate change and sustainability are priorities, along with creating ‘global
citizens’ equipped to solve global problems. When looking into the national EE-efforts, the
global concern for climate change is not that prevalent; for Mozambique, it is not presented
as the greatest problem. The national indicators are more livelihood-centred, having its point
of departure more or less in agriculture. In this context, priority is very much put into tree-
51
cutting and uncontrollable fires as problems that affect the soils, in turn affecting
Mozambicans in a negative way.
The global indicators provide an actual vision for how it believes EE should be
carried out and what it should result in. It talks about proper knowledge without defining it.
The national efforts, they do not provide goals or learning outcomes in the same manner
other than it envisions the creation of environmentally responsible individuals; this rather
than global citizens. Hence, the two visions clearly differ in contrast. The global emphasises
the development of specific centres working towards the goal of GAP, and ways for youth to
take part of relevant information through different kinds of technology. The global vision is
not apparent in the national efforts, where youth seemingly only have the options of either
voluntarily going to an organisation dealing with environmental issues or attending school
with hopes of learning the ‘relevant’ knowledge and skills.
8.4 Global vs. Local
Global ideas are unspecified and inaccurate, being very generalized while on local level
young people could recall many concrete ideas on how one can work with environmental
issues, such as providing containers for garbage and planting more trees, which mirrors the
national indicators. Still, down at the local level a lot of people do not have drinking water or
money to buy food so sometimes they have to cut trees in order to earn some money, even if
they are aware of how important trees are to preserve. In comparison, the global indicators
puts a majority of its focus on the consequences tree-cutting has in the form of climate
change, not taking into account the survival aspect of the local level.
On the global level, it is claimed that “ESD can help address several major needs in
the region, especially by developing greater synergies between school and community”
(UNESCO 2014: 14) which that is what people in Lichinga would like to see, but the global
indicators do not provide any advice on how to do that. Moreover, the global indicators
instruct stakeholders to find their own resources to raise awareness, but at the local level
finding these resources may be a challenge, when people often survive on a day-to-day basis.
Hence, EE may not be prioritized in line with the global indicators. One could say that there
is a lack of balance here between general statements on the global level and concrete
implementation measures for the local level, especially considering the global indicators
today being guided by the SDGs. The focus of these goals do not show compatibility with
local priorities.
52
What is more, the global action plan focuses on giving people “knowledge, skills,
values and attitudes that empower them to contribute to sustainable development” but no
specific information how that should be done is added. To contribute to SD in Lichinga,
knowledge and skills regarding waste and water management, for example, seem important
while on global level concrete guidelines for this are not given. Moreover, on the local level,
parallels between health and the environment are more visible within the context of EE.
Thus, global indicators seem to be too universal and unbalanced considering the local
priorities. All countries are put into the same level which is a little discriminatory.
53
9. Conclusions
This study had its point of departure in an interest to see how the global indicators on
environmental education were reflected in national policy and local practice in Mozambique;
a country characterized by several environmental problems and a young population. Interest
lay, through a series of research questions, in figuring out what the compatibilities are
between the local, national, and global levels. The aim was to highlight differences and
similarities, in order to draw conclusions on what this may mean for achieving sustainable
development in Lichinga Municipality. The comparative analysis as an approach has helped
illuminate this, which will be discussed in this chapter along with thoughts on how the global
message and local conditions can be made more compatible.
9.1 Contrasting Messages
Through comparisons of the environmental education (EE) indicators, one can see how focus
shifts between different priorities and needs, discussions on increased awareness and a lack of
resources, to also showing a high level of awareness in environmental issues. Similarities
between the global and the national indicators were proven to be very limited, due to the
generalized nature of the global indicator and different visions of the two of them.
Furthermore, the global indicators and the local living conditions in Lichinga Municipality
are found incompatible due to a lack of understanding regarding local needs and priorities in
what the global communicates.
An interesting conclusion can however be drawn from the analysis that the national
indicators are fairly well mirrored in youth’s knowledge and awareness about environmental
problems; much more so than how formal and non-formal are mirrored in youth. For
example, on national level planting trees or importance of water is discussed, so knowledge
and awareness among youth are presented.
9.2 Future Sustainable Development in Lichinga?
One conclusion to be drawn is that knowledge and awareness wise among youth, the
Municipality has good prospects for ensuring sustainable development (SD) in Lichinga.
However, the incompatibilities between the local level and the global level obstruct this
process, mostly due to the global level’s lack of consideration regarding the local level’s
inability to live up to the global vision. This often relates back to a lack of resources.
54
Incompatibilities relate back to the general and unspecified way that the global level
expresses itself in; that it ‘treats everybody the same’. Also, stakeholders are meant to find
the necessary resources to implement the changes, but it is often easier said than done. This
rings true for Mozambique, where administration and responsibility for different sectors are
divided between Province, District, and Municipality. The global indicators are thus not very
helpful for the local level when it comes to solving environmental problems happening there.
The global voices are very concerned and focused on climate change, and they are not taking
into consideration that living conditions at the local level may not have the sufficient
resources to adapt to a global plan. With no resources, how to move forward?
One can teach kids that they should throw garbage in suitable places, but if there is
disorientation where to put garbage, how can the accumulated garbage problem be resolved?
How can one turn theory into practice if some schools do not plant trees or have no access to
potable water? It can thus be concluded that it does not boil down to a lack of knowledge or
awareness at the local level; rather down to a lack of resources.
9.3 Concluding Remarks on Increasing Compatibilities
How could then the global message on environmental education and local conditions be made
more compatible? First, in the case of Mozambique, climate change is not the greatest
problem; locally or nationally. From this perspective, what use is the Global Action Plan on
Education for Sustainable Development? It is seemingly too general, where all countries are
placed on the same level. Second, on the global level young people are seen as agents of
change and the solution for putting SD forward. Talking with youth in Lichinga showed that
it is not enough to put all responsibility on young people; they need support and help from
their parents, community, municipality, and companies. From a local perspective, the
question arise how anyone lacking basic resources can think about climate change. Moreover,
with bad living conditions, difficulties to acquire a job and other obstacles stopping youth
from achieving their goals, how can they focus on changing the world, or taking
responsibility for the whole world?
To conclude, it is difficult to make global recommendations that work for everyone,
and we can here draw parallels to Lotz-Sisitka’s (2008) reasoning regarding utopian
concepts. It can be tempting to lump everyone together, treating them the same way. If one
would like to see a concept such as the GAP for ESD succeed, one needs to really take local
conditions into account. It should not come as a surprise to anyone that the world is complex,
55
and that living conditions differ among people. The local level’s conditions may not at all be
adapted for a universal plan, meant for everyone. As found at the local level in Lichinga,
young people know a lot and are aware of environmental issues. It is thus here a matter of
supporting and providing them with necessary resources for making changes at the local
level, without putting the pressure on youth to take responsibility for the whole world under
their current conditions.
ix
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Available at: http://www.unep.org/pdf/survey_results.pdf
[Accessed 18 May 2016].
UNEP, (2016a). Climate Change.
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[Accessed 10 May 2016].
UNEP, (2016b). Vacancies.
Available at: http://www.unep.org/vacancies/ [Accessed 5 May 2016].
UNESCO, (2015). UNESCO, Climate Change Education and COP21.
Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002357/235709e.pdf
[Accessed 24 May 2016].
xiii
UNFCCC, (2008). Youth and Climate Change.
Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-
climatechange.pdf
[Accessed 18 May 2016].
UNFCCC, (2013). Youth in Action for Climate Change: Inspirations from Around the World.
Available at:
http://www.unicef.org/education/files/Publication_Youth_in_Action_on_Climate_Chan
ge_Inspirations_from_Around_the_World_English.pdf
[Accessed 18 May 2016].
United Nations, (2013). Definition of Youth.
Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-
definition.pdf
[Accessed 25 May 2016].
United Nations, (2015a). Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns.
Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-consumption-
production/
[Accessed 17 April 2016].
United Nations, (2015b). Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.
Available at: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/
[Accessed 17 April 2016].
United Nations, (2016). Climate Change.
Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/climatechange
[Accessed 12 May 2016].
WCK, (2013). About us.
Available at: http://www.wildlifeclubsofkenya.org
[Accessed 10 May 2016].
xiv
World Bank, (2015). Mozambique - Overview.
Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/mozambique/overview#1
[Accessed 31 Jan 2016].
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[Accessed 12 May 2016].
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[Accessed 5 Feb 2016].
Photos and maps
Map of Mozambique courtesy of Irish Aid, (2016). Available at:
https://www.irishaid.ie/media/irishaid/allwebsitemedia/30whatwedo/mozambique-
large-map.jpg
Images 2-5 Photos taken out in the field by Klaudia Medalion and Katarina Näslund
(April 2016)
Images 1 and 6 Illustrated by Klaudia Medalion and Katarina Näslund (April 2016)
xv
Annexes
Annex 1. Glossary
Bairro Region within the Municipality, similar to borough
Escola Secundária Secondary School
Journadas do Trabalho Voluntary community work day
Machamba Field
Nduna Traditional leader, level beneath Régulo
Obregada Thank you
Posto Administrativo Administrative post
Régulo Traditional leader
Vereadore Alderman; a member of the municipal assembly
Xehé Muslim leader
Annex 2. Interview Guide
Municipal Staff
● What is your board’s/authority’s main responsibility? What kind of everyday work do you
do?
○ Is there a provincial educational plan? What is your role in this plan?
○ Could you tell us how many schools there are within the municipality?
○ How do you communicate with the schools?
● What are the main challenges and problems facing the environment in this area?
○ How is the municipality trying to prevent and work with these kind of negative
changes?
● Are these issues connected to education somehow? I.e. is the local environmental context
discussed within the educational sphere?
● Does the municipality have an environmental education plan?
○ If not; is there a plan to make one for the future? Any other future plans?
○ How many different kind of schools are there in the area? Which teaches some
kind of environmental education?
● How do young girls and boys participate in local community work related to the
environment?
● What are your perceptions regarding youth’s attitudes towards these issues?
xvi
● Outside the formal education, do you know any other ways of connecting environmental
issues and youth? Any organisations/groups/associations, etc?
● Do you know if media is involved in any way when it comes to creating awareness about
the issues that you see?
Youth
● How do you live?
○ Do you have any siblings?
○ What does your mother do? What does your father do?
○ What do you do in your free time? Are you helping at home? What are your
responsibilities?
● Do you go to school?
○ IF YES:
■ Do you like going to school?
■ What is your favourite subject? What don’t you like?
■ What do you like to do during breaks?
■ Do you learn about environment?
■ Do you have any biology class/class about nature/environment?
● What did you learn? What was interesting for you?
■ Was it useful? (What else would you want to learn?)
○ IF NO:
■ What do you do instead?
■ Do you learn about the environment somehow?
■ Do you participate in any clubs/associations?
● What do you do there?
● What do you do for the environment when you are at home?
○ Have you ever plant a tree, grow own food, clean up the garbage …?
○ If you don’t, what do you like to do instead?
Educational Institutions
● Which subjects are taught? How are they taught?
● Which subjects would you say are most important?
● How long is a school day on average?
● Gender division:
- What does the number of girls and boys in school, per class, look like?
- Is there any noticable difference in learning between genders?
● Is there a local school council?
- How does it work, and who are involved?
- What does it do and how are the members chosen?
● In this area, what what environmental problems/issues do you see?
- How did you learn about these issues?
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- Do you teach kids/youth about these environmental issues? If so, in what way and
why? (Would you say that what you are teaching is ‘environmental education’?)
- Do you think it is important to engage kids in nature related issues?
- Do you do activities outside of the classroom connected with the environment?
(What do you do with kids during breaks?)
- Is the local context/situation taken into account in teaching? If so, in what way?
- To what extent (i.e. how often) do you teach about these issues? What motivates
you to?
● What would you say the level of awareness is among youth of the impact their
actions/behavior may have on the environment/their community/their surroundings?
● Challenges
- What does the educational situation look like for children and young people who
cannot study?
- What would you say the level of interest among children/young people is
regarding the environment? Do you try to motivate them to take care of nature?
● Do you know of any ongoing local activities/groups about environmental issues (and
sustainability) that involves youth?
Groups/Associations
● When was the group established, and for what reason?
● What is your main focus?
● Who are in the group? I.e. how many people, how many boys/girls?
○ How many supervisors/organisers?
● What kind of activities and works does the group do?
○ How was activities started - by who and when?
○ How do you decide what to focus on, in terms of projects and activities?
○ In what ways can youth bring forward ideas and/or be a part of developing
activities?
● Who participated in the beginning? Who are participating now? (Male/female)
○ How frequent is participation? Does everyone participate in everything?
○ How do you promote your activities? I.e. how do you get young people to
participate?
● Do you see an importance of including a discussion regarding local environmental issues?
○ In what ways do you discuss them with youth? Discuss their way of living?
○ Are there any projects for the future that focuses on the local environment?
● For Participants:
○ What were your reasons for joining the group?
○ How do you feel about the organization and its activities?
○ How do you participate?
○ If not, what do you like to do instead?
○ What would be needed for you to participate?
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Annex 3. List of People Contacted
Niassa Province
Arlindo Chilundo Governor of Niassa Province
Amado Assique Provincial Director of Education
Director Provincial Director of Youth and Sport
Jeremias Adisse Director at the Agrarian Institute, Lichinga
João Manuel dos Anjos Saide Pedagogical Head at the Agrarian Institute
Meeting with 9 students 4 female and 5 male students at Agrarian Institute
Afonso Chisoma Head of Planning, Provincial Direction of Environment and
Rural Development
Adamo Amadeu Technician, Direction of Environment
Alice Mapondo Head of Department for Environmental Management
Emilia Orlando Technician, Direction of Environment
Jorge Eduardo Head of Human Resources, Direction of Environment
João Jone Head of Territorial Planning, Direction of Environment
Celestina Teófilo Head of Environmental Education and Gender
Júlio Afonso Technician, Environmental Education and Gender
Inocêncio Sotomane Director, Forestry Company Green Resources Niassa
Hampus Hamilton Adviser and Technician in forestry, Green Resources
Achford Chando Adviser and Technician in environmental issues, Green
Resources
Edgar Ussene Coordinator, We Effect, Niassa
Julia Barreto Program Officer, Agriculture and NR, We Effect, Niassa
Emílio Muanpezário Coordinator, ROADS - Environmental NGO, Niassa
Felicidade João Program Officer, ROADS, Niassa
Jornal Carlos Mateus English teacher and interpreter
Clara Armando Coordinator at the NGO ORERA, gender issues
Marcélia da Graça Cesar Secretary ORERA
Manuela Texeira Coordinator FOFEN, Forum for Female Associations
Armandio Bomba Financial Administrator, FOFEN
Salimo Amido President of UCA, Union of Peasants Associations
Elisa Acide Vice President, UCA
Oliveira Paulino Program officer, UCA
Tasia Binda Assistant in Gender issues, UCA
xix
Vontade da Laxmi General Secretary, UCA
Meeting with 8 young women and 2 young men from 5 different UCA Peasant Associations:
Casewua, Ndawuile, Farera, Alívio a Pobreza and Desenvolvimento de Mulheres em Sangala
Felicitas Kaomba Coordinator of NGO Progresso
Mina Mossagy Administrative Assistant, Progresso
Saide Aquimo Assistant, Programs for Basic Education, Progresso
Manuel Dailesse Administrator, Progresso
Paulo Phatana President of Provincial Youth Council (CPJ)
Stella Arminda Misanga Administrator, CPJ
Sanito Michael Secretary, CPJ
Inácio Jorge Maulana Head of Department for Culture, CPJ
Fernando Laisse Head of Department for Associations, CPJ
Delcófio Daniel Head of Children and Youth Programs at Radio
Mozambique (RM), Lichinga
Tino Daniel Collaborator Youth Programs, RM, Lichinga
António Jaime Collaborator Youth Programs, RM, Lichinga
Lichinga District Alberto Mussa Administrator of Lichinga District
Sergio Augustinho Iboa District Director of Education Authorities
Afonso Rafael Director of Primary School A Luta Continua
Salvador Sale Pedagogical Head at School A Luta Continua
Environmental Youth Club Students at School A Luta Continua
Lucinda Salustiano Severino Teacher responsible for the Environmental Youth Club
Orlando Govene Pedagogical Head at Secondary School Paulo Samuel
Kankhomba (PSK)
Pacífica Rosário History Teacher, PSK
Felizmino Alexandro Douglasse English Teacher, PSK
Alice Saíde English Teacher, PSK
Felicia Cássimo Portuguese Teacher, PSK
Meeting with 14 female students and 1 male student at PSK
Meeting with 13 female students and 10 male students at PSK
Lichinga Municipality
Saíde Amido President, Municipality
Jorge Malita Coordinator of External Relations
Namassane Adine Vereador, Economy, Markets and Local Development,
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Lucas Juane Vereador, Local Governance
Pius Obcello Vereador, Urbanization and Infrastructure
Princípio José Vereador, Sanitation and Environmental Management
Benedito Henriques Vereador, Education, Culture, Sport and Recreation
Luis Alfredo Bacala Staff at Department of Education, Culture, Sport and
Recreation
Mocindo José Coordinator of the cultural group Mataka, Lichinga
Cerâmica, Lichinga Municipality
Valentine Parato Secretary of Cerâmica
Estevão Walusa Régulo Mukutiuwa, Cerâmica
Emílio Jamissone Assistant to the Secretary
Maqui Muenda Assistant to the Régulo
Maria Janquia Secretary, OMM Women Org., Administrative Post
Lúcia Rachabo Traditional leader
Cecilia Manuel Assistant to the Régulo
Teresa Rajabo Adviser
Churvazio Ossório Head of housing area A
Ernesto Aguacheiro Head of housing area B
Zacarias Singuewue Head of housing area D
Arlindo António Head of housing area E
Celestino Paulo Adamo Head of residential block
Samuel Lourenço Head of residential block
Santos Saissene Head of residential block
Alfredo Salange Head of residential block
Zacarias Nzingene Religious leader
Members of School Council Cerâmica
Members of Consultative Council Cerâmica
Members of Makwaela group Youth cultural group in Cerâmica
Assamo Delimane Xehé and Responsible for the Mosque
Assane Abdala Xehé and 2nd
Responsible for the Mosque
Taimo Saíde Xehé
Magui Muenda Xehé
Iassino Abilo Master in Educational Administration at University
Abudúlio Adílo Responsible for youth activities
Elisa Jane Responsible for female issues
Idana Iasin Assistant in female issues
Margarida Ali Assistant in female issues
Lúcia Denise Adviser social issues
15 women Members of the Muslim Community, Cerâmica
xxi
6 women Members of a local Saving and Credit group, Cerâmica
Group of 4 young men Cerâmica
Members of Nutrition Committee Cerâmica
Sambula, Lichinga Municipality
Aissa Aide Secretary of Sambula
Ausse Saíde Régulo Passange, Sambula
Orlando Bonomar Assistant to Secretary
Fabião Catoma Secretary of Committee
Fatima Bulaimo Bibí, traditional female leader
Jone Saíde Xehé
Aide Asside Xehé
Ndala Luale Xehé
Janato Janado Xehé
Tuaíbo Candulo Xehé
Seragi Salisa Xehé
Aliceni Rachide Nduna
Salica Cadona Nduna
Iassine Mussa Nduna
Salimo Momade Nduna
Juwembe Omade Nduna
Merizonho Assane Head of housing area
Iassido Amano Head of housing area
Rosalina Rajabo Representative OMM, Women Organisation
Teresa Momade OMM
Staua Ali OMM
Tuaibo Iassine OJM, Youth organization
Afana Saide OJM
Visiting students in 2 classes Primary School, Sambula
Benjamin Simone Director of Primary School, Sambula
Thomas Caomba Vice Director of Primary School, Sambula
Midwife Mother and child care activities, Health Unit, Sambula
Medical technician Responsible for health services, Health Unit
Meeting with 15 local leaders
Meeting with 7 male small-scale farmers
Meeting with a group of 18 female farmers
Meeting with a group of 4 young girls
Meeting with a group of 12 young men representing 3 different football teams
Meeting with a group of 8 local religious leaders from the Muslim Community
xxii
Maputo
André Calengo Lawyer, specialist in land issues and civil society
Manuela Wing Coordinator, Centro Terra Viva (NGO)
Domingos Pedro Pangueia Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Project
Coordinator, Livaningo (NGO)
Joanna Guilheme Nhassengo Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Project Assistant,
Livaningo
Manuel J. Cardoso Júnior Sustainable Energy and Climate Change Project Official,
Livaningo