ASSESSING WATER FOOTPRINT OF CROPS CULTIVATION IN

SULAYMANIYAH, KURDISTAN REGION OF IRAQ: TOWARDS AN

IMPROVEMENT OF WATER EFFICIENCY DURING DROUGHT

CONDITIONS

HUSHIAR RAHEEM HAMARASH

THIS THESIS SUBMITTED AS PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

BANGI

2015

iv

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations and

summaries which have been duly acknowledged.

Date HUSHIAR RAHEEM HAMARASH

10/02/2015 P69461

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my special appreciation and my sincere gratitude to my advisor

Dr. Marlia Binti Mohd Hanafiah, you have been a great mentor for me and your guidance

assisted me. I would like to thank you for your advises that encouraging me to finish my

research and for teaching me to thrive as a research scientist. Your brilliant comments

and suggestions have been priceless and will not be forgotten on both research and on my

career. I would especially like to thank environmentalists, friends, and my fellows in the

School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences at University Kebangsaan

Malaysia (UKM), especially Mr. Muhammad Muaz Aminordin. I would next like to give

warmest thanks to my both splendid friends Krmanj Fahmi Abdalrahaman and Ikram

Hassan. All of you have been there to support me for collecting data for my Msc thesis.

I have a deepest gratitude to my family, especially my parents for their dedication

and support during my studies. Words never cannot describe how appreciative I am to my

mother and father for all your sacrifices that you’ve made on my behalf. Your prayer for

me was what sustained me thus far.

Very special thanks must go to my beloved wife Dlkhosh Fahmi Abdalrahaman

for standing, encouraging and supporting me along of my study. She is my inspiration

and enthusiasm for enduring to increase my knowledge and improve my career forward.

vi

ABSTRACT

Human-induced changes in water consumption are likely to reduce the freshwater

availability. So far, this issue has not been addressed in Iraq using the water footprint

framework. Water footprint is a temporally and spatially explicit indicator considering

location and timing of the volumes of water used. This study estimates the blue and green

water footprint of six crops (i.e. wheat, barley, sunflower, tomato, sweet melon and

chickpeas) in Kurdistan, Iraq. Kurdistan region is located in the Northern Iraq, covering

about 28,817 km2 of area. In this thesis, the water footprint network method and the

CROPWAT 8.0 were used to compute the crop water requirement of crops grown in the

Sulaymaniyah, Kurdistan region from 2003 – 2013 (10 years). It was found that the green

water footprints for growing wheat, barley, sunflower, tomato, sweet melon and

chickpeas range between 12 m3/ton - 533 m

3/ton, while the blue water footprints range

between 2 m3/ton - 300 m

3/ton. This preliminary study can be used as a starting point to

introduce the wise water governance program by developing and implementing good

water policy as well as to give a new dimension to the concept of water management in

Kurdistan Region. The results also allow the development of recommendations for

improved irrigation practices, mitigation during drought event, planning of irrigation

schedules under varying water supply conditions and the assessment of production under

rainfed conditions or deficit irrigation. The amount of water required in growing crops

can differ depending on the location and climate conditions, therefore future research

should be done to investigate the water footprint of growing crops under different

scenarios. It is also suggested that the sustainable irrigation system and construction

small dams should be provided to reduce the impact of drought, particularly during the

dry season.

vii

ABSTRAK

Aktiviti manusia yang melibatkan penggunaan air secara tidak lestari menyebabkan

berlakunya pengurangan sumber air tawar yang tersedia ada. Setakat ini, isu ini belum

dijalankan di Iraq menggunakan rangka kerja dan kaedah jejak air. Jejak ini ialah satu

penunjuk yang mengambil kira lokasi dan juga masa bagi jumlah air yang digunakan oleh

sesuatu aktiviti. Kajian ini menilai jejak air biru dan hijau bagi enam tanaman (iaitu

gandum, barli, bunga matahari, tomato, tembikai manis dan kacang kuda) di Kurdistan,

Iraq. Kurdistan terletak di Utara Iraq dan keluasannya merangkumi lebih kurang 28,817

km2. Dalam tesis ini, kaedah jejak air dan CROPWAT 8.0 digunakan untuk menentukan

jumlah keperluan air tanaman yang digunakan untuk aktiviti pertanian di Sulaymaniyah,

Kurdistan daripada tahun 2003 - 2013 (10 tahun). Daripada kajian ini, didapati bahawa

jejak air hijau untuk tanaman gandum, barli, bunga matahari, tomato, tembikai manis dan

kacang kuda adalah berjulat di antara 12 m3/tan - 533 m

3/tan, manakala jejak air biru pula

berjulat di antara 2 m3/tan - 300 m

3/tan. Kajian awal ini boleh digunakan sebagai satu

titik permulaan bagi memperkenalkan program pengurusan air secara mapan dengan

memajukan dan melaksanakan dasar dan polisi air yang baik serta memberi satu dimensi

baru kepada konsep pengurusan air di Kurdistan. Hasil kajian juga membolehkan

cadangan untuk amalan-amalan pengairan yang lebih baik, mitigasi semasa musim

kemarau, perancangan jadual-jadual pengairan di bawah situasi sumber bekalan air yang

pelbagai dan penilaian pengeluaran hasil di bawah musim hujan atau musim kekurangan

pengairan. Jumlah air yang diperlukan untuk pertanian adalah berbeza bergantung kepada

lokasi dan keadaan iklim sesuatu kawasan. Oleh itu kajian lanjutan perlu dilakukan untuk

menilai jejak air dalam pelbagai senario. Ia juga mencadangkan bahawa sistem pengairan

yang mapan dan pembinaan empangan kecil perlu disediakan untuk mengurangkan kesan

daripada masalah kekurangan air, terutama semasa musim kemarau.

viii

Contents

Pages

DECLARATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGHMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

ABSTRAK vi

CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xi

LEST OF ABBRIVIATIONS xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1. Global Freshwater Scarcity 1

1.2. Problem Statement 2

1.3. The Importance Of The Study 3

1.4. Objectives 4

ix

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Global Freshwater Issues 5

2.2 Drought Events 7

2.3 Water Resources And Irrigation 11

2.4 Land Resources 16

2.5 Soil 19

2.6 Anthropogenic Effects On Water Resources 21

2.7 Primary Crops Cultivation 22

2.8 Water Management Planning 24

2.9 Water Footprint Approach 25

2.9.1. Blue Water Footprint 26

2.9.2. Green Water Footprint 28

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

3.1. Study Area 30

3.2. Conceptual Framework 32

3.3. Water Footprint Analysis 34

3.3.1. Data Inventory 34

3.3.2. Green And Blue Water Footprint of Crop Cultivation 44

3.4. Reference Evapotranspiration (Eto) 46

3.5. Crop Water Requirement 47

3.6. Irrigation Water Requirement 48

3.7. Effective Rainfall 49

x

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

4.1. Climate 50

4.1.1. Temperature 51

4.1.2. Humidity 53

4.1.3. Wind Speed 55

4.1.4. Sunshine 56

4.1.5. Rainfall 57

4.2. Water Footprints of the Sulaymaniyah Province 59

4.2.1. Wheat 60

4.2.2. Barley 62

4.2.3. Sunflower 63

4.2.4. Sweet Melon 64

4.2.5. Tomato 65

4.2.6. Chickpea 66

4.3 Assessment of Water Footprint 67

4.4. Water Scarcity 70

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS 73

REFERENCES 76

APPENDIXES

xi

LIST OF TABLES

Page

2.1 Number of wells for drinking, irrigation and industrial 15

2.2 Available water resources in 2007 15

2.3 Cultivated and uncultivated area (hectare) 17

3.1 The input and output modules of CROPWAT 8.0 37

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Number page

2.1 Affected drought cropland in percentage 9

2.2 Sources of water for both main rivers of Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq 12

2.3 Precipitation rate in north of Iraq. 13

2.4 Land uses according to crops and vegetables 18

2.5 Utilization of land resources in Iraq 19

2.6 Soil map of Sulaymaniyah province with boundaries of study area 20

3.1 Map of Iraq with enlarges view of the 10 districts of Sulaymaniyah 31

3.2 Framework and flow chart of the water footprint assessment 33

3.3 Input and output flow chart for water footprint system boundaries 34

3.4 Actual vapour pressure 38

3.5 Logarithmic wind speed profile 39

3.6 Sunshine duration according to the latitude 40

3.7 Solar radiation entering the earth 41

3.8 root zone of fluctuation of water content in a period of time 48

4.1 Average climate characteristics in Kurdistan region 51

4.2 Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperarure in Sulaymaniyah 52

4.4 Various ways of expressing humidity 53

4.5 Average Annual Humidity in Sulaymaniyah from 1973 to 2002 54

4.6 Monthly average humidity in Sulaymaniyah 55

4.7 Average wind speed in the Sulaimaniyah 56

4.8 Average sunshine hours according to months 57

4.9 Average monthly average rainfall rates 58

4.10 Average rainfalls in different cities in Sulaimaniyah province 59

4.11 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton wheat 61

4.12 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton barley 63

xiii

4.13 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton sunflower 64

4.14 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton sweet melon 65

4.15 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton tomato 66

4.16 Amount water footprint consumption m3 per ton chickpea 67

4.17 Average water footprint consumption m3 per ton of each crop 68

4.18 Average water footprint consumption of each crop in percentage 69

4.19 Average annual precipitation (1980-2011) 71

4.20 Average amount of precipitation according to each governorate in Iraq 72

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

WF Water Footprint

KRG Kurdistan Regional Government

SCS-CN Soil Conservation Service-Curve Number

WMS Watershed Modeling System

AMC Antecedent Moisture Conditions

MWRI Ministry of water resources- IRAQ

MAWR/KRG Ministry of Agriculture and Water resources- Kurdistan

SMWR Strategic management of water resources

NMS National Mitigation Strategies

DRPS Drought Relief Planning Systems

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

IOM International Organization for Migration

CWR Crop water requirements

GAW Gross Available Water

WP Wilted Point

FC Field Capacity

RO Run-off

RH Relative Humidity

T Temperature

MMT Million metric tons

m³/ha Meter Cubic per Hectare

m³/ ton Meter cubic per ton

xv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

ETo Evapotranspiration

Ra Extraterrestrial radiation

Rs Solar Radiation

Kc Crop coefficients

P Critical depletion fraction

ETblue Blue water evapotranspiration

ETgreen green water evapotranspiration

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GLOBAL FRESHWATER SCARCITY

Freshwater is a very vital element to human and living things, however, is drying up and

experiencing adverse effects in many parts of the world. Report from the United Nations

on world water resource in 2006 indicates that more than 10 billion of the population in

the world is facing lack of enough safe water to support their basic needs, while about

40% of the population experienced limited access to basic hygiene infrastructure (Ahmad

& Chan 2009). Water consumption is mainly categorized into industrial, agricultural and

domestic sectors, as well as incorporated water lost from water evaporation (Brown

2011). It is predicted that 75% of people are facing lack of access to sufficient water

supply in 2015. This proportion of the people will increase for about 95% in 2025 with

the volume of water consumption increases by 25% in 2025 for agriculture, hydropower,

industry, tourism and transportation (Pietersen & Beekman 2006). Furthermore, steadily

growing population and increasingly water consumption for municipalities, industry and

agriculture have influence the availability of freshwater resources around the world.

Demand for the clean water for some countries is more than the capacity of the supply

and it is expected that the problem of water shortage will be faced by some countries in

the near future, especially arid and dry regions (Lalzad 2007).

An increasing demand for food together with a growing demand for energy crops

result in an increasing demand for a competition over freshwater (Gerbens-Leenes &

Hoekstra 2012). This demand has led to the increased concern of water shortages and

2

deterioration of water quality caused by agricultural practices. The Sulaymaniyah

Governorate that located at the Kurdistan region, Northern part of Iraq is a suitable place

for agriculture, particularly for the wheat and other staple crops due to its fertile land. The

most prominent places located in Sulaymaniyah include the Sharazur and Bitwen plains

and considered as the most fertile plains in the Middle East. Historically, Sulaymaniyah

was the area for producing agricultural production and one of the main suppliers and

producers of wheat and other agricultural products.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The population of developing countries has increased faster than developed countries,

thus requires food to meet their mounting population. Many regions are facing lack of

food supply resulting from population growth, inappropriate use of natural resources as

well as environmental impact such as climate change. These negative impacts are likely

to rise and lead to global food shortage and increasing food price in the coming decades,

resulting in famine and poverty rises in the world’s more population. Anthropogenic

activities have negative influences on the quality and quantity of water. There are three

main factors that contribute to water scarcity namely direct water consumption, climate

change and water pollution. These factors have significant impacts on the reduction of

water quantity and quality. Although Iraq is considered to have a rainy weather during

winter season, yet still facing pressure on water supplies. The risks are particularly severe

in the Kurdistan Region located in the Northern part of Iraq where a great numbers of

people are dealing with issue of water scarcity. This issue makes the management and

conservation of their water resources is a real challenge. One of the problems that

contribute to reduction in water availability is due to drought. Drought is prevalent in

almost all regions. Kurdistan is one of the regions that experienced severe drought,

especially in the past years. Currently, the population of Iraq is about 28 million and

agriculture sector consumes about 90% of Iraq’s average annual water supply, which

contributes to freshwater scarcity. This issue leads to the suggestion to implement

strategic planning and action for water consumption in Iraq (Lorenz 2008). Although

3

several projects have been implemented to overcome this issue, however, Iraq’s

agricultural activities still facing issues related to high water consumption during the

cultivation phase. Therefore, agricultural activities in Iraq should be analyzed using a

holistic approach called water footprint. Water footprint is one of the sophisticated and

comprehensive environmental assessment methods developed to assess and show direct

and indirect water use of specific product or service (Hoekstra & Chapagain 2008;

Hoekstra & Hung 2005; Hoekstra 2011; Hoekstra et al. 2011).

1.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Assessment of water availability is important in order to gain a sustainable manner in

distributing this resource to all sectors. Many regions are facing the issue of water

scarcity due to lack of water management. Furthermore, water scarcity and high water

pollution levels can result in poor access to water for meeting basic human needs.

Therefore, the water footprint is an indicator that can be used to measure the direct and

indirect water use (or the virtual water content) of a product. The water footprint concept

was first introduced by Hoekstra & Hung (2002) that accounts separately for three types

of freshwater use (i.e. green water, blue water and grey water). Water footprint is a

temporally and spatially explicit indicator, which considering location and timing of the

amounts of volumes of water used and polluted. This implies that the water footprint

analysis depends not only on the volume of water use, but also on where and when the

water is consumed (Hoekstra et al. 2011).

By providing this information, environmental impacts of water consumption from

agricultural activites can be quantified using water footprint. It is therefore a great

importance to develop a comprehensive water management strategy using a water

footprint model. Therefore, a study to better understand the dependence of supply-chain

of product on scarce water resources is needed. Water footprint analysis enables to show

the direct and indirect water use along a products’ supply chain. Visualizing all the

hidden water use behind a product or service can better understand the global character of

freshwater and calculate the impacts of water consumption as well trade on freshwater

4

use. In addition, the water footprint analysis can be used to determine the actual amount

of water used for the entire process of product. The amount of grey water produced from

the product’s supply chain can be diluted and assimilated by the ambient water of its

surrounding. The water footprint of a product (good or service) is the complete volume of

fresh water used to yield the product, summed over the several phases of the production

chain. The water footprint of an individual or community is the entire volume of fresh

water consumed by the individual or community in direct or indirect way. The indirect

water use refers to the water that is consumed to yield the goods and services used by the

individual or community.

This study can be a starting point to develop and promote the competitiveness of

the agricultural sector in Iraq. Besides that, this research gives positive impact on society

by promoting a greater awareness and reporting transparency of the importance of the

greener and environmentally friendly practices. The strength of this water footprint

research also lies on its capability to apply the most appropriate sustainability indicator

for the assessment of direct and indirect water consumption of agricultural industry,

particularly in Iraq.

1.4 OBJECTIVES

This study embarks on the following objectives:

1. To develop a conceptual framework for the assessment of water footprint of wheat,

dry bean, sweet melon, sunflower, barley and tomato cultivations in the

Sulaymaniyah province.

2. To calculate the green and blue water footprints of wheat, dry bean, sweet melon,

sunflower, barley and tomato cultivations.

3. To assess the efficient water towards mitigation of drought event in Sulaymaniyah

province.

5

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GLOBAL FRESHWATER ISSUES

Freshwater is an essential component in all aspects of life (Gao et al. 2014). Freshwater

resources around the world are under pressure due to the growing population and

significant increase in agricultural and industrial demands for water. The total volume of

water on Earth is about 1 400 million km3 but only 2.5% of water on earth is freshwater

(35 million km3). However, freshwater resources are not directly available because most

freshwater occurs in the form of permanent ice or snow, locked up in Antarctica and in

deep groundwater aquifers. The sources of water for domestic use include rivers, lakes,

soil moisture and shallow groundwater basins. The usable portion of these sources is only

about 200 000 km3 of water, which is less than 1% of all freshwater and only 0.01% of a

total volume of water on Earth. Much of this water is available far from human

population, further complicating issues of water use (UNEP 2002; Brown & Matlock

2011).

It is widely accepted that lakes in different parts of the world will respond in

different ways to the pressures imposed by global warming (George 2013). Other

anthropogenic factors that lead to threaten the availability of freshwater include

population growth, lack of rainfall in some areas around the world, competition over

water and water pollution, and hence affects the livelihoods of human population,

particularly for poor and undeveloped countries (Wandiga & Opondo 2008). Industrial

development, population growth, expansion of irrigated agriculture, rising standards of

living and massive urbanization would be priority for demanding of the water resource

6

among other criteria in the last century. For instance, land for irrigation has been

increased multiple since 1900 to 2000 and growth of population has rapidly increased

from 1600 million to more than 6000 million, thus have led to seven-fold increase of

water resources consumption (Morrison & Gleick 2004).

A number of factors or local conditions can be related to the scarcity of water

such as technical and institutional capacity, topography and financial resources for

maintaining water availability. Furthermore, water will become more expensive resource

in poor countries due to pressure of population, industrial development and massive

urbanization. Low-income countries have limited access to freshwater due to the fact that

population growth in these areas is growing rapidly. Moreover, scarcity turns out when

there is an insufficient of the supply of freshwater in those areas where it is desperate to

support human being and their health, endure food production and essential ecological

well-being. Physical and economic are two types of water scarcity which physical water

scarcity can be observed when physical deficiency of water occurs in a place. While

economic water scarcity defines a condition in which resources are sufficient but where

inadequate infrastructure and financial capacity is barrier of accessing the water (Audu

2013).

Iraq is depending on the precipitation as runoff water in the rivers and store as

groundwater. However, those watersheds are located outside Iraq which fed these rivers

across Iraq. This affects the population in the entire Iraq due to their high dependency to

the main water resource from Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Many dams are created across

those rivers in neighbors countries like Turkey, Iran and Syria. For example, water

scarcity in The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have been exacerbated in recent years due to

the construction of dams, as well as exploiting water from both rivers coincided with

severe drought in the region (Jury &Vaux 2007; Wilson 2012).

Kurdistan receives a great amount of groundwater due it strategic location at

mountainous area, except certain areas near to middle and southeast are lack of much

rainfall. Otherwise other part of Iraq has experienced of less than 150mm of rain per year

and high evaporation because of climate characteristics which is dry and semi-arid.

Recent study shows water availability was estimated at 2,400 m³/year per person (Iau

7

2012). However, in another study showed that water availability per capita is less than

half of average each year, which is only around 1,482 m3 per capita (Khayyat 2008).

Furthermore, reservoirs, lakes and rivers in Kurdistan is encountering of the minimization

of surface water to critical level because of lack of management during drought and other

disasters. In addition, shortage of water has already happened in the Kurdistan region and

the effect of the water scarcity has been worsening since the beginning of 21 century.

Zakaria et al. (2013) showed that the annual harvested runoff at Sulaymaniyah

Governorate, Kurdistan Region of Iraq has suffered from the drought period during the

seasons of 2007 to 2009 that affected the human and economic activities of the region.

Macro rainwater harvesting (Macro RWH) is one of the techniques that can ensure water

availability for a region having limited water resources. This technique is based on Soil

Conservation Service-Curve Number (SCS-CN) method and the Watershed Modeling

System (WMS) that was used to estimate the runoff. Rainfall records of Sulaymaniyah

area for the period of 2002 to 2012 were studied and an average season was selected

(from 2010 to 2011). The results of the application of the WMS model showed that about

10.76 million m3 of water could be harvested. The results also showed that the quantity of

the harvested runoff was highly affected by rainfall depth, curve number values,

antecedent moisture conditions (AMC) and the area of the basins.

2.2 DROUGHT EVENT

Drought can be defined as a period that precipitation is lower than normal level or no

significant precipitation occurs over extended period of time in the year or may endure to

longer, which renders to a water shortage for some activities, environmental sectors or

groups. The effect of drought is dependent on the water deficit, meaning that lack of

precipitation, increasing demand for water and human activities, which may intensify the

impacts. Drought can be classified in terms of impacts to four different categories,

namely agricultural, hydrological, socio-economic and meteorological. In another

definition, the scientific consensus on drought defines this phenomenon as the condition

of insufficient moisture caused by a deficit in precipitation over a period of time. It is

8

worsened when demanding for the water effect on the existing water. The difficulties

connected with this phenomenon occur during the deficit of precipitation. Therefore, the

influences of a water deficit area complicate function of water source and water use over

time. Existing water sources embrace surface water (lakes, rivers and stream flow), soil

moisture, ground water and reservoir storage.

Drought has caused deteriorate of environmental conditions and inadequate clean

water and insufficient of appropriate sanitation in many regions rendered a major number

of rural inhabitants to displace to find sustainable drinking water and livelihoods. In

recent years, Iraq has lost about 100,000 hectare per annum of agriculture land uses

because of desertification and soil salinization. Furthermore, cropland has been reduced

nearly 40% of crop coverage and livestock were endangered during the drought occurred

from year 2007 to 2009. The condition leads to displace of 20,000 rural inhabitants in

search of sustainable access to potable water and livelihoods. This situation will be

continuing for further degradation in the main resources and burden on the Iraq’s

infrastructure. Moreover, more than 31% of Iraq’s land has already been desert (Frenken

2009). Mismanagement of water resources and improper using of land for agriculture

have exacerbated drought conditions due to those factors lead to increasing

desertification land, high soil salinity, declining fertility and sand storm. In other word,

desertification is increasing to high rates with about 39% of the Iraq’s surface and nearly

54% under threat. For instance, in recent years Kurdistan and other part of Iraq has

experienced an increase of sand storm and vast dust as a result of insufficient moisture

and less vegetable cover. Figure 2.1 which created by FAO (2009) shows the variation of

effected cropland due to drought.

9

Figure 2.1 Affected drought cropland in percentage.

source: FAO (2009)

It shows five categorization of effected cropland in Iraq which reveal some part in

the north like Erbil, Kirkuk and Ninewa are affected more severe by 46–56%, while some

part are less affected by 4 to 5% such as Sulaymaniyah and Dahuk due to drought.

Furthermore, there are a significant difference between some stations in the Erbil and

Sulaimaniyah, for example, in the 1973 central Sulaymaniyah, Dokan and Darbandikhan

in the Sulaymaniyah province were above normal conditions which those stations have a

moderate rainfall. However, central Erbil was under pressure of drought which those

stations do not receive sufficient rainfall. Later in the 1998 to 2001, most remarkable

drought event occurred in the whole regions in the Middle East even in the turkey and

Jordan.

10

Drought conditions have still continuing in the Middle East countries since it has

started in the seventieth of last century. These countries are facing incredibly lack of

precipitation such as Iraq, Turkey, Iran and Syria and do not have adequate water storage.

This situation leads to water shortage for irrigation affecting on the agricultural sector

and consequently now they declared a drought threat on the livelihood. The most

significant impact on the regional precipitation patterns is global warming which causes

to the reduction of rainfall rates. Decreasing of precipitation is coincidence to increasing

demand to water for the agriculture sector, domestic and industry uses which has

exacerbated the drought conditions. Meanwhile, construction of dams alongside rivers

diminishes water resources for the downstream users and cause shortage water

availability in the downstream regions. These factors lead to people rely on the

groundwater especially by digging wells and storing water in the tank (Hagan 2007).

There are different kinds of drought based on the intensity of the drought

conditions. Meteorological drought is defined of the occurrence and duration of the

dryness that it is related to the amount of precipitation rates. It consider as a drought

when precipitation is below the average or normal in an extended period of time that it

creates natural shortages of available water. This type of drought is common in the

Kurdistan due to lack of precipitation for five months or more.

Agricultural drought occurs when sufficient amount of moisture does not exist in

the air to support growing crop production or grass. It relates to several characteristics of

meteorological (or hydrological) that concentrates on the amount of precipitation, the

disparity between potential and actual evapotranspiration, diminishing of groundwater

and reservoir levels and insufficient soil moisture.

Hydrological drought is associated with the impacts of periods of precipitation

shortfalls on surface water supply such as rivers, streams, lakes, aquifers and reservoirs.

Although all kinds of drought are linked to deficiency of precipitation, this type is more

likely noticed if precipitation falls to the normal level based severity of hydrological

drought on the basin and watershed scales. Furthermore, hydrological drought may also

happen if demanding for water grows up during precipitation shortfalls.

11

These components of drought can be mitigated by prediction, impact assessment

and response as well as monitoring. The most effective prediction tools for the

understanding of drought are climate studies and statistical analysis. Monitoring is the

most significant phase during drought which includes all information on the ground and

from satellite observation. Ground information is a composite of rainfall, crop conditions,

water availability and weather condition. Impact assessment assists in understanding the

drought characteristics in the basis of the demographics, severity of drought, land-use

type, water quantity and quality and persistence of stressed conditions. In the last phase,

drought can be mitigated by response which includes enhancement drought monitoring,

improvement of legislation, effectiveness planning, decreasing of water demand,

conservation, improvement of water polices and enhancement of public awareness and

education.

2.3 WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION

12

Water availability in the Kurdistan region comes from many tributaries, streams,

groundwater, springs, lakes and reservoirs, fed by rainfall and snow melting. Currently,

Iraq is mainly dependent on the surface water and groundwater. The surface water

includes Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and their tributaries come from the upstream

countries as shown in Figure 2.2 (MWRI 2010). The Tigris and Euphrates rivers are

originating from Turkey and across Iraq by nearly 1000 km and 1300 km, respectively.

Figure 2.2 Sources of water for both main rivers of Tigris and Euphrates in iraq.

Source: Mwri ( 2010)

The area that dominated by Tigris River basin is 253 000 km² which is consists of

54 % of the total river basin in Iraq. The average annual runoff is approximately 21.33

km³. The Tigris tributaries are located in the north and northern east of Iraq which some

of Tigris River are on the Kurdistan region, especially Sulaymaniyah province:

- The Greater Zab, which comes from Turkey, then flows to Kurdistan region then

confluence with the Tigris. The most significant stream consists of 62 % of the

total Tigris river basin.

13

- The Lesser Zab, which comes from Islamic Republic of Iran and which Dokan

Dam is constructed with 6.8 km³ in the Sulaymaniyah province. The river basin is

about 21 475 km², which annually yielding 5.07 km³ of water due to the

construction of Dokan dam.

- The Al-Adhaim generates about 0.79 km³ of water at its confluence with the Tigris

Rivers. It is an irregular stream which aims of the stream to flash flood.

- The Diyala, which originates from the outside country, comes from Islamic

Republic of Iran. Darbandikhan Dam is constructed in the Diyala stream in the

Darbandikhan city in the Sulaymaniyah province. It provides about 5.74 km³ of

water at its confluence with the Tigris Rivers.

According to the Iraq’s precipitation map, average annual rainfall differs from the

north to the south of the region the range from 250 mm in the south Erbil to 1200 mm in

high mountainous, which located in Turkey’s border (Omer 2011) ( See Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 Precipitation rate in north of Iraq.

Source: Omer (2011)

Mediterranean climate occupies the entire Kurdistan region which is characterized

as rainy and cold climate in winter and hot and dry during summer. Meanwhile,

mountainous area has moderate climate in the summer. Rainfall occurs in the late of

14

October endures until early April, while 5 months are dry without occurring rainfall.

However, snow falls in the January and February in the mountainous area which remains

until summer season then commences to melting and become feed for ground water and

rivers. Average annual rainfall is difference due to disparity of topography. The region

can be divided into three part based on rainfall rates, first, those areas rainfall exceeds

over 500 mm, second, some areas have a moderate rainfall between 350 mm to 500 mm

and third, those areas are located in the south and southwest have low average of rainfall

which less than 350 mm. However, agricultural land relies on the rainfall forms nearly

37.2% of the cultivation land, otherwise irrigation land forms only 5.3% of the total

cultivation land (MAWR/KRG 2012).

A proper water management plans should be highlighted in order to exploiting

water efficiency such as expanding of agricultural areas by storing water in small dams in

uncultivated areas or reclamation and rationalizing irrigation system by deployment of

the water availability in the region and using ground water in effective way by digging

wells. Despite, there are several ways to obtain sufficient water and the importance of

ground water should not be neglected due to this sector because it has provided the fresh

and drinkable water. For example, statistics show that number of exploited wells were

about 19,448 wells in the 2006, which 79.7% of them are used for drinking water, 18.3%

devoted for agricultural sector and the rest were used for industrial sector and research

purpose (Mawr/Krg 2012). Tables 2.1 and 2.2 outline the number of wells for all

purposes and the amount of water availability in the Kurdistan region in 2007

(MAWR/KRG 2012).

15

Table: 2.1 Number of wells for drinking, irrigation and industrial.

Source: Mawr/Krg (2012)

Governorate Wells

used for

drinking

Wells

used for

irrigation

Wells

used for

industry

Wells used for

agricultural

research and

extension

Total Percentage

Dohuk 1,122 235 235 0 1592 8.20

Sulaimaniyah 12,022 1,524 0 0 13,546 69.60

Erbil 2,370 1,800 85 55 4,310 22.20

Total 15,514 3559 320 19,448

Percentage 79.70 18 1.70 0.30 100

Table 2.2 Available water resources in 2007:

Source: Mawr/Krg (2012)

Rivers Length (km) Amounts of

annual water

(billion m3)

Inside

Kurdistan

region (%)

Outside of

Kurdistan

region (%)

The Khabur 160 2.2 42 58

The Great Zab 392 14.32 58 42

The Little Zab 400 7.07 64 36

Awa Sipi (White

water river)

230 0.7 100 0

Serawan 384 586 41 59

Total 1566 3015 59.8 40.2

Updated water management plan is necessary for the Kurdistan region because of

unexpected water shortage that may occur in the future. Turkey is now constructing dams

to meet its irrigation water requirement as well as Syria has started to develop the

country’s irrigation projects, which both countries seek to achieve cultivation of million

hectares of agricultural lands. These projects will be directly affect Kurdistan region from

water shortages because most of Kurdistan’s drainage basins are shared with Turkey

through Tigris River. It is estimated that 40 % of water deficit occurs in Tigris River in

16

2016. This circumstance requires a wise plan to deal with by providing an ideal water

management and developing water resource projects and land protection to minimize the

damages that may happened caused by water scarcity (MAWR/KRG 2012).

Although Kurdistan does not have serious problem with water availability due to

adequate rainfall, negotiations should be made for sharing water with upstream countries

by compromising to avoid of water scarcity in the future. As Kurdistan region had

experienced in 2005 to 2009 with the following conditions that had adverse impacts on

the vegetable productions and wildlife:

1) Drought and instability weather conditions.

2) Water deficit in the Tigris River and its tributaries.

3) Poor water management in existing dams.

4) Inadequate awareness related efficient water among people.

2.4 LAND RESOURCES

17

The total Iraq’s land is nearly 44 million hectare and approximately 12 million hectare of

its land is utilized for agricultural production. It means agricultural land consists of

almost one of fourth or 27% of Iraq’s land. The reason is most areas of country is

considered desert, lack of rainfall and mountains or rocky area which only the mountains

area can be used for grazing grounds for the domestic animals.

The current total area of Kurdistan is approximately 3.4 million hectare (Table 2.3).

Agricultural land includes rainfed areas and irrigation that consists nearly half of region’s

areas which is 1.5 million hectare. In this area, Sulaymaniyah’s land has been utilized

292,000 hectare for agriculture, whilst more than half of total areas has still not cultivated

yet. Furthermore, there is a huge disparity between rainfed land and irrigation, which

rainfed land represent nearly 87.6% of total agricultural area, while irrigation land is not

developed and contributed in small areas of Kurdistan’s land, which only consists of

4.34% (MAWR/KRG. 2012).

Table 2.3 Cultivated and uncultivated area (hectare).

Source: Mawr/Krg (2012)

Governorate Total area

(ha)

Rainfed

lands (ha)

Irrigated

Lands (ha)

Total

cultivated

lands (ha)

Uncultivated

lands (ha)

Sulaimaniyah 423,019 232.700 59,299 291,999 131,020

Erbil 1,514,120 580,645 45,635 626,280 887,840

Dohuk 931,398 254,892 46,650 301,542 629,856

Germyan 802,070 300,151 15,822 315,973 486,103

Total 3,670,613 1,368,388 167,406 1,535,794 2,134,819

Percentage 100 41.84 58.15

Sulaymaniyah’s land is cultivated by 22.5% of total cultivated area is considered

low in comparison to other provinces in Kurdistan. This is due to the fact that

Sulaymaniyah is located in mountains area, with Erbil is high in cultivation area. Most

18

importantly, highest cultivation areas are utilized for wheat production, which consists of

half of cultivation area (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4 Land uses according to crops and vegetables

Source: Omer (2011)

Most of agricultural land farming has been cultivated and harvested in a single crop

per year. Moreover, farming land differs from the north to the south of Iraq, for example,

north Iraq has experienced in winter crops due to sufficient rain, it is usually primary

grain which is planted in the autumn and harvested in the late of spring. Most of rainfed

areas are devoted for planting wheat and barley as the most substantial crops. Otherwise

in the irrigation areas, land is devoted to a single crop which is summer crops

19

predominate. It is known that a little multiple cropping that consists of vegetables is

located in the south and south west of country. However, field crops are cultivated in

significant portion of the agricultural Iraq’s land (MAWR/KRG 2012). Figure 2.5 shows

the land utilization in Iraq.

Figure 2.5 Utilization of land resources in Iraq

Source: Omer (2011)

2.5 SOIL

Types of soil in the Kurdistan are classified into eight types (Figure 2.6). The most vital

sorts encompass the brown-reddish soils and brown soil. The brown-reddish soils can be

seen and found in the limited rainfall areas (200 mm - 350 mm). This type of soil is

recognized as low biological activity that causes low light vegetative cover. Otherwise,

brown soil has P.H < 7.0 with less than 2 % of organic matter which include weak

20

alkalinity; all those make a suitable situation for yielding various crops such as wheat,

potatoes, sunflower, barley, tomato and corn.

There are many disparities in the depth of soil in this study due to Sulaymaniyah’s

huge area which starts from mountain areas to the plain and valley areas (Figure 2.6). The

depth of soil in the north and northeast is thin and shallow due to generation from the

original rocks. Although the soil characteristic in the mountain is not contain essentials

for utilizing for agriculture, but depth and slope can be used as a natural pasture by the

people (Kahraman 2004). Unlikely, valley and plain areas which are situated in the

southern part are the substantial areas for agriculture due to its soil generates from the

dark brown, black and chestnut soils which these types of soil are characterized as the

optimum for agriculture activity. The type of soil in semi-mountain areas is known as

most plain areas with brown and red soil structure and is crucial source for attaining food

security (Kahraman 2004). Although Sulaymaniyah has ideal soil for producing crops,

however, crop productivity has been declining due to salinity which has occurred because

lack of subsurface drainage and excessive irrigation.

Figure 2.6 Soil map of Sulaymaniyah province with boundaries of study area

Source: Zakaria (2013)

21

2.6 ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON WATER RESOURCES

Anthropogenic activities have a negative influence on the quality and quantity of water

resources. There are three main factors contributing to water scarcity namely direct water

consumption, climate change and water pollution. These factors have significant impacts

on the reduction of water quantity and quality. Water can be divided in two major types,

in-stream use and off-stream use. In-stream use consists of hydrological power,

swimming and boating that contribute to the reduction of water quality. Another type of

water consumption is off-stream use where water is withdrawn for household use,

industry use, irrigation, livestock watering, thermal and nuclear power and will not

recover to the source again. However, water consumption can be described by classifying

into two ways, water intake is the amount of water withdrawal and water discharge is the

volume of returned water to the source. The disparity between water discharge and intake

is consumed water (Dellasala et al. 2011).

Water discharge – Water intake = Water consumption

Scientifics bargain on global warming that it is becoming stronger and more

intensity every day. The indication shows that human caused global warming is

inevitably going to be deteriorated due to vast competitions among industrial countries.

Climate change and global warming cause many changes such as change in precipitation

pattern, increase temperature rate and changing of volume of precipitation. The

magnitude and significant of the results of the rise in atmosphere’s temperature make the

situation that a wide international concern formed to reduce the global warming factors.

Meanwhile, the conflict deteriorates the climate change due to economic competition,

food security and an influx number of migration. According to the recent study that the

conflicts and instability in overpopulated areas are worse in quantity and quality water,

agricultural products and food security, influenced by modern civilization on

environment and urban hydrological problems (Lorenz 2008).

Increasing air temperatures are anticipated to have adverse impacts on water

resources including decreasing snow pack and raising evaporation, which affects the

volume water availability in seasons (Lobell & Field 2007). The occurrence of water

shortages is expected in the summer that induces to decrease soil moisture levels and

22

severe agricultural drought. Water availability declines to meet crops in summer

irrigation and water deficits will occur earlier in the growing season, particularly in

drainage basins that lack of reservoirs. Furthermore, increasing surface temperatures are

anticipated that precipitation received as rain in winter, with a decreasing proportion of

snow form.

2.7 PRIMARY CROPS CULTIVATION

Northern Iraq is a suitable area for growing crops such as wheat, tomato, barley,

chickpeas, sunflower, sweet melon, etc. In Iraq, wheat, tomato and barely are considered

as staple crops, while others are planted for the commercial purpose, such as sunflower,

chickpeas and water melon. Barley is the oldest crops in the world that people were

depending on for their life and it is believed that the cultivation of barley is over 18000

years ago in Middle East and North Africa, where the barley native places. Barley prefers

cool area and sometimes dry area during its flourishing season. Moreover, barley has

significant impact on soil protection from erosion. It can be grown in semi-arid areas

because it is salt tolerance and does not require deep soil for its flourishing. It is also

dependent on the less rainfall because it is drought resistant crop that only needs 390 mm

to 430 mm of rainfall. Nevertheless, barley tolerates high temperature that needs an

average temperature ranges from 5°C to 27° C annually (Vulgare 2009). Barley

production is expected to decrease in Iraq because of the adverse weather conditions. It is

estimated that the reduction is around 40% of cultivated barley areas that rely on the

spring rainfall. The amount of harvested barley in 2012 was around 710,000 metric tons

in Iraq. However, areas for the cultivated barley also decline relative to high price and

more domestic consumption of wheat, particularly in Kurdistan region. It has serious and

noticeable impact on the livestock (John Schnittker 2012).

Wheat is different from other crops due to its great capacity for adapting in

almost different soil types and weathers which it is grown from temperate climate to dry

and high rainfall areas and from warm humid to dry cold environments. Wheat is the

most substantial cereal crop that people use as a staple food for bread and the most

23

obvious crops which imported and exported between countries. Wheat has many species

depend upon seed qualities and requirements for its growth. Most of the areas are devoted

to wheat production because wheat is a crucial resource for the Iraqi’s people. Yield

wheat production has fluctuated during a past decade because of severe drought and not

enough water for irrigation. Nevertheless, wheat production has been recently surged and

Iraqi’s government has prepared a plan to increase its production for 2.18 million metric

tons (MMT). Irrigation is currently a controversial issue in the northern Iraq because they

dependent on the irrigation to yield wheat, especially in Kirkuk area. People consume

considerably wheat production (flour) for nearly 9 kg per person per month. Therefore,

Iraqi’s government and private sectors imported wheat for about 3.95 million metric tons

(MMT) in year 2011 and 2012 (John Schnittker 2012). Demand for wheat as the main

resource for food in Iraq will be surged approximately 4.6 MMT because of increasing

population. Sunflower is one of the crops than can be cultivated in the Kurdistan which it

is also a universal and vital oil crop. Germination of sunflower occurs on the March and

harvesting in July. It requires a plenty of water for germinating, which it dependent on

the late rainfall of the year. Some factors present in the growing of sunflower such as

moisture, soil water, soil depth and solar intensity. Furthermore, sunflower can be planted

in temperate weather and humidity; even it is superior to sorghum which tolerates

prolonged dry periods (Unger et al. 1976; Meinke et al.1993). Fortunately, the compatible

weather and soil of Sulaymaniyah make it suitable area for cultivation of sunflower and

the most suitable region in the Middle East and Iraq for cultivation of sunflower, since it

is getting more sunshine during the day that is required for its flourishing.

2.8 WATER MANAGEMENT PLANNING

Agricultural sector requires considerable amount of water availability, however,

freshwater resources is unevenly distributed due to local conditions. This issue is getting

24

worse especially in developing countries due to other factors such as climate change,

water pollution and population growth. Therefore, water allocation techniques have been

proposed as alternatives to manage and distribute water supply to all sectors properly.

(Yazdi et al 2013) in their study of optimal water allocation in irrigation networks based

on real time climatic data shows that water allocation strongly depends on the real time

climatic data for irrigation needs. Their study was carried out to compare between water

allocation systems and traditional practice using long-term average climate data in the

Northwest of Iran.

Lorenz (2008) outlines strategic water planning and action for Iraq that need to

be implemented. Agriculture sector in Iraq is consuming about 90%t of Iraq’s average

annual water supply, thus contributing to the freshwater depletion. Assessment is done in

the whole IRAQ by IOM (2012) stated the measurement indicates that vulnerable people

have faced extremely hard life because of lack of drinking water and low purity, also

quality of water is very poor. Furthermore, quantity of water is insufficient to provide

water for the people. It leads them to think about other alternative for their daily

consumption. People rely on the tanks in both sorts (by trucks and keep in the home) for

home usage, drinking and irrigation. It is reported that rainfall has been decreased for a

considerable amount compared to the previous years. Reduction of precipitation has led

to high pressure on the water, especially in the North of Iraq. Moreover, IOM

recommends to the north of Iraq to utilize Kariz (Underground Aqueducts or

subterranean aqueducts; kahrez in Persian) for drinking and irrigation because it is exist

in the North. Farmers have to change from the traditional irrigation and rely on new

methods. Kurdistan government has been encouraged to rehabilitate Kariz to maintain

water for many people.

Kundzewicz & Kowalczak (2009) demonstrated that some of the arid countries

get nearly all their water from outside by means of shared rivers. The water resources of

Syria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt, and Israel rely on their neighboring countries.

Several countries successfully share international rivers, lakes and aquifers within the

framework of river commissions. However, the potential of water conflict is increasing

as population in water-stressed areas continue to grow and the demand for water

25

increases to improve their standard of living by having better sanitation system. In arid

areas, water scarcity is likely to be exacerbated by climate change and other

anthropogenic activities (Arranz 2006).

Shetty (2006) in his study outlines the dominant water management in the Middle

East and North Africa for food security and agriculture. The study indicates that the

North Africa and Middle East (NAM) region is one of the most water scarce regions in

the world, with a regional annual average of 1,200 m3 per person. Strategic management

of water resources (SMWR) will become increasingly important in mitigating the impact

of drought on the economies of the region in the future. National Mitigation Strategies

(NMS) and Drought Relief Planning Systems (DRPS) need to be developed more

systematically than at present in accordance with each country’s agro-ecological

specifications. Many countries in the world are now having water scarcity issue and

groundwater extraction is introduced to overcome this situation. Another option is

desalination of seawater where the NAM region countries also accounts for about 60 %

of the world’s desalination capacity but this option is restricted to the major oil-exporting

countries. Major water resources in the region are shared between countries lying both

within and beyond the region. However, the region is characterized by high population

growth rates, large and rapidly increasing food deficits, highly variable income levels

both within and between countries, and limited natural resources, particularly arable land

and water. Most of the region falls within the arid and semi-arid rainfall zones, where 60

% of the total NAM population lives (Roudi-Fahimi et al. 2002).

2.9 WATER FOOTPRINT APPROACH

The concept of water footprint (WF) was introduced by Hoekstra (2003). WF can also be

a measure unit of any well-defined group of consumers (e.g. an individual, a family, a

city or a nation), producers (e.g. a public organization, or private enterprise or an

economic sector) and geographically delineated areas (e.g. a river basin, or a country).

The WF accounts for fresh water consumption in terms of water quantity (depletion) as

well as the quality of the water (degradation) (Allan 2003). The process of water footprint

is usually expressed in water volume per unit of time. However, when it is divided by the

26

quantity of products that resulted from the process, it is then expressed as water volume

per unit of product. Water footprint is a technique to measure the total amount of water

that is used or consumed by mankind. Other amount of water that has not been used yet

which consist of surface or fresh water and groundwater flows are left in the sustainable

ecosystem. Nevertheless, it is important in a certain time to understand that the amount of

water that recharges groundwater reserves and fresh water that flows through a river is

always limited to a certain amount and not equally available at all times. Rivers and

aquifers are used in industrial purposes, irrigation for agricultural activities and

households.

Water footprint is a holistic approach that considers the whole production chain of

direct and indirect consumption of freshwater (Hoekstra 2003). Water footprint is

characterized as gross volume of freshwater that is utilized to produce goods and

services consumed by individual, community, country, organization (Chapagain &

Hoekstra 2008). Holistic assessment determines the explicit impacts on water as a

consequence of human and commercial activities. It determines the distinct between

rainwater absorbed by marketable crops and that absorbed by indigenous flora (Burger 2013).

Water footprint should be implemented because it provides a good water management for a

long time planning, especially those countries that encountered problem with water scarcity.

2.9.1 Blue water footprint

The blue water footprint refers to the volume of surface water or groundwater consumed

per unit of time or per unit of product (Hoekstra et al. 2009). The process of water

footprint is usually expressed in water volume per unit of time. However, when it is

divided by the quantity of products that resulted from the process, it is then expressed as

water volume per unit of product. The most common term in blue water footprint is

“consumptive water use” which refers to one of the following:

1- Water evaporates or transpires in to the whole plants‟ (Hoekstra and Chapagain et

al. 2011).

27

2- Water is fixed or incorporated in the product (virtual water).

3- Water does not return to the same catchment area or sea from where it has been

mined, but it returned to a different area or sea (Aldaya et al. 2012).

4- Water does not return in the same period as it was mined, for instance, it is

withdrawal in dry period and returned in rain or wet period (Hoekstra et al. 2009).

Evaporation is most significant component related to others that mentioned in the

above, a production in water footprint focusing only for evaporation. Consumptive use is

commonly associated to blue water footprint that refers to evaporation. Nevertheless,

when the specific case requires much more attention is commensurate with other three

components such as water footprint of national consumption and water footprint of a

nation, looking these cases require enough attention of spatial-temporal explanation of

analyzing water footprint. For instance, conducting water foot print assessment for

Kurdistan differ from time to time, implying the assessment of water footprint in dry

season is different with wet season. It is crucial to understand that consumptive water use

mean that water lost in the system because same amount of water that has evaporated will

return into the hydrological system but at different location (Aldaya et al. 2012; Usman

2011). Therefore, water is a renewable resource, but it does not mean that we use water

as unlimited source, in drought, semi-drought and dry seasons for example, no one can

use water more than is available (Hoekstra et al. 2009). The blue water footprint

measurement can be a great asset to determine the amount of water that is available for

using or consuming in a certain period consumed (i.e. not immediately returned within

the same drainage basin area or catchment). By this system, it provides a technique to

measure the total amount of water that used or consumed by mankind. Nevertheless, it is

important in a certain time to understand that the amount of water that recharges

groundwater reserves and fresh water that flows through a river is always limited to a

certain amount and it is not equally available at all times.

Rivers and aquifers are used in industrial purposes, irrigation for agricultural

activities and households. In dry periods for example, one cannot consume more water

than is available (Hoekstra et al. 2009). Therefore, the blue water footprint measures the

28

amount of available water in a certain period that is used or consumed (i.e. not

immediately returned within the same catchment area). By this process, it provides the

total amount of water consumed by humankind. The unused groundwater and fresh

surface water flows are therefore left to sustain ecosystems.

2.9.2 Green water footprint

The green water footprint can be estimated or defined as the gross amount of rain water

used during the production process and crops growth. It is mainly related to products

based on agriculture and forestry (crops and woods). Moreover, in the measurement of

green water consumption, a set of experimental formulae or crop models are utilized to

estimate the evapotranspiration based on climate, soil and crop characteristics data. It is

mainly related to products based on agriculture and forestry (crops and woods) (Hoekstra

et al. 2009). It is explicitly referred to the gross rain water evapotranspiration from

plantations and fields (Hoekstra et al. 2009).

It is important to observe that communities that depend on streams and rivers for

their daily purposes may need to move during drought event to support their need and for

agricultural activities. Moreover, economic and social impacts and people’s activity differ

between rainy and wet seasons. In the measurement of green water consumption, a set of

experimental formulae or crop models are utilized to estimate the evapotranspiration

depend on climate, soil and crop characteristics data (Hoekstra et al. 2009). The climate

of Iraq varies from season to season, cold and wet during winter while hot and dry during

summer. Furthermore, rainfall rate patterns are different from north to south of Iraq due

to topography which northern part is mountainous area and southern part is lower and

desert area.

Continual pressure on the fresh water has been exacerbated the issue of water

scarcity. Growing population, changing their consumption patterns and increasing their

demand for water lead to water scarcity and pollution in many countries in the world.

According to WWF (2012), water that is available in a river basin is defined as the

environmental flow requirements minus the natural runoff in the catchment. The latter is

defined as the quantity, quality and timing of water flows that are required to sustain

29

freshwater resources and estuarine ecosystems, as well as the human livelihoods and

well-being that depend on those ecosystems. However, levels of water scarcity per river

basin are defined as the ratio of the total blue water consumption in the catchment to the

blue water availability. In addition, water pollution levels per river basin are defined as

the ratio of the total grey water effluent for a given pollutant in the catchment to the

actual runoff from that catchment. Chapagain & Tickner (2012) suggested that water

footprint assessment is an effective approach for promoting awareness of global water

challenges among audiences and decision makers in industry and government. It can also

links the relationships between water consumption, economic development,

environmental risks and social and business practice (Waterlow et al. 1998).

30

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 STUDY AREA

Sulaymaniyah is the largest province in the Kurdistan region situated in the northwest of

Iraq as well as border to Iran. Kurdistan region is made up of three provinces, i.e.

Sulaymaniyah, Erbil and Duhok. This study focuses on Sulaymaniyah province that

consists of 10 municipalities such as Rania, Pshdar, Dukan, Sharbazhir, Penjwin,

Halabja, Darbandikhan, Kalar, Chamchamal and central Sulaymaniyah (Figure 3.1). The

Latitude and Longitude of Sulaymaniyah are 35°33′40″ N and 45°26′14″ E, respectively.

Altitude of Sulaymaniyah is about 850 above sea level and the total area size is 17,023

km², which formed 3.9 percent of Iraq. The size is disparity between districts with

Darbandikhan that is regarded as the smallest district in Sulaymaniyah province, while

Chamchamal and Sulaymaniyah are the largest districts.

31

Figure 3.1 Map of Iraq with enlarges view of the 10 districts of Sulaymaniyah

governorates. source: (Zakaria et al. 2013)

Population in the Sulaymaniyah is higher as compared to other provinces

implying that Sulaymaniyah is the most urbanization region in Iraq. According to the

statistic, the population in Sulaymaniyah (this relies on the hospitals for the proportion of

death and born, plus proportion of population last census) is approximately 2 million

people. The density in Kurdistan region especially Sulaymaniyah area is due to its good

condition that suitable for living. However, this situation contributes to other factors such

as safety issue, insufficient drinking water and hot-dry weather. This situation leads to the

water deterioration and shortage in the Sulaymaniyah due to rising requirement for clean

water resources.

Sulaymaniyah topography is considered as a mountainous area and gradually

mountainous towards the border with Iran. Furthermore, Sulaymaniyah encompasses

mountains and plains, both features have an optimal advantage for the Sulaymaniyah.

Mountains are best for the source of water by keeping water as groundwater and snow for

32

a long time. Plains are located between mountains where lands are fertile and suitable

places for agriculture and plantation. Many crops are supported to flourish by virtue of

weather.

3.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This study was carried out in four different phases. The most important phase is scope

and goals of the study, which reveal clearly the aim of the study. Second phase is data

inventory, which show the type of parameters and data collection. The third phase refers

to the data analysis or impact assessment. The last phase is results interpretation, which

shows the result and findings that obtained from the research. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show

the framework and flow chart of the phases involved in the water footprint assessment of

selected crops in the Sulaymaniyah province.

33

Figure 3.2 Framework and flow chart of the water footprint assessment

Research Methodology

Objectives and Scope of the study

Data inventory Data analysis

Crop

-Planting date

-Harvesting date

-Kc values

Soil

- The rate of absorption

- Soil moisture

-Soil type

Irrigation schedule

- Distribution

-Amount water

consumption

Climate

- Temperature (maximum and

minimum)

- Humidity

- Wind speed

- Sunshine

CROPWAT 8.0

- Evapotranspiration

(penmann-monteith

method)

-Crop water requirements

(effective rainfall and

irrigation requirements)

Calculation of the

green and blue water

footprint

Interpretation

34

Figure 3.3 Input and output flowchart for water footprint system boundaries.

3.3 WATER FOOTPRINT ANALYSIS

3.3.1 Data inventory

INPUT CULTIVATION

CROPS OUTPUT

R

ain

fall

Precipitation

GREEN

WATER

Evapotranspiration

BLUE WATER

+

GREEN WATER

Groundwater

Irrigation

BLUE WATER

35

All data are provided by the Kurdistan Meteorological Department and Ministry of

Agriculture and Water Resources, Kurdistan. Kurdistan Meteorological Department

obtained climate data for 28 years from (1973 to 2002), except of 1991, we could not find

data due to the conflict and expelled Kurdish people to Iran and Turkey. Climate and

geographical data consist of temperature, humidity, sunshine, rainfall and wind speed

from Agro-Meteorological Department and the average temperature were recorded

between 0°C (January) to 43°C (July). Topography of Sulaymaniyah district varies from

the north east to the south west. In the north east is much higher and temperature is low

because for a long time snowfall remaining regarding to the south west which the altitude

is a much lower and temperature is high. Annual Rainfall is between 300 mm to 895 mm

in the district and high precipitation value was recorded in January 198 mm in the past 10

years. The Kurdistan region located in the Middle East because that the average sunshine

duration is 8.16 hours/day in summer and 5.5 hours in winter. Crop data are provided by

Sulaymaniyah silo for 10 years (2003 to 2013) which consists of six crops such as wheat,

barley, sunflower, tomato, sweet melon and chickpea.

CROPWAT 8.0 Model calculates number of parameters such as rainfall, climate

date, rate of evapotranspiration, cropping pattern and crop, which these parameters were

required for water footprint analysis. This model was developed by FAO to carry out

standard calculation for crop water consumption and rate of evapotranspiration, depend

on inputs of crop databases and climate. Penman-Monteith method was used to determine

rate of evapotranspiration. Rainfall deficit for irrigation water needs are estimated by

using statistical analysis based on long-term rainfall records. This analysis is useful to

determine the contribution part of effectively rainfall in cover crop water requirement

(CWR). Decision support system of CROPWAT 8.0 has several main functions such as:

.

1- To determine reference evapotranspiration, crop water requirements and crop

irrigation requirements.

2- To recommend planning for irrigation timetables under various management

conditions and water supply.

36

3- To measure drought effects, rainfed production and efficiency of irrigation

practices

CROPWAT 8.0 is defined as a computer programme that calculates crop

water requirements and irrigation needs from crop and climatic data. Moreover,

the program consents the alteration to calculate water supply scheme for varying

crop and irrigation plans for various management conditions. The major purpose

of CROPWAT 8.0 is to measure crop water needs and irrigation plans according

to data that provided by the consumers.

CROPWAT 8.0 requires data on evapotranspiration (ETo) for the

calculation of crop water requirements (CWR). CROPWAT 8.0 permits the

consumer to either measure ETo values or to input data on sunshine, humidity,

temperature and wind speed, which CROPWAT 8.0 can calculate ETo by

utilizing the method of Penman-Monteith. Rainfall data are also required to

measure effective rainfall data as input for the crop water requirement and

calculation of scheduling. Lastly, soil and crop data are required for the

calculation of crop water requirement for computing irrigation plans. CROPWAT

8.0 not solely determines CWR and crop schedules as well as it evaluate a scheme

supply, which is essentially the integrated crop water requirements of various

crops, each crop with its own planting date that called cropping pattern. This

programme is structured into eight modules, which includes calculation modules

and data input modules. This consents the consumer that calculates crop water

requirements, scheme supplies and irrigation schedules to merging various crops,

climatic and soil data (Table 3.1).

37

Table 3.1 The input and output modules of CROPWAT 8.0

Data Input Output

Climate

- Monthly average of Minimum

and Maximum temperature,

relative humidity, sunshine

period, wind speed and

- Monthly Rainfall data

- Reference

Evapotranspiration

- Crop water requirement

and irrigation requirement

- Actual crop

Evapotranspiration

- Soil moisture deficit

- Estimate yield reduction

due to crop stress

- Irrigation scheduling

Crop - Kc, crop description, maximum

rooting depth and percentage of

area covered by plant

Soil - Initial soil moisture condition

and available soil moisture

Irrigation - Irrigation schedule criteria

a) CLIMATE

The Climate module is mainly used for data input, which requires information on the

meteorological station related to the effect on the climate such as location, altitude,

latitude and longitude, together with climatic data that can be included on a monthly,

daily or decade basis. Concerning climatic parameters, CROPWAT 8.0 requires data on

humidity, temperature, sunshine and wind speed.

- Temperature

Accordance with agrometeorological standards, CROPWAT 8.0 refers to a measurement

of air temperature at 2 meters above the ground. Temperature should be given in degree

Celsius (°C). CROPWAT 8.0 can function with minimum and maximum temperatures

(default) or with mean temperatures if minimum and maximum temperatures are not

available. Daily maximum and minimum were temperatures are observed during the 24-

38

hours period. Whereas for longer periods, such as months or decades, maximum and

minimum temperatures are acquired by division of the total of the respective daily values

by the number of how many days in the proposed period.

- Humidity

In CROPWAT 8.0, air humidity can be divided in to two types such as actual vapour

pressure or relative humidity. Relative humidity refers to the degree of saturation of the

air, as the proportion of the volume of water in the ambient air and the maximum quantity

of water it could hold at the same temperature. Relative humidity fluctuates during a day

between a maximum proximate the sunrise and a minimum about early afternoon, in

relation with temperature variations. Relative humidity is simply addressed in percentage

(%). Figure 3.4 demonstrates the changes of the relative humidity over 24 hours for a

persistent actual vapour pressure.

Figure 3.4 Actual vapour pressure denotes the vapour pressure deployed by the water in

the air.

- Wind speed

Wind speed changes with the height at the lowest level of the surface, which it is slowest

and increases with the height level. To adjust wind speed data acquired from mechanisms

39

at altitudes other than the standard or ordinary height of 2 m, a logarithmic wind speed

profile might suitable to be used (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5 Logarithmic wind speed profile

- Sunshine

Sunshine refers to the length of the daylight without clouds and shade from high

mountains. Excepting of the cloudiness, it relies on the position of the sun and is

therefore a consequence of latitude and day of the year. It is addressed as hours of

daylight (hours), as a percentage of sunshine (%) or as fraction of daytime (fraction).

Figure 3.6 displays how daylight is variety throughout the year in connection with

latitude.

40

Figure 3.6 Sunshine duration according to the latitude.

- Radiation

CROPWAT 8.0 can estimate the solar radiation receiving soil surface based on the

availability of climate data (Figure 3.7). The extraterrestrial radiation (Ra) refers to the

radiation reached at the top surface of the earth's atmosphere on a horizontal, based on

data, latitude and daytime. Solar radiation (Rs) measured in the CROPWAT 8.0

calculation denotes the amount of extraterrestrial radiation receiving a horizontal surface

on soil surface. It reckons the portion of extraterrestrial radiation reflected, absorbed or

scattered by the dust, atmospheric gases and clouds. Soil surface reflected part of the

solar radiation and absorbed other amount of solar radiation. Solar radiation is addressed

in unit of MJ /m2/day.

41

Figure 3.7 Solar radiation entering the earth

b) CROP

Crop planting and harvesting dates, embracing wet and dry Crop coefficients (Kc)

include four phases of crop cycle. Initial phase runs from planting date to about 10%

ground cover. Crop development is the second phase, which runs from 10% ground cover

to effective full cover. Effective full cover occurs at the beginning of flowering for many

crops. Third phase is known as the mid-season, which runs from effective full cover to

the initiation of maturity. The start of maturity is often manifested by the beginning of the

leaf drop, ageing, yellowing of leaves. Final phase is the end season runs from the

commencement of growth to harvest or fully developed. The computation for Kc and ETc

is anticipated to end when the crop is experiences leaf drop, dries out naturally, or

harvested.

The crop module is basically data input requiring parameters such as planting

date, crop coefficient, rooting depth, critical depletion factor and response of yield.

Planting date is typically decided from climatic conditions (for example, at the inception

of spring when temperature reaches a lowest rate in moderate climates or starting of the

rainy season in tropical climates). It also differs based on local agricultural systems. It is

possible, to choose different planting dates for the same crop and the similar

climatological conditions. This is expedient for the study of variant cropping patterns and

42

the computation of scheme water supply programmes. The Crop coefficient (Kc) is

affected frequently by crop type and to a trivial extent by soil evaporation and climate.

Meanwhile, the Kc for a given crop differs over the phases of crop growing, since crop

height, leaf area and ground cover alter as the crop develops. CROPWAT 8.0 requires Kc

values for early stage, mid-season phase and harvest stage. Kc coefficient during the

growth and late season phases are interpolated. During the initial stage, the leaf extent is

small and evapotranspiration is most noticeable in the form of soil vaporization. Hence,

the Kc during the early period is great when the soil is saturated from irrigation or rainfall

and is less when the surface of soil is dry. In the development stage, as the crop grows

and shades more and more to ground, evaporation becomes more limited and

transpiration steadily becomes the main process. At mid-season stage, the Kc reaches its

highest value, while at final season stage the Kc coefficient at the ending of the final

season stage reveals crop and water management practices. It reaches high value in this

stage if the crop is properly irrigated until harvesting of crop. Otherwise the value of Kc

is small if crop is if the crop is allowed to dry out in the field before harvesting, as a

consequence of less efficient stomata conductance of leaf surfaces.

Definition of rooting depth is the capability of the crop to gain benefit from the

soil water reservoir. In CROPWAT two values are vital for the estimate of the rooting

depth over the flourishing season and rooting depth of early stage ordinarily taken as 0.25

- 0.30 m, indicating the effective soil depth from that the little seed plant abstracts its

water.

The Critical depletion fraction (p) refers to the critical soil moisture level where

initial drought stress occurred that influencing crop evapotranspiration and crop

producting. Values are addressed as a fraction of Gross Available Water (GAW) and

typically varied between 0.4 and 0.6, with lesser values taken for susceptible crops with

finite rooting systems under high evaporative conditions, and deep rooting crops have

higher values as well as low evaporation rates. Besides, the fraction p is a consequence of

the evapotranspiration weight of the atmosphere.

43

c) SOIL

Soil is another component in the CROPWAT 8.0 which demonstrates the characteristics

of penetrating depth rate and remaining water moisture. The soil module is vitally data

input; following parameters are required:

1- Gross available water (GAW) shows the total volume of availability of water to

the crop. It is recognized as the variety in soil moisture content between Field

Capability (FC)1 and Wilted Point (WP)

2. There is no availability of water for the

plants above the FC degree as water cannot be carried against the power of

gravity and it naturally reduces as deep penetration. Likewise, water underneath

WP level cannot be removed by plant roots as it is reserved at great pressures

within the soil matrix. GAW relies on structure, organic matter content and

texture of the soil. It is addressed in mm per meter of soil depth.

2- High infiltration rate. The high infiltration rate, shows the infiltration of water

depth can penetrate in the soil over a 24-hours, as a consequence of rain or

irrigation intensity, slope class and soil type. The High infiltration rate has the

similar value as the soil hydraulic conductivity under saturation. The High

infiltration rate permits an estimation of the Run­off (RO), which it occurrs when

rain intensity surpasses the infiltration capacity of the soil. High infiltration rate is

expressed in mm per day.

3- Maximum rooting depth. Although the genetic characteristics in most cases are

critical issue to determine rooting depth of the crop, sometimes certain soil layers

distribution and the soil may prevent the maximum rooting depth.

1 Field Capability (FC) is the volume of water which a well-drained soil takes against

gravitational powers, that is, the volume of water remaining when downward drainage

movement has obviously reduced. It is addressed as mm per metre of soil or in a

percentage. 2 The Wilted Point (WP) refers the water content in the soil at which plants constantly

wilted. It is expressed as mm per metre of soil or in a percentage.

44

4- Initial depletion of soil moisture. The depletion of initial soil moisture depicts the

dryness of the soil at the commencement of the flourishing season.

3.3.2- Green and blue water footprint of crop cultivation

Water footprint is the amount of water that being used for producing a

particular crop or good. Previous studies have been carried out to measure the

quantity of the water footprint in different crops and products (Chapagain &

Hoekstra 2004; Oki & Kanae 2004; Chapagain & Hoekstra 2003; Chapagain &

Hoekstra 2007; Hoekstra & Chapagain 2008, Hoekstra & Hung 2005; Chapagain

2006). Measures of varieties crop products are essential because agricultural and

forestry sectors consume large amount of freshwater. Water footprint was carried

out for flourishing a crop, especially wheat crop production in the Sulaymaniyah.

This method can be used for both types of annual and perennial crops. In this

study, water footprint modeling consists of two categories namely green and blue

water footprint.

The green water footprint of growing a crop or tree (WFgrow,green,

m3/ton) is calculated as the green component in crop water use (CWUgreen,

m3/ha) divided by the crop yield (Y, ton/ha). Green water refers to the volume of

rain water used in crop cultivation and was calculated by:

CWU green

WF grow green= [volume/mass]

Y

The blue component (WFgrow,blue, m3/ton) is calculated in a similar way as the

green water footprint. Blue water refers to the volume of surface and groundwater used in

crop cultivation and was calculated by:

45

CWU blue

WF grow blue= [volume/mass]

Y

A total water footprint (blue and green) was calculated by:

𝑊𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤/𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤,𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛+𝑊𝐹𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤,𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠⁄ )

Yields for annual crops can be taken as given in yield statistics. In the case of

perennial crops, one should consider the average annual yield over the full lifespan of the

crop. In this way, one account for the fact that the yield in the initial year of planting is

low or zero, while yield are highest after some years and yield often go down at the end

of the life span of a perennial crop. For the crop water use, one needs to take the average

annual crop water use over the life span of the crop.

The green and blue components in crop water use (CWU, m3/ha) are calculated by

the accumulation of daily evapotranspiration (ET, mm/day) over the complete growing

period:

CWU𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 10 × ∑ 𝐸𝑇𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 [volume/area]

lgp

𝑑=1

CWU𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 10 × ∑ 𝐸𝑇𝑏𝑙𝑢𝑒 [volume/area]

lgp

𝑑=1

In which ETgreen represents green water evapotranspiration and ETblue refers to the

blue water evapotranspiration. The factor 10 is meant to convert water depths in

millimeters into water volumes per land surface in m3/ha. The summation is done over

the period from the day of planting (day 1) to the day of harvest (lgp stands for length of

growing period in days). Since different crop varieties can have substantial differences in

46

the length of the growing period, this factor can significantly influence the calculated

crop water use. For permanent (perennial) crops and production forest, one should

account for the evapotranspiration throughout the year. In order to account for differences

in evapotranspiration over the full lifespan of a permanent crop or tree, one should look at

the annual average of evapotranspiration over the full lifespan of the crop or tree. The

‘green’ crop water use represents the total rainwater evaporated from the field during the

growing period and the ‘blue’ crop water use represents the total irrigation water

evaporated from the field.

3.4 Reference evapotranspiration (ETo)

The evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface is known as the reference crop

evapotranspiration, which expressed as (ETo). The impression of ETo was presented to

assess the evaporative demand of the atmosphere separately of crop development,

management practice and crop type. When available of water is abundant available at the

reference crop evapotranspiration surface, soil factors are not affecting ETo. Connection

of the evapotranspiration procedure to a particular surface can offer a reference to which

evapotranspiration from other surfaces can be connected. It eliminates the need to outline

an independent evapotranspiration degree for each crop and phase of growth. ETo values

calculated or measured at various locations or in different seasons are analogous as they

represent to the evapotranspiration from the similar reference surface.

ETo shows the evaporating weight of the atmosphere at a particular time and

location of the year and without considering the soil factors and crop characteristics. The

FAO Penman-Monteith method is suggested as the method for delineating ETo. the

motivation of selection of this method is due to the values is provided by this method

that consistent with actual consumption data of crop water worldwide, as many years

evaluation reports has been done in accordance with this method in the scientific

literature. Moreover, processes have been thrived for utilizing this method even with

finite climatic data.

47

3.5 Crop water requirement

The volume requirement of water to compensate the evapotranspiration depletion from

the cropped field is explained as crop water requirement. Even though crop

evapotranspiration values under standard conditions (ETc) and crop water requirement is

alike, crop water requirement represents to the volume of water that requires to be

provided, while crop evapotranspiration represents to the volume of water that is depleted

through evapotranspiration.

Evapotranspiration can be either estimated from a field by means of a model

according to empirical formulas. Estimating evapotranspiration is costly and

extraordinary. Commonly, one measures evapotranspiration indirectly by means of a

model that deploys data on soil properties, climate and crop characteristics as input. many

alternatives can be shown to crop flourish and model ET. EPIC model is a method that

frequently used (Williams et al. 1989; Williams 1995), as well as in grid-based form is

available (Liu et al. 2007). CROPWAT 8.0 is another model that thrived by the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2010b), which is according to the

method defined in Allen et al. (1998). The AQUACROP is another model, particularly

thrived for monitoring crop flourish and ET under water-deficit conditions (FAO 2010e).

Two options are offered for Calculation of evapotranspiration in The CROPWAT

8.0 model: i) the first option is irrigation schedule option (including the prospect to

determine actual irrigation supply in time) and ii) the second option is crop water

requirement option (supposing optimum conditions). It is suggested to apply the first

option whenever possible, because it is appropriate for both ideal and non-optimum

thriving conditions and due to it is more precise (as the underlying model encompasses a

dynamic soil water balance).

Integrating directly the crop resistance, air resistance and albedo factors in the

Penman-Monteith approach calculates crop evapotranspiration from climate date. As

there has still been a considerable insufficient of information for various crops, for the

estimation of the Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) uses the Penman-Monteith method.

empirical test determined the proportions of ETc/ETo, it is called crop coefficient (Kc)

which are utilized to relate ETc to ETo, hence crop evapotranspiration can be expressed

48

as ETc = Kc * ETo. This is characterized as the crop coefficient approach to determine

crop evapotranspiration. Variances in leaf anatomy, aerodynamic properties, stomatal

characteristics and even albedo affect ETc to differentiate from ETo under the identical

climatic conditions. Due to disparities in the crop characteristics throughout its

flourishing season, Kc for a given crop alters from planting till harvest.

3.6 Irrigation Water Requirement

Irrigation is be required when an area faces lack of rainfall for compensating water lost

by evapotranspiration. The main aim of irrigation is to utilize water at the right time and

in the right volume. Future irrigations can be planned by calculating the soil water

balance of the root zone on a daily basis, depth and the timing. In the Figure 3.8, the root

zone is shown by means of fluctuation of water content in which presented in a container.

Figure 3.8 Root zone of fluctuation of water content in a period of time

3.7 Effective Rainfall

Effective rainfall for agricultural production refers to the amount of rainfall effectively is

used by crops because all rain is not available for agricultural products, which some rain

lost through such Deep Percolation (DP and Runoff (RO). The amount of infiltration of

49

water depend on the several factors such as slope, soil type, initial soils water content,

crop canopy and storm intensity. Field observation is an optimum way and accurate

method to determine effective rainfall. Runoff influences of rain to be effective because

it prevents of absorbing water by soil, as well as small amount of falling precipitation is

not effective due to quickly lost to evaporation.

Two options are given to be chosen in the input of monthly rainfall consist the

average dependable rainfall data and actual rainfall data. Dependable rainfall should

carefully be selected based on appropriate values, depend on separately carried out

statistical analyses of long term rainfall records. CROPWAT 8.0 offers the prospect of

several methods to be used to calculate the effective rainfall such as dependable rainfall,

fixed percentage of rainfall, USDA soil conservation service method and empirical

formula. Moreover, it offers the possibility of calculations of irrigation to be carried out

without considering rainfall.

50

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 CLIMATE

Climate is a prominent natural factor that influences directly on the regions around the

world. Each region has been characterized in different sort of climate which human

activity and wildlife relies upon on their life. The climate of the study area in the

Kurdistan Region is Mediterranean and characterized by hot and dry in summer and cold

and wet in winter (semi-arid continental). The summer months range from June to

September with the highest temperature recorded in July and August (39oC – 43

oC) and

can be up to the maximum (45oC) (Figure 4.1). During spring season the mean

temperatures range from 13oC - 18

oC in March and 27

oC - 32

oC in May. Autumn season

is characterized by dry and mild with average temperatures between 24oC - 29

oC in

October. Average maximum temperatures during winter season are between 7oC - 13

oC

and average minimum temperatures range between 2oC - 7

oC. The average relative

humidity for summer and winter seasons are 25.5% and 65.6%, respectively, while the

evaporation reaches 329.5 mm in summer and 53 mm in winter. The average wind speed

in winter is 1.2 m/sec and about1.8 m/sec in summer time. Sunshine duration reaches 5.1

hour in winter time and 10.6 hour in summer. The driest month is August with 0 mm and

most participation falls in February with an average of 146 mm.

51

Figure 4.1 Average climate characteristics in Kurdistan region

4.1.1 Temperature

Temperature has a significant role in climate change and based on this factor, which plant

and trees can be grown in specific region can be determined. Variety in temperature

causes of growing different type of plants from region to another around the world, even

plants differentiate between seasons in the same region due to changing of temperature.

Furthermore, temperature is an important factor affecting all aspects in the ecosystem.

The average temperature in the study was (19.5°) from 1973 to 2002. Although

the main temperature is moderate as compared with the other regions, high temperature

was recorded in July. As well as January is considered low temperature throughout the

year, which minimum and maximum temperature were 1.5° and 40°, respectively during

the mentioned period (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2 shows that temperature starts to increase

and reach to the highest in July, then commences to decline rapidly until lowest

temperature in January. Moreover, from November to March and sometimes until April

is wet and cold because rain and snow fall during the cold season, while summer is dry

and hot season which begins in early May to September. Some factors can be considered

52

that the impact on the climate in all the regions such as the position according to latitude

and longitude, altitude according to sea level and the wind direction or masses.

Furthermore, those factors also effect on the quantity of precipitation. Moreover,

Sulaymaniyah is located south west of Asia in latitude (35.51 N) and longitude (45.31 E).

Therefore, this area is considered the disparity temperature between seasons due to

sufficient sunshine according to the solstice and equinox.

Figure 4.2 Monthly Maximum and Minimum Temperarure in Sulaymaniyah

The range of temperature from one year to another fluctuates somewhat because

of Sulaymaniyah city is under pressure of Mediterranean climate. Average maximum and

minimum temperature are slightly different from one year to another, which minimum

average temperature recorded 1.5° C to 27° C during one year, while maximum average

temperature is 9° C in winter to 41° C in summer.

4.1.2 Humidity

Water can be found in everywhere in the earth and also one of the particle formations in

the air meaning that water is a pervasive element. Therefore understanding the concept of

humidity is imperative and more related to the water vapor and moisture. Humidity

Min Temp °C

Max Temp °C

Month

121110987654321

40

38

36

34

32

30

28

26

24

22

20

18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

53

describes the amount of water when it vaporizes into the air. There are many terms of

humidity such as absolute humidity and relative humidity (Figure 4.3), which absolute

humidity means the actual water vapor per humid volume of air. This is measured as a

mixing ratio (gm water vapor/kg of dry air), a partial pressure (vapor pressure/hPa or

millibars) and dew point. While relative humidity is the most popular measurement that is

used to measure of humidity. RH is defined as the ratio of the amount of water vapor in

the air relative to saturation amount of air that can hold at a given temperature. It is

measures as a percentage value.

Figure 4.3 Various ways of expressing humidity. Source (Bharatt 2011)

Figure 4.4 illustrates the annual average rate of exiting humidity in 1973 to 2002.

Annual average humidity fluctuated between 35 percent to 50 percent. Most noticeable

increasing humidity was in 1988, while dramatic decline happened in 1973. Although the

annual average humidity is less than 50 percent, some months of the year are more than

70 percent.

54

Figure 4.4 Average annual humidity in Sulaymaniyah from 1973 to 2002

Figure 4.5 shows that humidity declines rapidly from January to August, after that

start to increase and reach the peak in December and January. Average monthly humidity

were recorded in January and December (70 percent); otherwise, August is considered as

a remarkable low humidity during a year with only 20 percent. In general, humidity and

temperature are contrary to each other, when temperature is high, humidity is low

because cold air cannot hold water vapor more than warm air holds. This means all

winter months are considered as high humidity and low temperature and summer months

is also recorded low humidity and high temperature in Sulaimaniyah.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

19

73

19

74

19

75

19

76

19

77

19

78

19

79

19

80

19

81

19

82

19

83

19

84

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

92

19

93

19

94

19

95

19

96

19

97

19

98

19

99

20

00

20

01

20

02

Per

cen

tage

(%)

Year

55

Figure 4.5 Average monthly humidity in the Sulaymaniyah province.

4.1.3 Wind Speed

Wind contributes a substantial influence in many aspects such as agricultural sector,

erosion level, meteorological impact, humidity rate and participation. The wind direction

is from the west, south and south east to north east and north in Kurdistan region due to

sub-tropical high pressure belts and Mediterranean anticyclones occupying Kurdistan

region in summer. Meanwhile, it is different in the winter which the direction of wind is

in two difference way, first it moves from east to north east because of Mediterranean

cyclones that invades the region, second it moves towards north in Kurdistan region due

to Arabian sea cyclones which this wind brings large amount of precipitation because it

passes over Parsian Golf (Anderson et al. 1998; Husami 2007).

Figure 4.6 shows that the wind speed values differ in almost all the months. The

highest wind speeds are recorded in the June, July and August which are 186, 195 and

175 km/day respectively because Kurdistan are under sub-tropical high pressure belts and

Mediteranean anticyclones which is characterized as a dry wind. While lowest wind

speeds are observed in the November and December which is 98 km/day due to

Mediterranean anticyclones and Arabian Sea cyclones that characterized as cold and wet.

Humidity %

Month

121110987654321

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

56

Figure 4.6 Average wind speed in the Sulaymaniyah province

4.1.4 Sunshine

The north part of Iraq does not receive much sunshine because of topography and clouds

during the day. North Iraq, especially Sulaymaniyah is mountainous area which it

prevents to get sunshine and clouds especially in the winter affects hours of the sunshine.

There is a big difference of getting radiation from solar between seasons. It can be seen in

Figure 4.7 that sunshine increases regularly in the January to August from 4.5 to 10.5

hours. Then it starts to decrease until December in the same way which increased from

January. Hence, when earth rotates around the sun causes the length of the day and night

relies on the time of the year and the latitude of the location. The shortest sunshine occurs

around December, 21 (winter solstice) and the longest sunshine happens around June, 21

(summer solstice) (Yeow 2002). It means sunshine reaches the earth only 4.5 hours in

the winter because of the climate conditions which almost all the day clouds presents in

the sky. It prevents much of radiation to transmit to the earth. Another issue of getting

less sunshine due to the limited hours of the day which the duration is only 10 hours in

January. Unlikely summer is richest season for getting sunshine due to the day that is

longer and sky is clear. The duration of the day during summer months is 14 hours and

the only prevention is topography especially in the morning and evening hours.

Wind km/day

Month

121110987654321

190

180

170

160

150

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

57

Figure 4.7 Average sunshine hours according to months in the Sulaymaniyah province

4.1.5 Rainfall

It can be seen in Figure 4.8 that the volume of rainfall in January and February are 117

mm and 133 mm, while June to September is the dry months. Kurdistan is dominated by

the Mediterranean climate which is described as hot, dry and more sunshine in the

summer sub-tropical high pressure cells that making rainfall impossible in the summer

months, except certain occasional thunderstorms. While winter is wet, cold and less

sunshine which all the rainfall occurs in the winter months, although the amount of

rainfall is not exactly similar but most rainfall occurs in January and February. The

planting crops starts coincidence with commencing rain months and harvesting ends in

the dry months.

Sun hours

Month

121110987654321

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

58

Figure 4.8 Average monthly rainfall rates in the Sulaymaniyah province

The following Figure 4.9 shows during five years in the sulaimaniyah province

which consist 10 municipals the most rainfall year is 2002, whereas the less amount of

rainfall occurs in 2006 because 2006 to 2010 is worse drought condition. Penjween

reaches the most volume of rainfall; likewise Kalar and Chamchamal are considered as

the driest area in the Sulaymaniyah province because of the location is far from high

mountain area and near to plains. It can be observed the amount of rainfall receives to

central Sulaymaniyah city is moderate. Penjween, Qaladze and Ranya receive the highest

amount of rainfall in the year, for example, in 2002 Panjween, Qaladze and Ranya

received above 1000 mm rainfall. In other hand Chamchamal and Kalar received less

amount of rainfall during whole of the year. Although entire Sulaymaniyah province

encountered less volume of rainfall in the 2006 because of drought condition which

persisted for 4 years, it can be seen in the figure that the most vulnerable cities are

Chamchamal and Mawat in the 2006 which the amount was recorded less than 100mm.

Rain mm

Month

121110987654321

130

125

120

115

110

105

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

59

Figure 4.9 Average rainfall in different cities in Sulaymaniyah province

4.2 WATER FOOTPRINT OF THE SULAYMANIYAH PROVINCE

The water use is highly constrained by unbalanced conditions of demands and

availability, particularly during the dry season. Water footprint is used for estimating

water used in agricultural crops such as wheat, barley, chickpeas, sunflower, sweet melon

and tomato in the Sulaymaniyah province. The water footprint assesses the total

freshwater which is consumed in each product during a specific time, it consists of two

components namely blue water and green water. The blue water footprint refers to the

amount of fresh water of the surface and ground water which consumed (evaporated) as a

consequence of producing a product, whereas the green water footprint refers to the rain

water which consumed to flourishing a good. In other words, crop water requirements

highlight two essentials: effective rainfall means (green water) and irrigation water refers

to (blue water). Crop water requirements (mm/day) present to the water needed for

evapotranspiration under supreme growth conditions; it breaks up to measure from

planting to harvesting. Moreover, those are calculated as the green and blue water

footprint for growing the crop (WF, m3/ton).

0

400

800

1200

1600

2001-2002

2002-2003

2003-2004

2004-2005

2005-2006Rain

fall

(m

m)

Area

60

Sulaymaniyah province is characterized by fertile mountain valley and high grade

pasture land. A variety of crops grow in this area including wheat, barley, rice, variety of

vegetables and cereals, fruits and nuts as well as some cash crops (cotton, tobacco, sugar

beets and olives). Wheat is the staple crop and mainly consumed by the population.

However, yielding crops differ from season to season because each crop has grown in

specific period of the year.

4.2.1 Wheat

The total land devoted for the wheat production is higher than other crops. Annual

production of wheat is difference from one year to another year because it is highly

dependent on rainfall, which some year receives inadequate precipitation to grow wheat

as happened from 2007 to 2009. People were depending on commercial trading of

agricultural productions that imported by the Iraqi Ministry of Trade resulted from lack

of precipitation. Total wheat production reaches high volume in 2013 with 283140

ton/year in Sulaymaniyah because adequate precipitation, while during drought event, for

example in 2007, total wheat production was 95965 ton/year due to wheat is only

dependent on the rainfall in Kurdistan province (Appendix A). Rain-fed wheat is

commenced to plant in the early of spring and harvesting in the early of summer season.

Meanwhile, although plantation of wheat lies mostly on the plain area in the

Sulaymaniyah province, farmers utilize hillsides and mountainous areas where irrigation

is not possible for producing of wheat.

Figure 4.10 illustrates that for producing per ton of wheat production will require

high amount of green and blue water footprint. The volume of consuming water is

slightly difference from year to another year. It can be noticed that high amount of

consuming water with 683 m3/ton of water, which consists of 388 m

3/ton of green water

and 296 m3/ton of blue water. This value is recorded in in four different years (2003,

2005, 2007 and 2008). Water slightly fluctuation of consuming water footprint are

instability of rainfall and snow which the main resource for green water footprint.

Meanwhile, consumption of water for wheat is difference from an area to another, for

example, plain area uses a lot of water from both irrigation systems and rainfall, but

61

hillside and mountainous area rely on the direct rainfall as compared to surface water

(Morgounov et al. 2007). Furthermore, both green and blue water are significantly

contributing in producing of wheat. Although green water footprint involves more than

blue water footprint, it can be seen that wheat production consumes blue water footprint

more than other crops where have been grown in Sulaymaniyah province.

Figure 4.10 Amount water footprint (m3) per ton of wheat

According to the Figure 4.10 wheat production consumed much water relatively

to other crops. It needs nearly 700 m3/ton. The global average water footprint consumed

by rain-fed wheat production is 1805 m3/ton, whereas in irrigated wheat production is

slightly higher (1868 m3/ton), the consequence of the variation of water consumption in

wheat productions seasons and locations, depending on the climate conditions and type of

soil (Anderson et al. 1998; Mekonnen 2011) Therefore, the condition of climate is wet

and cold in winter and hot and dry in the summer which influences the consumption of

much water in the winter and less water in the summer.

4.2.2 Barley

0

200

400

600

800

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

3/t

on

)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

62

Barley is usually considered as a crop that is droughts tolerant. Thus, barley is usually

grown in the cold area and somewhat dry during its flourishing season and it can be

grown in semi-arid areas because it is also salt tolerance. The following Figure 4.11

shows water use for barley product in 2003 to 2013, it can be seen that no significant

change was recorded, except in 2011 which consumed much more water compared to

other years. A slightly changed in the blue water with ranges between 40 m3/ton to 60

m3/ton, while the lowest green water per ton of barley was recorded in 2008 and 2010

(321 m3/ton) and the highest consumption was in 2011 (533 m

3/ton). Although the

amount of water footprint is slightly different in some countries such as Germany uses

590 m3/ton of total water footprint that consists of 351 m

3/ton of green water and 239

m3/ton of blue water footprint and Morocco uses 452 m

3/ton as total water footprint with

291 m3/ton of green water and 160 m

3/ton of blue water and Ireland uses 448 m

3/ton,

which 295 m3/ton is green water footprint and 153 m

3/ton is blue water footprint

(Gerbens-Leenes et al. 2008). Consumption of blue and green water footprint are almost

equal for producing per ton of barley in most countries. Furthermore, volume of water

consumption of barley in some countries is much higher than consumption of water for

producing per ton of barley in Sulaimanyah, for instance, total consumption of WF in

Russian federation, Canada 1407, Belarus and Italy are uses 2525, 1407, 2090 and 1149

m3/ton respectively, while average consumption is only 381 m³/ ton (Gerbens-Leenes et

al. 2008). The difference of blue and green water consumption for barley is highly related

to the amount of crops yield. For example, the amount of harvesting barley in the 2011

per hectare is less than the volume of producing barley in 2008 and 2010. The most

important factor affecting on the changing of producing crop productions is the difference

of climate conditions in each year which has potential impact on using a lot of green

water.

The average water consumption to produce per ton barley is 381 m³/ ton which

constitute of 339 m³/ton of green water that refers to rainfall use and 42 m³ of blue water

per ton. It means most of rainfall water in Sulaymaniyah province is passively used in

efficiently way for producing crops. Poor utilization of ground water and fresh water

63

leads to low water consumption for irrigation, especially blue water consumption after

cease of rain in May until November.

Figure 4.11 Amount of water footprint consumption m3 per ton barley

4.2.3 Sunflower

Sunflower is one of the crops that can be cultivated in the Kurdistan province which it is

also a universal and vital oil crop. Sulaymaniyah climate is the most suitable region in the

Middle East and Iraq for cultivation of sunflower, since it is getting more sunshine during

the day that required for its flourishing.

Sunflower requires significant amount of water. It can be noticed in Figure 4.12

that the highest volume of water consumed was recorded in 2006 and 2007. It was about

312 m³ of water is consumed for producing per ton of sunflower and fewer amounts were

recorded in 2004, 2008, 2010 and 2012. It was approximately 208 m³ per ton which

consists of both blue and green water. Furthermore, the green water was substantially

consumed for sunflower which the average consumption of water per ton of sunflower is

200 m³, whereas the blue water uses is only 19 m³ per ton. Sunflower accounts as one of

the oil vegetables that requires large amount of water footprint in average global scale

(3165 m3/ton). In this case, there is a big gap in the amounts of green water footprint for

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Wa

ter

footp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

64

sunflower between Sulaymaniyah and global scale. In other hand, global blue water

footprint is similar to blue water footprint for sunflower (Mekonnen & Hoekstra 2011).

Figure 4.12 Amount of water footprint (m3 per ton) of sunflower

Figure 4.12 implies that effective rainfall is important element for producing

crops, beside that blue water is needed during drought event to support the crops growth

until harvesting season. The problem of less blue water consumption for the sunflower

and other crops is due to the poor undeveloped irrigation system (Multsch et al. 2013).

4.2.4 Sweet Melon

Sulaymaniyah’s water footprint related to the consumption of sweet melon products was

21 m³/ton for the period 2003 – 2013. Sweet melon requires less amount of water

footprint in analogous to other crops which are grown in the Sulaymaniyah because of

high productivity per unit, for example sweet melon produce 10 to 12 ton/ha which it

renders to consume less volume of water footprint as a consequence of high production

that decreases water footprint. It can be observed in the Figure 4.13 which green water

footprint is similar to other crops that composed higher range than blue water in sweet

melon. The total water footprint for sweet melon is not considerable changed in all the

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

65

years from 2003 to 2013 were more than 20m³/ton, except 2008 due to increasing high

productivity per hectare and climate conditions.

Figure 4.13 Amount of water footprint (m3

per ton) of sweet melon

4.2.5 Tomato

Tomato production per hectare in Sulaymaniyah province is much higher as compared to

other crops. It depends on the irrigation and runoff water (includes snow melting and

storing rainfall) to growth. Remarkable variations can be observed in the proportion of

green and blue water footprints for growing tomato in the Sulaymaniyah province. Figure

4.14 shows that the highest water requirement is in 2010 (52 m³/ton) which mostly is

green water (45 m³/ton). The lowest water consumption is in 2012 (12 m³/ton). It can be

seen that green water footprint is much higher than blue water compared to other crops,

hence irrigation rely on the runoff water which stored in the reservoirs and small dams.

The fluctuation of water footprint in tomato production is higher than other crops that

grown in Sulaymaniyah because the yield of tomato is produced in a great amount per

hectare and influences the total water footprint result. For instance, the highest volume of

0

5

10

15

20

25

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

66

yield produced in 2012 coincides with the lowest water consumption. Another issue

effect on the fluctuation of the tomato production is because this product is a commercial,

which some years it is imported in surrounding countries.

Figure 4.14 Amount of water footprint (m3 per ton) of tomato

4.2.6 Chickpea

Chickpea is a kind of dry beans and Kurdistan’s weather assists chickpea to be grown.

The plantation start in March to April which for growing requires quite much water,

therefore, it depends on the rainfall for the germination. It can be noticed in the Figure

4.15 that illustrates green water footprint is higher compared to the blue water footprint

due to most of the crop production in the Sulaymaniyah rely on the rainfall and melting

snow, hence, green water footprint is higher than blue water footprint. Figure 4.15 shows

high consumption of water in 2010 300 m³/ton, while the lowest was found in 2011 (153

m³/ton). Furthermore, it can be observed that blue water footprint participated in fewer

amounts than green water footprint because the amount of rainfall, stored rainfall and soil

moisture that are considered sufficient to grow dry beans.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

67

Figure 4.15 Amount of water footprint (m3 per ton) of chickpea

4.3 ASSESSMENT WATER FOOTPRINT

Average of total water footprint (m³/ton) OF crops cultivation from the period of 2003 to

2013 for the Sulaymaniyah province is illustrateD in the Figure 4.16. Higher green water

footprints were found for barley and wheat with a total of 339 m³/ton and 304 m³/ton,

respectively. The following is chickpea 205 m³/ton and sunflower using green water 200

m³ per ton and the lowest water footprint were found for tomato and sweet melon (18 m³

per ton). Meanwhile, the largest blue water footprint was recorded for wheat with 232 m³

per ton, while the lowest blue water footprint were found for sweet melon and tomato

with less than 5 m³ per ton. Based on these findings, it was found that the largest water

footprint was recorded for growing wheat in the Sulaymaniyah.

Water footprint was calculated for six of the most relevant crops in the

Sulaymaniyah province in the north west of Iraq (Figure 4.16). On a state scale, average

water footprint ranges 20 m³/ton to 537 m³/ton. Crops such as tomato and water melon

have smaller water footprint with a value less than 25 m³/ton. In general, the higher the

yield of the crops, the smaller the value of water footprint. Average water footprints for

0

100

200

300

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

Blue WF

Green WF

68

cereals range from 220 m³/ton (sunflower) to 537 m3/ton (wheat), while low values can

also be observed for chickpea. Moreover, the average contribution of green water

consumption is generally high in the Sulaymaniyah province, with more than 500 m³/ton

(82 %), reflecting the high rate of annual rainfall. Blue water consumption is considered

low for this study. Furthermore, wheat, barley, chickpea and sunflower have the highest

water demand, resulting in large irrigation amounts to meet the crop water requirements

(CWR) (Gao et al. 2014).

Figure 4.16 Average water footprint (m3 per ton) of six selected crop.

The relative contribution between the blue and green water footprint for each

product in percentage is shown in Figure 4.17. Figure 4.17 reveals that wheat uses both

types of water footprint in the most significant volume of green and blue water footprint

with 57% and 43%, respectively. For other crops most water consumption is from the

green water, for example, water footprint of sunflower consists of 91% of green water

footprint and only 9% of blue water footprint. The contribution of the blue component to

the total water footprint is considered low for other crops, for example, the blue water

component is 16% in sweet melon and 15% in chickpea and tomato, whereas the green

water is 84% in sweet melon, 85% in chickpea and tomato 89%. The blue water

0

100

200

300

400

Wate

r fo

otp

rin

t (m

³/to

n)

Year

GREEN WF

BLUE WF

69

consumption is different from year to year due to the climate and irrigation that have

been applied to the crops.

Figure 4.17 Average water footprint six selected crops in the Sulaymaniyah province

As expected, the green water footprint is lower in dry seasons and higher in humid

or wet seasons and the blue water footprint of crops during the dry seasons was

approximately doubles as compared to humid or wet seasons. This study shows the

similarity between global scale water footprint for crops and the water footprint for the

Sulaymaniyah province. This implies that the ratio between green and blue water

footprint in the Sulaymaniyah province corresponds with the global estimates, while the

only difference between the global estimates and the Sulaymaniyah province is the

amount of consumption of water footprint for each crop. This difference is may be due to

the importance of using regional climate data.

4.4 WATER SCARCITY

Water scarcity occurs in almost areas in the Middle East countries due to lack of

precipitation and good water polices within upstream countries such as Turkey and Iran.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Per

cen

tage

(%)

Crop

Blue WF

Green WF

70

These countries have constructed many dams to prevent free-flowing water through

rivers and tributaries. Therefore, water scarcity is simply noticed in all provinces in Iraq,

except Sulaymaniyah and Duhok provinces, which they can rely on their watersheds to

provide adequate water for agricultural consumption, domestic use and industrial sector.

It can be seen in Figure 4.18 that shows the amount of annual precipitation in

Sulaymaniyah and Dohuk provinces are optimum. Meanwhile, the total water footprint

results clearly demonstrates green water footprint is higher for all crops in comparison

with the blue water footprint implying that Sulaymaniyah province has sufficient rainfall

to flourish crops. However, to conserve water availability, small dams must be

constructed for water supply and the current irrigation system must be improved to

increase water availability that can be used during dry months. However, dependence on

rainfall causes the fluctuation of amount of water availability from one year to another

year due to variation in rainfall, as well as intensity of precipitation in the rainfall season

due to climate change (Pindoria 2010).

Higher blue water footprint compared to the green water footprint implies that

there is water scarcity issue because blue water footprint affects water availability, thus

accelerating water scarcity (Pindoria 2010). Therefore, the water scarcity in the

Sulaymaniyah province is unaffected and not severe because results of water footprint for

several crops show that green water footprint is higher than blue water footprint. Figure

4.19 shows the amount of precipitation in Kurdistan region is greater than other Iraq’s

provinces. The amount of total rainfall exceeds 500 mm per year; even mountainous

areas in the Sulaymaniyah, Dohuk and Hawler provinces exceed 1500 mm and water

availability of the drainage basins are high in these provinces.

71

Figure 4.19 Average annual precipitation (1980 - 2011).

Source: Joint Analysis Unit (JAU)

Water scarcity is more associated to the volume of water availability for the

individual or per capita. When demanding for water is greater than proportion of rainfall

and water availability in that particular area, it is defined as water scarcity area

(Environment Agency 2007). Water scarcity and drought always occur in most regions in

Iraq. Some regions have been deteriorated since the past few years due to lack of

precipitation which influence the water availability. Otherwise Kurdistan region,

especially Sulaymaniyah province has been considered as a sufficient precipitation

region. However Kurdistan region also experienced drought events in the last five years.

Action must be taken to prevent further drought and water scarcity. The most proper way

to mitigate these rising problems is storing water during precipitation season and utilizing

during dry months. It can be seen in Figure 4.20 that the average amount of precipitation

reveals that Sulaymaniyah and Dahuk provinces are considered as the highest

precipitation levels, while other parts of Iraq in the south and north region received below

72

than 100 mm such as Babil, Karbala, Najaf, and Muthanna provinces. This illustrates that

Kurdistan region can depend on surface and ground water to serve for agricultural

activities and consumed for domestic purposes.

Figure 4.20 Average amount of precipitation according to each governorate in Iraq.

Source: (Lück 2014)

73

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

This study assesses the water footprint of several crops in Sulaymaniyah province by

using climate data from 1973 to 2002, which consists of temperature, humidity, wind,

sunshine and rainfall. Agricultural data encompasses wheat, barley, sweet melon, tomato,

chickpeas and sunflower for about 10 years data from 2003 to 2013. CROPWAT 8.0 was

used to determine the crop water requirement of selected crops. The motivation of the

study was to calculate the volume of fresh water consumed to grow crops. Furthermore,

the results can be used to preserve water during wet season and using in efficiency way

during drought period. This first study that has been done in Iraq was conducted in order

to evaluate how much water was used during growing season by crops and how much of

this water was coming from rainfall, runoff and groundwater by using water footprint

method. Water footprint is a new study to assess water consumption in crops by dividing

water consumption to two different parts such as blue and green water footprint. Analysis

of water footprint is useful to provide comprehensive framework to assist in providing

ideal alternatives for efficient water consumption at the each drainage basins. Although it

is very challenging to achieve allocation of efficient water in the region, but the water

footprint can be a complementary tool to overcome water-related problem, particularly in

Iraq.

Result of the water footprint assessment showed that wheat consumes high

amount of water, while the lowest water consumption were found for sweet melon and

tomato. Furthermore, the total water footprint is obviously different for each crop,

depending on how many tons are produced in one hectare of cultivated area. Wheat is

74

recorded with the highest consumption of water footprint, which total water footprint is

537 m3/ton of total water footprint, while total water consumption in sweet melon and

tomato are the same 21 m3/ton.

Green water footprint is higher than blue water footprint in the Sulaymaniyah

province. Therefore, consumption of water footprint corresponds to the pattern of global

scale of water footprint uses, even though amount of water consumption is different in

each crop due to disparity of climate from one region to another region around the world.

Green water footprint ranges between 12 m3/ton and 533 m

3/ton, whereas blue water

footprint ranges between 2 m3/ ton and 300 m

3/ton. Meanwhile, high green water

footprint depends upon high precipitation throughout a year, while contribution of blue

water footprint relies on the irrigation. In an overview, this study found that

Sulaymaniyah province depends on the precipitation because green water footprint is the

highest component. Furthermore, low blue water footprint indicates that irrigation system

has not still developed, while drought is always expected to occur in the region.

The range of water footprint is different among provinces in Iraq due to

precipitation pattern that varies throughout a year. Northern provinces is the highest in

receiving precipitation, while south and south west are considered as dry provinces.

Average total rainfall in Sulaymaniyah and Dohuk in the Northern country are 534 mm

and 508 mm, respectively. Hence, green water footprint is higher in the Northern

provinces than southern provinces, otherwise it is anticipated that blue water footprint is

higher in the southern provinces. Even though sufficient precipitation falls in the

Northern Province in the winter, they experience a drought event for almost five months

during summer season, which characterized as dry and hot season throughout a year.

Therefore, irrigation system is an appropriate way to be implemented by increasing

construction of small dams throughout the region. This implementation can increase

consumption of blue water and reduce pressure on the water during drought periods.

Construction of small dams and reservoirs, rationalization of irrigation systems,

development of agricultural products, efficiency of water availability and preparedness

for drought condition are recommended along this study to be considered and

implemented. Construction of small dams can be done in many areas of the region due to

75

precipitation falls in whole region in the wet season, which is sufficient to be preserved

for use in hot season. There are many advantages from small dams such as increasing soil

moisture, controlling flood, improving water quality and quantity and reducing sediment

and soil erosion. Irrigation system should be utterly improved and rationalized due to

irrigation system is an effective way to consume water and increasing agricultural

productions. Preparedness for drought is necessary because region has experienced

drought conditions in last decade.

76

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