ashley tedham working papers...

- DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL HISTORY -

GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Charitable Giving,

Fundraising, and Faith-

Based Organizations:

Islamic Relief World

Wide and World Vision

International - A

Comparison

by

Ashley Tedham

WORKING PAPERS

in

INTERNATIONAL HISTORY

No. 11 / February 2012

2

© Ashley Tedham

No part of this paper may be reproduced without the permission of the author.

Working Papers

in

International History

Editor: Jaci Eisenberg

©Department of International History

Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies

Case postale 136 – 1211 Genève 21

http://www.graduateinstitute.ch/international-history

http://www.graduateinstitute.ch/international-history

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Abstract

If recent research is correct in observing that faith motivates people to give routinely

and generously, faith-based organizations (FBOs) should have an advantage in their

fundraising efforts. By aligning with a particular religious discourse, FBOs are able

to single out religious communities as reliable donor bases which - if convinced – are

able to provide such organizations with generous and loyal support. As competition

for funding among all non-profit organizations (NGOs) becomes increasingly

intense, it is essential for organizations to identify which techniques are effective.

Should effective fundraising strategies differ among various types of FBOs? Do

Christian FBOs have different fundraising strategies than Muslim FBOs? If so, what

are the differences, and why? This paper takes World Vision International and

Islamic Relief Worldwide as case studies to compare how FBOs from distinctive

religious foundations approach their fundraising efforts. After highlighting

particular similarities and differences, one finds that World Vision International and

Islamic Relief Worldwide approach fundraising using a number of similar tools and

techniques. Furthermore, both organizations feel restrained by similar challenges

and concerns as the charity world continues to evolve. Islamic Relief Worldwide and

other Muslim-based charities do, however, face additional challenges resulting from

the international response following the events of 9/11.

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CHARITABLE GIVING, FUNDRAISING, AND FAITH-BASED

ORGANIZATONS: ISLAMIC RELIEF WORLD WIDE AND

WORLD VISION INTERNATIONAL – A COMPARISON

Introduction

Extensive surveys from the Independent Sector (http://www.independentsector.org/)

have shown that people who participate more regularly in the life of a faith

community are more likely to give, and to give more, than those who are less active.1

Because religious practice usually encourages, if not requires, generosity and charity,

it is argued that adherents tend to be more dedicated to regular charitable giving.2

Therefore, if faith motivates people to give routinely and generously, would it pay

for NGOs to align with a particular religious discourse and use religious belief and

practice to attract donor support?3 This may be important to consider when

deciding how to target and frame advertisement and fundraising efforts.4

This paper seeks to compare and contrast how two distinctive faith-based

organizations (FBOs) - Islamic Relief World Wide (IR) and World Vision

International (WV) - utilize their religious beliefs in shaping what they do and how

they do it, particularly in regards to fundraising efforts. An initial discussion

concerning the religious foundations of charity in Islam and Christianity will be

followed by a brief look at the history of both Islamic Relief Worldwide and World

Vision International individually, in order to provide necessary context. This paper

will then look at each organization’s approach to fundraising, highlighting particular

similarities and differences. In conclusion, some of the changes and challenges that 1 Thomas H. Jeavons and Rebekah Burch Basinger, “Developing faithful and generous donors: The ideals and

the challenges,” New Directions for Philanthropic Fundraising 35 (2002): 97,

http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/pf.3507 (accessed 17 November 2011). 2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

4 Arthur C. Brooks, “Faith, Secularism, and Charity,” Faith & Economics 43 (2004): 7.

5

these organizations faced in recent years - related to funding and support - will be

discussed.

Religious Principles on Charitable Giving

Recognizing that significant variations exists within each religion, this paper seeks to

highlight the most broadly accepted notions of charitable5 and humanitarian giving

that can be found within the religious texts and discourse of two Abrahamic

religions, Islam and Christianity.

Islamic Principles on Charitable Giving

“Your friend is only Allah and His Messenger and the believers who observe prayer and pay

zakat [alms] and worship Allah along.” – (Qur’an 5:55)

“Be steadfast in prayer and regular charity.” - (Qur’an 2:10)

A widely held definition of Islam is “to surrender to God’s law.”6 The ‘law’ is

enshrined in the Qur’an, the teachings/traditions (waqfs) and judgments (hadiths) of

the Prophet Muhammad.7 According to this law, there are five main pillars of Islam

every Muslim is required to follow: the declaration of faith (shahada); prayer (salat);

zakat (almsgiving); annual fasting during the holy month of Ramadan (sawm); and

the once-in-a-lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).8 Of these five pillars, the third,

zakat, is where God lays out the requirements for charitable giving. Derived from

the verb zaka, which means ‘to purify’, the meaning is usually associated with giving

5 For the sake of this paper, ‘charity’ will be defined as “a voluntary giving of money or other help to those in

need” Rianne C. ten Veen, “Charitable Giving in Islam” (Islamic Relief, September 2009), 5. 6 Amy Singer, Charity in Islamic societies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 38.

7 Ajaz Ahmed Khan, Ismayil Tahmazov, and Mamoun Abuarqub, “Translating Faith into Development”

(Islamic Relief, June 2009), 4, http://www.islamic-relief.com/InDepth/2-19-translating-faith-into-

development.aspx (accessed 17 November 2011). 8 Singer, Charity in Islamic societies, 24.

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a portion of one’s wealth, which ‘purifies’ both the recipient and the donor.9 In the

Muslim faith, charity can be understood as an obligation for all Muslims, and is

viewed by many as the minimum requirement in being able to refer to oneself as a

Muslim.10

Historically zakat was a way to support the poor and needy members in Muslim

communities, providing them with a mechanism for collecting and redistributing

wealth among members of the confessional group.11 It is often calculated as being

approximately 2.5% of an individual’s overall wealth, and is collected annually.12 In

addition to zakat, there is also Zakat al-fitr (fitr =breaking of the fast) or fitrah, which is

an additional annual required act of charity that is given to the needy at the end of

Ramadan.13 In many Muslim circles it is believed that the alms given during

Ramadan are seventy times more meritorious than the alms given during the rest of

the year.14

Yet another highly encouraged, although voluntary, act of charity is called sadaqat.

Recipients of sadaqat are found in the verse ayat al-sadaqa stating that “the freewill

offerings (sadaqat) are for the poor and needy, those who work to collect them, those

whose hearts are brought together, the ransoming of slaves, debtors, in God’s way,

and the traveler (9:60).”15 There is no set amount for this payment, and it can be

given at anytime. It is often given in the form of land or property that is used for

charitable purposes or activities through the return from its investment.16 Sadaqat is

9 Jonathan Benthall, The Charitable Crescent: politics of aid in the Muslim world (London: I. B. Tauris, 2009),

9. 10

Alioune Ndiaye, Islamic Charities in Switzerland and the Practice of Zakat, PSIO Occasional Paper 2/2007

(HEI, 2007), 2. 11

Singer, Charity in Islamic societies, 38. 12

Veen, “Charitable Giving in Islam,” 5. 13

Benthall, The charitable crescent, 9. 14

Ibid. 15

Singer, Charity in Islamic societies, 44. 16

Mamoun Abuarqub and Isabel Philips, “A Brief History of Humanitarianism in the Muslim World” (Islamic

Relief, July 2009), 3, http://www.islamic-relief.com/InDepth/2-20-brief-history-of-humanitarianism-in-the-

muslim-world.aspx (accessed 17 November 2011).

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often viewed as an individual’s demonstration of his/her devotion and can be as

simple as “the offering of a smile.”17 Generally speaking, almsgiving in Islam is

understood as the concrete expression of one’s faith and devotion to God and is

demonstrated through good works.18

Christian Principles on Charitable Giving

“Show me thy faith by thy deeds.” – (James 2:18)

“Do to others as you would have them do to you." – (Luke 6:31 NIV)

In the same way that the responsibilities for charitable giving are enshrined in the

Qur’an for Muslims, the New Testament in the Christian Bible provides the

foundations for Christian charity. In the Gospels (writings) of Jesus Christ, one can

find a number of references made about the importance of caring for one another.

Three passages in particular summarize how a Christian is to approach the poor.

The first passage is referred to as the ‘Golden Rule,’ and is found in Matthew 22:38-

40:

You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul,

and with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment. And a

second is like it, You shall love your neighbor as yourself. On these two

commandments depend all the law and the prophets.

The second passage is a story about ‘the Good Samaritan’ (Luke 10:30-37), which

teaches the importance of helping a stranger in need. Lastly, the ‘Sermon on the

Mount ‘(Matthew 5-7), is a series of moral teachings from Jesus, which outlines how

17

Mohammed Kroessin, “Islamic Charities and the ‘War on Terror’: dispelling the myths,” Humanitarian

Practice Network, June 2007, http://www.odihpn.org/report.asp?id=2890 (accessed 17 November 2011). 18

Singer, Charity in Islamic societies, 38.

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a Christian should live and speaks in length about the value of helping others.19

Although charitable giving is not as clearly outlined in the Christian faith as it is in

Islam, it is apparent through scripture that it is also considered an obligation. For

Jesus said to His disciples, “so when you give to the needy…,” and not ‘if’ you give to

the needy (Matthew 6:2).20 The amount one is expected to give can also be found in

scripture. The act of tithing or giving of an offering can be compared to zakat in

Islam, in that it is often associated with a specific percentage of one’s wealth. In

Deuteronomy, Christians are directed to give at least ten percent of their income in

an act of obedience to God’s commands. In both religions, one finds that charitable

giving and generosity is a form of Godly worship and demonstrates one’s devotion

to God’s laws. These religious aspects are key in understanding what drives

organizations such as Islamic Relief Worldwide and World Vision International in

the work that they do.

History of Organizations

Islamic Relief Worldwide

Founded in 1984 by Hany El Banna, then an Egyptian medical student at the

University of Birmingham, in response to the famine in Ethiopia, Islamic Relief

Worldwide (IR) has become the world’s largest international Islamic humanitarian

organization.21

19

Terry Tirrito, Religious organizations in community services : a social work perspective (New York: Springer

Pub., 2003), 12. 20

Italicized by the author. 21

Jon Alterman, Understanding Islamic charities (Washington D.C.: Center for Strategic and International

Studies, 2007), 6.

9

With an operating budget of over 32 million pounds sterling,22 IR employs over 1,600

staff in 25 countries worldwide, providing assistance to over 30 countries. IR’s

mission is “to alleviate suffering, hunger, illiteracy and diseases worldwide

regardless of color, race or creed, and to provide aid in a compassionate and

dignified manner.”23 To meet this end, IR focuses its efforts in six main sectors:

sustainable livelihoods; education; health and nutrition; orphan sponsorship and

child welfare; water and sanitation; and, last, emergency relief and disaster

preparedness.24 The way the organization conducts itself is inspired by Islamic

values and its commitment to being a worldwide role model in assisting individuals,

groups and institutions to develop safe and caring communities; helping the poor

and suffering to enjoy self-reliance with dignity; and making it possible for those

who wish to provide support to reach those who need their help.25 In order to

achieve its mission, IR raises funds, builds partnerships and communicates its key

messages to both local and international audiences.26

In addition to its own code of conduct, Islamic Relief is currently signed up to three

additional international codes, namely The Code of Conduct for the International Red

Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief,27 The Sphere Standards –

Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response; and The People in

Aid Code of Good Practice. Moreover, IR enjoys consultative member status on the

UN’s Economic and Social Council, and collaborates with other international

organizations such as the World Food Programme and the European Union’s

Humanitarian Aid department (ECHO) in a number of its programs. In addition, IR

22

Islamic Relief Worldwide (IR), 2008 Global Accountability Report: Accountability Profile (One World Trust,

2008). 23

Mohammed Kroessin, Mapping UK Muslim development NGOs (Birmingham: University of Birmingham

International Development Department. Religions and Development research programme, 2009), 8. 24

“Who we are/About US,” Islamic Relief Worldwide, last updated 2011, http://www.islamic-

relief.com/Whoweare/Default.aspx?depID=2 (last accessed 17 November 2011). 25

“IR Beliefs, Values and Code of Conduct, Islamic Relief Worldwide,” (Islamic Relief, 2008), 5,

http://www.islamic-relief.com/InDepth/2-17-ir-beliefs-values-and-code-of-conduct.aspx (accessed 17

November 2011). 26

Ibid. 27

Appendix A.

10

is regulated and monitored by the UK Charities Acts - forbidding its political

involvement - and is a member of BOND, which is a UK membership body for

NGOs working in international development.28

World Vision International

Founded in 1950 by Dr. Bob Pierce, World Vision was a contemporary missionary

organization that sought to help children orphaned in the Korean War. To provide

long-term care for children in crisis, World Vision developed its first child

sponsorship program in Korea in 1953.29 Since then, World Vision continues to focus

its relief, development and advocacy work on creating positive transformation in

children’s lives.30 Although originally focused on providing for orphaned children,

World Vision has broadened its focus to encompass developing families; capacities

to build sustainable futures, as well as conducting advocacy work to ensure

international development is fostered by others.31 World Vision has total revenue of

over US $2.575 billion raised in cash and gifts-in-kind, and employs over 22,500

employees at 48 national offices in 96 countries.32 World Vision’s mission is to be “an

international partnership of Christians whose mission is to follow our Lord and

Savior Jesus Christ in working with the poor and oppressed to promote human

transformation, seek justice and bear witness to the good news of the Kingdome of

God.”33

World Vision directs its operations through six core values that can be viewed as

forming its general code of conduct. Taken from the World Vision International

28

Kroessin, Mapping UK Muslim development NGOs, 13. 29

“World Vision’s history,” (World Vision Inc., n.d.), http://www.worldvision.org/content.nsf/about/history

(last accessed 22 December 2011). 30

“World Vision’s history.” 31

World Vision International (WVI), Charity Review (One World Trust, n.d.). 32

“World Vision International 2009 Review” (World Vision, 2009), http://www.wvi.org/ar2009 (last accessed

22 December 2011). 33

“Who We Are” (World Vision International, n.d.), http://www.worldvision.org/content.nsf/about/who-we-are

(last accessed 22 December 2011).

11

website, the following six values are:34

1. We are Christian - our faith is central to our identity and our motivation to

serve.

2. We are committed to the poor.

3. We value people.

4. We are stewards - the resources entrusted to use are not our own.

5. We are partners.

6. We are responsive - we respond with urgency to need in the world.

In addition to these six values, World Vision is held accountable to the following

codes of conduct: The International NGO Accountability Charter, ICRC Code of

Conduct,35 the Sphere Humanitarian Charter for NGOs, and the Global Humanitarian

Platform “Principles of Partnership.”36 Moreover, WV maintains official work relations

with the World Health Organization (WHO), has advisor status with the United

Nations, and is the largest distributor of food for the World Nourishing Program of

the United Nations World Food Programme.37

Fundraising: Methods and Techniques

Fundraising is an essential component for the functioning of any NGO. Utilizing

appropriate and effective fundraising methods and techniques are required to

ensure that needed financial support is both obtained and maintained. In order to

attract dependable financing, an organization must first establish “a set of attitudes,

a disposition of mind and message to bring all prospects and supporters…to a

34

“Core Values” (World Vision International, n.d.),

http://www.wvi.org/wvi/wviweb.nsf/maindocs/7A0A54FD44BC11C38825737500737C8A?opendocument (last

accessed 22 December 2011). 35

Appendix A. 36

“World Vision International 2009 Review,” 19. 37

“World Vision," Economy-point.org, http://www.economypoint.org/w/world-vision.html, last modified 13

July 2011, (last accessed 22 December 2011).

12

common purpose.”38 For FBOs in particular, the difficulty lies in its ability to do two

things: use its religious beliefs as a converging force that attracts donor support, and

to build an effective organizational strategy to match.39 It has been argued that if

FBOs were to combine an audience-based strategy with that of a beliefs strategy,

they would likely be more powerful than if they worked within any single

approach.40 This may help to explain why organizations such as World Vision

International and Islamic Relief Worldwide have and continue to be so widely

accepted and successful within the international NGO community.

Both World Vision International and Islamic Relief Worldwide are faith-based

development organizations that mobilize both the ‘faithful’ as well as more secular

audiences in support of the poor and vulnerable. These organizations fund and

manage programs that tackle poverty, social exclusion and disaster relief.41 For both

of these organizations, faith inspires everything that they do, or at least is meant to

in principle. These organizations use religious concepts, derived from guidelines

and rules set out in religious discourse, to guide the structuring of their

organization.42 On one hand, many have argued that if they were to play down

some of these religious aspects, their support might be enhanced. Based on this,

many critics pressure these organizations to “tone down the ‘faith talk’.”43 However,

others have argued that this opinion “ignores the reality of individual preferences.”44

For many religion may be a deterrent, but for others “religious identity may be a

strong attraction [and could] foster long-term loyalty.”45 Moreover, after proving to

38

Redmond Mullin, “Fundraising in civil society,” International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector

Marketing 1, no. 2 (April 1996): 157, http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/nvsm.6090010209 (last accessed 22

December 2011). 39

Joe Saxton, “Strategies for competitive advantage in nonprofit organisations,” International Journal of

Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing 1, no. 1 (January 1996): 56,

http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/nvsm.6090010108 (last accessed 22 December 2011). 40

Ibid. 41

Kroessin, Mapping UK Muslim development NGOs, 4. 42

Ibid., 3. 43

Jeavons and Basinger, “Developing faithful and generous donors,” 111. 44

Ibid. 45

Ibid.

13

be credible and effective at what they do, more secular donors may eventually

become motivated to support the organization as well.46 This is a posture taken by

both World Vision International and Islamic Relief Worldwide. Although selective

about when and where they decide to use the ‘faith talk,’ these organizations do

anything but hide from where their ‘raison d’être’ and value systems are derived.

For FBOs, fundraising can be seen as a sort of ministry and an opportunity to

communicate how their religious values are integrated with organizational actions,

programs and relationships.47 In seeking to expand their scope of influence and

donor appeal, both WV and IR have adopted a type of two-fold identity, religious

and humanitarian (on an international level). This dual identity allows them to gain

trust and financial support from the religious community as well as the greater

international community.48 Both of these identities are implicitly and explicitly

communicated through their formal fundraising efforts and actions, all with the goal

of strengthening and expanding donor support.

Islamic Relief Worldwide

By utilizing its religious identity, Islamic Relief has been particularly successful in

creating successful fundraising campaigns with significant religious appeal. For

example, IR has integrated the fulfillment of many social-religious duties in Islam

such as zakat, sadaqa, waqf and qurbani49 into Western-style fundraising mechanisms

(i.e. online donations, sponsorship programming, etc.), and fulfillment of these

duties have become a major source of their financial support.50 Islamic Relief collects

a large majority of its annual operating budget of 32 million pounds sterling through

46

Ibid. 47

Ibid., 114. 48


Qurbani is the money which makes the distribution of sacrificed meat on the occasion of the annual id al-

adha or id al-kabir possible. 50

Abuarqub and Philips, “A Brief History of Humanitarianism in the Muslim World,” 9.

14

zakat donations. 51 Allocated by donor preference, about 70 percent of zakat funds are

spent on overseas relief and 30 percent is used for operations in the UK.52 Islamic

Relief encourages the giving of zakat throughout their advertising campaigns,

particularly in their mailings and on their website. On the UK website, IR calls

believers to give by stating “Allah blesses us with wealth; it is therefore our duty to

give some of this back to those most needy, which purifies the rest of our wealth. As

one of the five pillars of Islam, it is an obligation upon all believing Muslims.”53 This

information is found under the heading “Zakat Made Easy,” providing a link to a

zakat calculator that informs potential donors about how much he/she should give.54

In addition to this, since the 1990s IR has offered Waqf bonds to donors at a unit cost

of EUR 1, 300, allowing the donor to choose the project(s) towards which they want

the money to be allocated.55 About 80 percent of the profits are spent on the

beneficiaries; 10 percent is reinvested; and 10 percent is applied towards

administrative costs.

Comparable to Christian FBOs in their efforts to increase fundraising efforts during

important religious holidays such as Christmas and Lent, Islamic Relief focuses

many of their fundraising campaigns around religious celebrations such as Ramadan

and Eid, collecting of both zakat, Zakat al-fitr (fitr =breaking of the fast) or fitrah, and

Kourban (a sacrificial meat following the end of Ramadan).56 Donors are encouraged

out of a religious duty to donate a particular amount (depending on the country)

each year to enable disadvantaged Muslims to participate in the celebrations of these

important occasions along with the millions of more fortunate Muslims across the

51

Islamic Relief Worldwide (IR), 2008 Global Accountability Report: Accountability Profile (One World Trust,

2008). 52

Jonathan Benthall, “Financial Worship: The Quaranic Injunction to Almsgiving,” The Journal of the Royal

Anthropoligical Institute 5, no. 1 (March 1999): 32, www.jstor.org/stable/2660961 (accessed 17 November

2011) 53

“Zakat made easy,” (Islamic Relief, n.d.), http://www.islamic-relief.org.uk/Zakat.aspx (last accessed 22

December 2011). 54

Ibid. 55

Ndiaye, Islamic Charities in Switzerland and the Practice of Zakat, 14. 56

Alterman, Understanding Islamic charities, 6.

15

world.57 Providing others with the opportunity to fulfill their religious duties is a

significant part of IR fundraising efforts and has significant appeal to their religious

counterparts.

Although it is often argued that recipients of zakat should be Muslim, "the growth of

the mass media and organized relief agencies,” have caused some Islamic scholars to

rule that it is permissible, and indeed desirable, to spend zakat funds wherever the

need is greatest, thus allowing IR’s international humanitarian activities to expand.58

Able to extend its programming to wherever the need is greatest has made it

possible for IR to further embrace a more international humanitarian identity.59 With

an undeniable ‘Westernized’ approach to fundraising, IR takes part in fund-raising

campaigns that are distributed to a variety of different communities. Some of these

fundraising campaigns include: mass mailing appeals (in Switzerland, IR sends out

60,000 letters asking for donations, of which ten percent receive a positive

response),60 radio advertisements, telemarketing, ad hoc campaigns for specific

emergencies, emotion-provoking poster campaigns, internet adverts with access to

online donation portals, and local charity events.61 When compared to an

organization such as World Vision International, Islamic Relief spends significantly

less of their total revenue on these types of fundraising activities. According to the

2008 IRS 990 tax form from both organizations, Islamic Relief spent 3.66% of their

total expenditure on fundraising efforts, whereas World Vision International spent

7.54%.62

57

“About Qurbani,” (Islamic Relief Worldwide, n.d.), http://www.islamic-relief.com/seasonal/qurbani/About-

Qurbani.aspx (last accessed 22 December 2011). 58

Benthall, “Financial Worship: The Quaranic Injunction to Almsgiving,” 32. 59



Bruno De Cordier, “Faith-based aid, globalisation and the humanitarian frontline: an analysis of Western-

based Muslim aid organisations,” Disasters 33, no. 4 (October 2009): 613, http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1467-

7717.2008.01090.x. (last accessed 17 November 2011) 62

World Vision Tax Form for the 2008 Tax Year (2009 Fiscal Year):

http://www.worldvision.org/content.nsf/about/2008-990?Open&lpos=lft_txt_2009-IRS-Form-990; Islamic

Relief Worldwide Tax Form: http://www.islamicreliefusa.org/about-us/annual-reports-and-financials (both last

accessed 17 November 2011).

16

When asked about the cost of their fundraising efforts, Soraya Guerroum, Project

Coordinator at Islamic Relief Switzerland stated, “it would be unethical to spend

more than the very minimum necessary.”63 When asked if IR fundraised via

televised appeals, Ms. Guerroum explained that this was not within IR’s budget, and

that such campaigns were viewed as too pricey to be part of IR’s fundraising

campaigns.64 When asked if the majority of fundraising efforts were targeted

towards the Muslim community, Ms. Guerroum explained that although most of

their fundraising efforts concentrated on Muslim populations, IR does reach out to

non-Muslim populations through certain public fundraising events, such as their

disaster relief projects, as well as more general campaigns, for example, their 2010

campaign to address hunger in Africa. Non-Muslim audiences are also approached

through mailing campaigns, telemarketing and radio commercials.65 When asked for

her perception, Ms. Guerroum stated that an increasing number of non-Muslim

donors have become supportive as the organization has grown and become a more

visible and active player within the field of international development.66

The promotion of its international humanitarian role through fundraising has

assisted IR in creating an identity that is not exclusively religious, helping to expand

its donor base. This is demonstrated in IR’s participation in fundraising campaigns

with organizations like Oxfam, and Save the Children, which was launched by the

London daily newspaper The Independent. This campaign stressed that IR distributed

aid to all communities without distinction, benefiting Muslims but also others. As a

result, IR was presented in the British press as working for “the deprived of all races

and all religions.”67 When approached about the seemingly high concentration of

IR’s programs being placed in largely Muslim areas, the director of IR Switzerland,

63

See Appendix B. 64

Ibid. 65

Ibid. 66

Ibid. 67

Benthall, The charitable crescent, 78.

17

Jamel Krafess insisted that the organization’s religious orientation did not provide

the prime motivation for particular programs, and that having most of IR's programs

taking place in the Muslim world was merely “a coincidence,” due to the large

numbers of crises that have erupted in the Muslim world in recent years.68

World Vision International

With total revenue of almost US $2.6 billion raised in cash and gifts-in-kind, World

Vision International has become a leader in international fundraising.69 When it

comes to particular fundraising methods and techniques, there really is nothing that

World Vision has not tried. Whether it be TV commercials, telethons and segments;

informational DVDs; radio, newspaper and magazine advertisements; mailings;

door-to-door campaigns; auctions; and other charity-oriented events and activities,

there are very few individuals – at least in the West – who haven’t been exposed to

World Vision’s fundraising efforts.

In a variety of ways, World Vision seeks to engage donors in activities that raise both

money and awareness. WV organizes events such as voluntary 30-Hour and 40-

Hour Famines, were teenagers collect financial pledges from friends and family and

go without food for 30-40 hours. The activity is used to educate both participants

and donors about poverty, and collect donations to support WV programs that seek

to address related issues. Moreover, WV encourages donors and volunteers to create

their own fundraising campaigns to collect money for the organization by adhering

to a few specific WV guidelines.70 They even publish their own magazine called

‘Global Future,’ a publication on human development that provides its 10,000

subscribers with challenging insights on issues that affect people living in poverty

68


“World Vision International 2009 Review.” 70

“Ideas & resources for your event” (World Vision UK, n.d.),

http://www.worldvision.org.uk/server.php?show=nav.2317 (last accessed 22 December 2011).

18

and oppression. Some of their celebrity contributors are people such as: Jeffery

Sachs, Vandana Shiva, James Wolfensohn and Bishop Desmond Tutu.71

Efforts to diversify fundraising methods have been made by World Vision, Islamic

Relief and other NGOs in an effort to keep up with the ever-increasing and evolving

fundraising channels that are being used today. Dr. Marc-André Pradervand,

Marketing Director of World Vision Switzerland, commented on this by saying:

In earlier years we could raise funds through few channels like TV and print.

Today our audience uses many channels at the same time (for example

mobile, internet, TV) and the whole social media is leading to a paradigm

shift in fundraising now which we are still right in the middle of.

In regards to fundraising and advertisement, World Vision – like Islamic Relief -

strives to find balance between promoting its religious identity with its more secular

international humanitarian one. Like Islamic Relief Worldwide, World Vision is not

affiliated with a specific religious institution or religious denomination; however,

Christianity remains incorporated in everything that they do. In a way similar to

IR’s use of the religious calendar to enhance fundraising campaigns,72 WV utilizes

religious celebrations, namely Christmas, to enhance their funding appeal.73 For

Christian organizations it may be seen as an advantage that celebrations such as

Christmas and Easter have taken on both a religious as well as secular significance.

These holidays - in the Western world - tend to promote the act of giving and may

encourage individuals to give, regardless of whether or not they are religious.

Conversely holidays such as Ramadan and Eid remain exclusively Islamic in nature.

Unlike Islamic Relief’s approach to almsgiving, World Vision does not seem to

71

“World Vision Overview: hope for the most vulnerable” (World Vision, n.d.), 19,

http://www.wvi.org/wvi/wviweb.nsf/webmaindocs/815C7F166CA2113088257421007328D1?OpenDocument.

(accessed 17 November 2011) 72

“Ramadan guide: the blessed month of Ramadan” (Islamic Relief Worldwide, n.d.), http://www.islamic-

relief.com/ramadan/ramadan-guide.aspx (last accessed 22 December 2011). 73

“Provide milk, cheese and more, give a goat today” (World Vision, n.d.),

http://www.worldvision.org/content.nsf/pages/gift-catalog-display-search-

holidays?Open&datcode=goat&campaign=10983212&cmp=BAC-10983212 (accessed 30 November 2011).

19

directly address the religious obligation to give. The act of ‘tithing’ (a form Christian

stewardship) for World Vision International is not something that is included or

used to promote donations in fundraising campaigns, unlike the use of zakat in IR’s

fundraising efforts. In fact, it was difficult to even find information pertaining to

tithing in WV’s materials and resources. In contrast, IR talks about zakat repeatedly

throughout their resources and is heavily relied on for donations.

The prominence of Christian discourse being included in fundraising campaigns is

largely dependent on the fundraising position and approach for each particular WV

country office. Unlike IR, World Vision allows for significant diversity in the way

each country office approaches fundraising. After reviewing many of their national

websites and talking to World Vision staff, it became apparent that fundraising and

the way World Vision advertised was tailored to compliment a particular country’s

donating ‘culture.’ When asked about the approach used in Switzerland, Dr.

Pradervand explained:

Our main target group is women from 30-55 years. We do not differentiate

between Christian and secular because the Christian (evangelical) population

is very small in Switzerland… [in fundraising campaigns] we mainly use the

concept that we are trustworthy and good stewards of the money that is given

to us [instead of using religious concepts]. This concept is also understood in

a secular context in Switzerland. Giving in Switzerland belongs to the Swiss

culture and is viewed in our society as an act of solidarity with others in

need… In Swiss culture you have to be very ‘low key’ when you talk about

planned giving.74

Although the Canadian and US offices of World Vision declined to comment on this,

the difference is clearly visible when viewing the different country websites. The

World Vision US website provided many more options on how individuals could

donate or become more actively involved in World Vision activities. Unlike the

Swiss website, the US website had direct links for making corporate donations and

planned giving options as well as donating stock and matching gifts. Other listed

74

Appendix B.

20

ways to give were: to sponsor a child; provide emergency aid; give where most

needed; microfinance initiatives; monthly giving; and gifts that multiply.75 For

Switzerland, the options listed were less expansive, including: parrainages; projets

ciblés; aide urgente et aux catastrophe; and thèmes spécialisés (sponsoring; clearly

targeted projects; emergency assistance and disaster relief; and specialized topics).76

Beyond areas pertaining to advertising and fundraising, religious identity and

emphasis greatly varies between national offices of World Vision. This is

demonstrated through the different requirements and expectations of hired staff

from country office to country office. For instance, for World Vision staff in the

United States, “Christian faith is a prerequisite for employment and requires staff to

agree with WV’s statement of faith and Apostles Creed:”77

The status of World Vision U.S. as an equal opportunity employer does not

prevent the organization from hiring staff based on their religious beliefs, so

that all staff share the same religious commitment… World Vision U.S. has

the right to, and does, hire only candidates who agree with World Vision’s

Statement of Faith and/or the Apostles' Creed.78

However, in Switzerland, Dr. Pradervand explained,

In Switzerland you do not have to agree to a statement of faith or the

Apostle’s Creed like in the USA to join our staff. People who want to work

for World Vision Switzerland are asked in the interview if they share the

values of our mission statement.

By contrast, Islamic Relief does not require applicants to agree with to or sign any

sort of declaration and has made this very clear on their UK website which states:

75

“Ways to give, a gift that’s too big for a box and a bowl!” (World Vision, n.d.),

http://donate.worldvision.org/OA_HTML/xxwv2ibeCCtpSctDspRte.jsp?a=b (accessed 17 November 2011). 76

“World Vision, un monde meilleur pour les enfants” (World Vision France, n.d.),

https://ssl.worldvision.ch/fr/formulaires-de-dons/dons/ (accessed 17 November 2011). 77

“Christian Commitment” (World Vision USA, n.d.), http://www.worldvision.org/content.nsf/about/hr-faith

(accessed 17 November 2011). 78

Ibid.

21

We will not discriminate unfairly on the grounds of an applicant’s gender,

race, skin colour, nationality or ethnic origin, level of physical ability,

religious belief or lack of it, marital status, responsibility for dependants, age,

appearance or membership of a trade union.79

The same statement is found on the IR US website80 as well as the IR Switzerland

website: there is no variation between requirements of a religious nature for

potential applicants.

By adapting to different cultures and belief systems, World Vision may have allowed

for a broader public appeal, however, it has definitely made the structure of the

organization quite complex. However, existing within an increasingly globalized

world, it has been very important – if not essential – for FBOs to adapt and - perhaps

at times - compromise in the way FBOs act in an effort to be recognized and included

by the international development community. In this way, both organizations have

become signatories and adherents to a number of international codes of conduct,

such as the ICRC Code of Conduct,81 as well as a number of monitoring organizations

such as the Charity Commission in the UK. Ms. Guerroum, of the IR office in

Geneva, felt that these efforts were very important for their institutional donors, but

significantly less important for their individual donors and was simply viewed as a

necessary requirement for any international development organization to be taken

seriously.82

Child Sponsorship

A fundraising priority for both organizations has been child sponsorship and

providing assistance to children, particularly orphans. This is an issue area that has 79

“Guidelines for Applicants” (Islamic Relief Human Resources, n.d.), http://www.islamic-

relief.org.uk/uploads/documents/Guidelines%20for%20Applicants.pdf (last accessed 22 December 2011). 80

“Career Opportunities” (Islamic Relief USA, n.d.), http://www.irusa.org/careers/ (last accessed 22 December

2011). 81

Appendix A. 82

See Appendix B.

22

a tremendous amount of religious as well as international humanitarian appeal and

has become an area in which both organizations have become quite specialized. For

World Vision, helping children is the main source of inspiration for all that they do

and comes from its Christian foundations. In the Christian faith, caring for children

is extremely important: “Behold, children are a heritage from the LORD, the fruit of

the womb, a reward... Blessed is the man who fills his quiver with them!” (Psalms

127:3-4 ESV). As stated in their 2009 review, WV President and CEO Kevin Jenkins

explained: "World Vision focuses it relief, development and advocacy work on a

single, profound goal - the joy of positive transformation in a child's life. World

Visions sponsorship program supports over 3.8 million children in 1,600 locations.”83

World Vision’s publicity materials describe child sponsorship as a humanitarian

connection that manifests [God’s] transcendent love for a stranger. 84 Child

sponsorship has proven to be a hugely successful way of attracting funds, as it tends

to forge deeper bonds between the donor and the organization. 85

In the same way, Islamic Relief Worldwide’s sponsorship program has also been

extremely successful, supporting 27,000 orphans in over ten different countries. Just

like in Christianity, supporting children in Islam is paramount, particularly because

Muhammad was an orphan himself. With several passages in the Qur’an

mentioning the responsibility to care for orphans (93:9, 107:2, among others.), a

significant portion of the budget for many Islamic FBOs (often up to 50% of the

budget) is allocated to helping children.86

For both WV and IR, focusing on children has allowed these organizations to focus

83

“World Vision International 2009 Review.” 84

Erica Bornstein, “Child Sponsorship, Evangelism, and Belonging in the Work of World Vision Zimbabwe,”

American Ethnologist 28, no. 3 (August 2001): 598, http://doi.wiley.com/10.1525/ae.2001.28.3.595 (last

accessed 17 November 2011). 85

N. Kirmani and A. A. Khan, “Does Faith Matter: An Examination of Islamic Relief’s Work with Refugees

and Internally Displaced Persons,” Refugee Survey Quarterly 27, no. 2 (January 2008): 49,

http://rsq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/doi/10.1093/rsq/hdn032 (last accessed November 17, 2011). 86

Abdel-Rahman Ghandour, Jihad humanitaire: en u te sur les ONG islamiques (Paris: Flammarion, 2002),

45.

23

their efforts on an area that joins their religious donor population with their more

secular/humanitarian audience. Raising funds to help children is often done with a

greater amount of ease as children are often seen “to serve the international

humanitarian community as embodiments of basic goodness and symbols of world

harmony, as sufferers, as seers of truth, as ambassadors of peace, and as

embodiments of the future.”87

Responding to Changes and Challenges

Too Religious, Not Religious Enough

As many FBO have learned, there is a delicate balance between being seen as too

religious or not religious enough. For many FBOs, the greatest challenge is how to

maintain a clear identity and purpose while addressing the variety of conflicting

criticisms and demands of the various donors and stakeholders.88 In the professional

world of NGOs, where religion can be viewed as both negative and positive, efforts

to find middle ground often run the risk of FBOs becoming more secular and

increasingly less ‘faith-based.’ Both Islamic Relief and World Vision have struggled

to adapt to these push and pull factors, seeking to attract and maintain both religious

and secular donor support.

After 9/11, Islamic charitable organizations were faced with a number of new

challenges. One important development was the anti-terrorist financing measures

issued by the United States Administration in 2001. These measures allowed for the

freezing of assets of many US-based Muslim organizations while their staff,

programs and operation practices underwent investigation by US government for

possible terrorist participation, affiliation or financing. As a direct result, many

87

Bornstein, “Child Sponsorship, Evangelism, and Belonging in the Work of World Vision Zimbabwe,” 601. 88

Rick James, What is Distinctive About FBOs? How European FBOs define and operationalise their faith,

Praxis Paper 22 (INTRAC, February 2009), 3.

24

programs and beneficiaries of these organizations suffered greatly, both within the

US and internationally.89 According to a presentation given in Qatar in February

2006, 18 Islamic NGOs were operating in Chad before 9/11, and in 2006 there were

only five, all of them funded from the Gulf.90 It has been estimated that this has

resulted in nearly 500 orphans being abandoned by Islamic charities that were no

longer able to support them.91

In response to new fears that many Islamic NGOs were supporting, or somehow

affiliated with, terrorist groups, many NGOs – such as IR - took measures to become

more transparent, more professional, while cutting funding to support religious

institutions (i.e. Mosques), and downplaying some of their religious symbols. But

many of these efforts have been criticized by certain Muslim scholars like the Sheik

Omar Bakri Mohammed who warned, "nous sommes des organismes caritatifs et ne

nous mêlons ni de politique ni de jihad... Il est temps de prendre conscience du

danger que constitute cette fausse naïveté, fruit d'une grande ignorance et d'une

mentalité laïque."92 Because of this, Islamic Relief has been forced to make difficult

decisions concerning how to approach these contradicting concerns.

In a similar way, World Vision has struggled to maintain its evangelical roots while

at the same time obtaining universal appeal. Particularly following accusations of

inappropriate proselytizing in Cambodia in the 1980s, World Vision has had to

downplay its evangelical character and take on a more neutral tone both in their

modes of fundraising and advertisement, as well as how they behave in the field. 93

On the other hand, World Vision has also received criticism for becoming ‘too

89

Jonathan Benthall, “L’humanitarisme islamique,” Culture & Conflits, no. 60 (2005): 6–7. 90

Alterman, Understanding Islamic charities, 9. 91

Ibid. 92

Ghandour, Jihad humanitaire, 227. “…we are, by nature, a charitable organization and we don’t meddle in

politics or the jihad… It is important to realize that this naive belief carries many risks, since it stems from sheer

ignorance and a secular mentality.” Translation into English by Nathalie Arcand. 93

Abdel-Rahman Ghandour, “Humanitarianism, Islam and the West: Contest or cooperation?” (Humanitarian

Practice Network, December 2003), http://www.odihpn.org/report.asp?ID=2582 (accessed 17 November 2011)

25

secular.’ When asked about their relationships with other Christian organizations

and churches, Dr. Pradervand said, “For many Christian organizations and churches

we are seen as too professional and because of that some do not think that we are

enough Christian.”94

Conclusion

Obtaining the necessary financial support in order to effectively run international

developmental programs is an extremely arduous and complicated task. With the

multitude of NGOs in existence, competition is great and resources are always

limited. Fundraising today requires organizations to be both professional and

creative, continuously searching for innovative and effective ways to encourage

further donor support. As discussed, working within a religious context, may give

FBOs an advantage in that their initial target audience may be clearer than for other

more secular charitable organizations, however, as discussed, this does not make the

task of fundraising any less complicated. In order to acquire necessary funding,

International FBOs like World Vision International and Islamic Relief Worldwide,

not only have to appeal to donors within their specific religious traditions, but must

also attract support on a more international plane. In this way, these organizations

constantly strive to find a balance between professionalism, religiosity, and

effectiveness in all that they do. In similar ways, WV and IR have effectively

incorporated religious discourse and tradition in a number of their fundraising

efforts, using their religious identity to ensure the confidence and support from

many related religious communities. Moreover, these organizations have also

sought to embrace a more humanitarian identity, putting a greater focus on gaining

international institutional recognition that provides their organizations with an

increased level of credibility and access to more diverse funding alternatives.

94

See Appendix B.

26

In recent years, FBOs have had to deal with a number of changes and challenges

directly affecting their work. Particularly for Islamic charities, 9/11 has presented a

number of new obstacles to overcome, especially in the area of funding. Moreover,

in an increasingly secular world, FBOs receive significant pressure to adapt their

religious identity and conform, without compromising their religious identity on

which these organizations were founded. Due to the lack of academic writing done

on FBOs, there remains great potential for additional research. It would be valuable

to further explore the idea of ‘cultural proximity,’ a doctrine stating that Muslims

FBOs are best equipped to help fellow Muslims,95 particularly as it pertains to

working in areas that have experienced war, often fuelled by religious or cultural

clashes.

Ashley Tedham

Candidate, Master in International Affairs, HEID

[email protected]

95

Jonathan Benthall, “HPG Briefing: Humanitarianism, Islam and 11 September” (Overseas Development

Institute (ODI), July 2003), 4, http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=273&title=humanitarianism-

islam-11-september-911 (accessed November 17, 2011).

mailto:[email protected]

27

Appendix A

International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement Code of Conduct

1. The humanitarian imperative comes first.

2. Aid is given regardless of the race, creed or nationality of the recipients and

without adverse distinction of any kind. Aid priorities are calculated on the

basis of need alone.

3. Aid will not be used to further a particular political or religious standpoint.

4. We shall endeavour not to act as instruments of government foreign policy.

5. We shall respect culture and custom.

6. We shall attempt to build disaster response on local capacities.

7. Ways shall be found to involve programme beneficiaries in the management

of relief aid.

8. Relief aid must strive to reduce future vulnerabilities to disaster as well as

meeting basic needs.

9. We hold ourselves accountable to both those we seek to assist and those from

whom we accept resources.

10. In our information, publicity and advertising activities, we shall recognise

disaster victims as dignified humans, not hopeless objects.

“The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and Non-Governmental

Organisations (NGOs) in Disaster Relief” (ICRC, 2004),

http://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/64zahh.htm. (accessed 17 November 2011)

28

Appendix B

Interview Questions

Questions for Islamic Relief Worldwide

The following questions were answered by Soraya Guerroum (Project Coordinator)

in person during an informational interview at the Islamic Relief Office in Geneva,

Switzerland on April 21, 2011 at 10:00am. The following are notes that were taken

during the interview.

1. How have your fundraising methods/techniques changed/evolved over the last

ten years? Specifically after 9/11? ‘Chilling effect’ and going underground.

- Didn’t know

- Deflected question

- Spoke to lady at Institute but didn’t want to comment

- Not a lot of research done here.

2. Who are your main target groups and how do you appeal to both a secular and

Muslim audience? Are they approached differently? Where are your fundraising

efforts most concentrated?

- Information mail outs

- Telemarketing

- Events – Balexert

- Concentration on Muslims

- Religious information mailed only to Muslims

- Do not support Mosques but Mosques support IRW

3. How do you communicate Muslim values through fundraising? What are some

of the core concepts or central words that are used (used by a Muslim culture)?

- Look at material she gave me

4. How does IRW view and approach Zakat, how do you speak about giving?

- Necessary but not extremist in this opinion

- Zakat is used as the donor wishes and must be used within one year

5. Where do most of your donations come from? Is it mostly from Muslim

communities?

- Most come from Muslims

29

- Many ‘planned givers’ /committed donors

- Donors decide where their Zakat goes

6. Do you provide opportunities for donors to grow in their faith through giving to

IRW? Is there access to engaging resources and/or activities? Is this advertised, if

so, how?

- Able to visit orphans but must be organized with office in the country where the child

resides

- Around Ramadan

7. What is your relationship with mosques and other Muslim communities?

- Non-denominational

- No financial support given

8. Do you partner with different religious organizations, other than Muslim

organizations?

- More now than ever

- Important for gaining support from IOs

9. How does IRW approach topics such as AIDS and contraception?

- Would not comment

10. How much is spent on fundraising activities?

- Almost nothing.

- Very strict and minimal (“it would be unethical to spend more than the very

minimum necessary”)

- Angers donors

- No TV, Radio, External advertisement (outside of website and forums)

- Do find that many people ask them to not send material and do not want to be associated

with FBOs

- VERY linked to religious events/calendar

11. Do you think signing the DEC (Disasters Emergency Committee) and the IRC

(code of conduct) and ECHO (European Commission’s Humanitarian Office)

helped add creditability to your NGO?

- Very important for institutional donors, but not at all important to individual donors

- Adds to international ‘perceived’ credibility

30

12. How does the Muslim Charities Forum (2007) help with fundraising?

- No comment

13. Sponsorship programs for orphans, is there religious reasoning/text to motivate

Muslims to concentrate a portion of the fund here?

- Huge focus and something that bridges the opinion differences between donors

- Very popular and necessary

- Found throughout religious texts

- Mohammad was an orphan

14. Other than the website, what kinds of social media/marketing do you use to

fundraise?

- see other material/questions

Questions for World Vision International:

The following questions were answered over email by Dr. Marc-André Pradervand,

Marketing Director, World Vision (Switzerland). World Vision International offices

were contacted, but when asked to about answering questions for a research

assignment, they kindly declined. “We are grateful for your desire to research our

fundraising techniques. Unfortunately, due to limited resources and in an effort to be good

stewards of the funds entrusted to us by our faithful donors, we are unable to respond to

requests for assistance with academic research papers or projects. We apologize and hope you

understand our inability to assist with your request.” (Karen Davis, Donor Contact

Services, World Vision U.S.). World Vision Canada was also contacted and they had

initially agreed to comment, however, after the questions were sent they did not

respond, even after sending a couple of follow-up emails.

1. How have your fundraising methods/techniques changed/evolved over the last

ten years?

Yes. In earlier years we could raise funds through few channels like TV and print. Today our

audience uses many channels at the same time (for example mobile, internet, TV) and the

whole social media is leading to a paradigm shift in fundraising now which we are still right

in the middle of.

2. Who are your main target groups and how do you appeal to both a secular and

Christian audience? Are they approached differently?

31

Our main target group is women from 30-55 years. We do not differentiate between

Christian and secular because the Christian (evangelical) population is very small in

Switzerland. However, many Swiss belong to the official State Church (Protestant or

Catholic), but these do not need/want a special wording.

3. How do you communicate Christian values through fundraising? What are some

of the core concepts or central words that are used (used by a Christian culture)?

We mainly use the concept that we are trustworthy and good stewards of the money that is

given to us. This concept is also understood in a secular context in Switzerland.

4. How does World Vision view and approach 'stewardship,' how do you speak

about giving? Is it view by World Vision as a duty or obligation, or more of a

grateful response?

See answer above.Giving in Switzerland belongs to the Swiss culture and is viewed in our

society as an act of solidarity with others in need.

5. How do you, if so, encourage planned giving?

This is something we do not do yet systematically in our office (we have a brochure that you

can order online). In the Swiss culture you have to be very "low key" when you talk about

planned giving.

6. Where do most of your donations come from? Is it mostly from Christian

communities?

No, most of our donations come from single persons and families, and some of them are

Christians (but we do not know which ones)

7. Do you provide opportunities for donors to grow in their faith through giving to

World Vision? Is there access to engaging resources and/or activities? Is this

advertised, if so, how?

No.

8. What is your relationship with various churches and other Christian

communities?

We are by far the largest Christian organization in Switzerland (together with the Salvation

Army) and we are in the top 10 of all NGO's in Switzerland. For many Christian

organizations and churches we are seen as too professional and because of that some do not

32

think that we are enough Christian. On the other side we have many (State) churches that

donate to projects of World Vision Switzerland.

9. Do you partner with different religious organizations, other than Christian

organizations?

No, not in Switzerland.

10. How does World Vision approach topics such as AIDS and contraception?

This happens in our project work in the field and I do not have enough knowledge to answer

this question in detail.

ashley tedham working papers...

Documents