asexual reproduction some organisms can create “offspring” without having egg and sperm bacteria...
TRANSCRIPT
Asexual Reproduction
Some organisms can create “offspring” without having egg and sperm
Bacteria – Binary Fission (no nucleus)
Animals – Asexual Reproduction (natural cloning)
Examples of asexual reproduction(animals)
• Hydra budding (this is an animal)
• Some sponges
• Planaria
• Starfish
Asexual Reproduction and Longevity
• Swedish scientists claim:
• Animals that reproduce asexually have exceptionally good health and can delay aging.
• Sea squirts can activate the enzyme telomerase which protects the DNA
– this enzyme is also more active in people who reach a great (very old) age.
Sexual Reproduction(most animals, many plants)
• Accomplished when an organism (of a species) creates a cell with half the number of chromosomes (haploid)
• Haploid in humans is 23 chromosomes. This cell is either an EGG or a SPERM
• This cell can only create new life if joined to another gamete
Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction
DNA from how many parents?
Offspring
Identical?
Example
species
Asexual
Sexual
Chromosome Terms
• Diploid: two of each type of chromosome (one from each parent)
• Haploid: one of each chromosome
• Most human cells are Diploid
–We have 46 chromosomes
•22 pairs of body chromosomes
•2 sex chromosomes (XX or XY)
• What would happen if we made Egg and Sperm cells through mitosis?– Fertilized egg would have 92 chromosomes!
• What do we have to do when forming these cells?
–Divide the DNA in half!
Major differences between Mitosis and Meiosis
• one cell goes through two divisions to make a total of 4 cells
• cells created at the end are different from the cell they came from because of crossing over
Meiosis
• After the first division, cells are haploid and no longer diploid
• Happens only in reproductive cells
WHY IS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION BENEFICIAL? Genetic Variation:
- diversity between individuals – survival
DIVERSITY IS ACHIEVED BY
1. combining genes from two individuals
2. swapping alleles with a homologous chromosome prior to creating the haploid cell (crossing over)
Meiosis I: 1st division
1.Homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads
2.Crossing over occurs: homologous chromosomes swap info (blonde allele for brown allele)
Meiosis I: 1st division
Similar steps to mitosis but:
3. Cells end up haploid but chromosomes are still duplicated
Meiosis II: 2nd division
Just like mitosis
- each cell from Meiosis 1 divides
- Creates 4 cells total
- all are different because of crossing over - all have ½ the original chromosomes
Compare and Contrast Mitosis and Meiosis
(see handout)
Humans and Meiosis
• Germ Cell – any biological cell that gives rise to the
gametes of an organism that reproduces sexually.
– Found in the gonads (organs that make gametes) Testis (male) Ovary (female)
Spermatogenesis
• Germ cell is called Spermatogonium – 2N– Makes sperm (1N) through meiosis– Makes additional spermatogonia (2N) through
mitosis
– Meiosis I• Reduces chromosome number from 2N 1N• BUT.. Still have duplicated chromosomes
– Meiosis II• Splits sister chromatids each chromatid becomes a
chromosome
Oogenesis
• Asymmetrical cell division leads to formation of the ovum and 3 polar bodies
• Polar bodies eventually disintegrate.
Karyotype
• Photomicrograph (microscopic picture) of chromosomes in a normal dividing cell
– Organized based on size of the chromosome and position of the centromere.
– Grouped by homologous pairs. Sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair
• Usually made from chromosomes in prophase (duplicated)
Types of Chromosomes
• Sex chromosomes– Determine the gender of an organism and
may also carry other genes
• X or Y XX XY
• Autosomes– All other chromosomes (pairs 1-22)
Chromosomal Mutations
Mutation
a change in the nucleotide-base sequence of a gene or DNA molecule.
Possible Effects:
Germ cell mutations - occur in gametes
Do not affect the organism, but affect the offspring.
Somatic cell mutations – affect the body cells (but not gametes) and do affect the organism.
Classification of Mutations
Lethal mutations– Cause death, often before birth
Beneficial mutations– Mutations which provide higher survivability or
reproducibility
Silent mutations– neither harmful nor beneficial
Chromosomal vs. Gene Mutations
• Chromosomal Mutations – Involve changes in the structure of a chromosome or the
loss or gain of a chromosome.– Involve more than one gene– Generally seen in a karyotype
• Gene mutations – WE WILL STUDY LATER– The addition or removal of a single nucleotide within a
single gene– AKA point mutation.
Karyotyping and Chromosomal Mutations
• Karyotypes ONLY IDENTIFY chromosomal mutations
– Can involve losing or gaining a “whole” or part of a chromosome.
Chromosome Mutations• Deletion
– Loss of a piece of chromosome due to breakage (genetic information is missing)
• Non-disjunction – non-separation of homologues or sister chromatids
Chromosomal Diseases
• Learn about these at the following site
• http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/traits/
• Know the karyotype of:– Down syndrome (one extra chromosome 21) – Turner syndrome XO, – Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
Questions to Answer
• What is the difference between monosomy and trisomy? How can both occur “at the same time”?– Monosomy (missing one chromosome)
• Example: in Turner syndrome you have only ONE X chromosome and NO other sex chromosome
• In humans, that means you have 45 chromosomes and not 46
– Trisomy (one extra chromosome• Down’s syndrome – you have three of chrom. 21• Klinefelter syndrome : you have 2 X and 1 Y
Deletions
• What are two possible ways deletions can occur? – You can lose a whole chromosome
(monosomy) because of non-disjunction
– You can lose a part of a chromosome because the chromosome breaks (deletion)
Stem Cells
• Read article on Stem Cells. Be sure that you can answer all questions
Stem Cells
• have the ability to either divide again and again to create more of itself (exact copies), OR to differentiate into another type of cell
• . Because of their ability to develop into any cell type, they could potentially provide an unlimited source of adult cells, such as bone, muscle, liver, or blood cells.
Where can we find stem cells?
• An embryo– These cells are totipotent (morula) or
pleuripotent (gastrula)
• In areas of the body where “new cells” develop and differentiate (multipotent)– Bone marrow– Umbilical cord of newborn babies
Three types
• Totipotent– Occur during cleavage (first few hours after
fertilization)
• Pluripotent– One “step” differentiated– Can form many but not all cell types (most
researched currently for medical use)
• Multipotent– Bone marrow cells for all blood cells. Best
understood.
Stem Cell Technology
• Can we “grow an organ”?– NOT yet.
• We can grow tissue• We can put a stem cell in a tissue and the stem
cell will differentiate into that tissue• But…we cannot make an organ (or make people
walk) …YET
Stem Cell Controversy
• Controversy:– When the source of stem cells is embryonic,
there is controversy about “taking a life”• Is it a “ball of cells” or is it a “potential child”?
– Why not just use adult stem cells (multipotent)• Limitations of adult stem cells
– Bone marrow cells can only form cells found in bone and blood
– Umbilical cord blood – has cells that can be used only for blood diseases like leukemia.
Embryology- links to meiosis and stem cells
• A zygote is formed when egg and sperm unite
• When a zygote cell begins dividing, it is called an embryo (this term is used until the embryo is 8 weeks old
• Totipotent and pleuripotent stem cells come from embryos.
Fertilization
Egg and sperm join
Sperm cell breaks down but leaves the chromosomes
Zygote:
A Fertilized Egg
Zygote begins to divide (mitosis!)
2-cell stage 4-cell stage (Day 2)
8-cell stage
(Day 3)
Morula: solid ball of 10 to 30 cells (Day 4)
Blastula: Hollow, fluid filled ball of
cells;
(Day 5)
Cells continue to divide and start to
rearrange themselves
Still dividing, outer cells start to fold inward
GASTRULATION
More dividing, three distinct layers of cells are formed
Ectoderm (outer)
Nervous
System and
skin
Mesoderm (middle)
Muscle, skeleton
Dermis, Heart, Kidneys
Endoderm (inner)
Lining of digestive system
Gastrula (W3)
No G1 or G2 phases just M and S during cleavage
1. Are the egg and sperm haploid or diploid? What about the zygote?
HAPLOID. DIPLOID
2. What type of division is occurring to create a morula? A blastula? What term is used to describe the first divisions of the zygote?
MITOSIS, Again MITOSIS, CLEAVAGE
3. In which stage do you see definite differentiation? What causes this?
GASTRULA. Caused by specific “starter genes” being turned on (and then off at a later point)
4. Where would you find totipotent cells? MORULA
Pleuripotent cells? GASTRULA
Different view of previous slide
Other Important Terms:
• Gamete – a haploid reproductive cell that unites with another haploid
reproductive cell to form a zygote.
• Zygote - The cell that results from the union of gametes; also called a
fertilized egg
Fertilization – the union of a male and female gamete to form a zygote
• Embryo – an organism in the early stages of development . A developing
human is called an embryo from two weeks after conception until the end of
the eighth week.
• Differentiation – the structural and functional specialization of cells during an
organisms’s development
SEE NEXT PAGE FOR TWINS
Other Important Terms:
• Identical twins (monozygotic)- --
• - single egg fertilized by one sperm.
• Fertilized egg splits into two embryos
early in development.
• Most IT share the same placenta. (get
oxygen and nutrients from the mother
and get rid of wastes through the
placenta.)
• Usually in separate amniotic sacs. Fraternal twins (dizygotic) - Fraternal
twins develop when two eggs are fertilized by two
separate sperms. The fetuses have separate
placentas and amniotic sacs.