asas psikologi introduction of psychology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

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Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes


The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree

Biopsychology– Specializes in the

biological bases of behavior

Sensation, perception, learning and thinking– Experimental psychology

• Methodological study of sensing, perceiving, learning and thinking

– Cognitive psychology• Emphasis on higher

mental processes


The Subfields of Psychology

Understanding change and individual differences– Developmental

psychology• Changes in behavior

over the life span (womb to tomb)

– Personality psychology• Examines consistencies

in people’s behavior over time and traits that differentiate us from one another



Physical and mental health– Health psychology

• Explores relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

– Clinical psychology• Investigates diagnosis

and treatment of psychological disorders



Understanding our social networks– Social psychology

• Studies how people are affected by others

– Cross-cultural psychology

• Focuses on the similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups



New frontiers– Clinical neuropsychology

• Focuses on relationships between biological factors and psychological disorders

– Evolutionary psychology• Examines influence of

our genetic heritage and our behavior


Educating Psychologist

Doctoral Degrees– Ph.D. & Psy.D.

Master’s Degree Bachelor’s Degree


Psychology’s Roots Structuralism

– Focused on the basic building blocks of perception, consciousness, thinking, and emotions

– Introspection

Functionalism– Moved from structure to what

the mind does and how behavior functions

Gestalt Psychology– “the whole is different from

the sum of its parts”

Early History– Trephining– “hollow tubes”– Bumps on the head


Founding Mother’s of Psychology

Leta Stetter Hollingworth– Child development and

women’s issues Mary Calkins

– First female in the APA Karen Horney

– Social and cultural aspects to personality

June Etta Downey– Personality trait theorist

Anna Freud


Today’s Perspectives

Biological– Biological bases of

behavior Psychodynamic

– Behavioral influences of inner forces

Cognitive– How people think,

understand, and know about the world

Behavioral– Focus on

observable events

Humanistic– Free will– Natural tendency to

be in control of our lives


Psychology’s Key Issues

Nature versus nurture– How much of our behavior is

due to heredity and how much is due to environment?

Conscious versus unconscious– How much of our behavior is

produced by forces of which we are fully aware?

Observable behavior versus internal mental processes– Should psychology only focus

on what it can see?


Psychology’s Key Issues

Free will versus determinism– How much of behavior is

a result of free will? Individual differences

versus universal principles– How much of our

behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities?


Psychology’s Future

Increase in specialization

Focus on prevention Greater influence on

issues of public interest Increase in diversity


The Scientific Method

The approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest


Scientific Method: The Process

Identify Questions of Interest

Formulate an Explanation:

•Specify a theory

•Develop a hypothesis

Carry Out Research:

•Operationalize hypothesis

•Select a research method

•Collect data

•Analyze the data


Scientific Method: Developing Explanations

Theories– Broad explanations and

predictions concerning phenomena of interest

Hypothesis– A prediction stated in a

way that allows it to be tested


Scientific Method: Conducting Research

Operationalization– Process of translating a

hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed

Research–Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge


Research Methods

Archival research– Use of existing data in

order to test a hypothesis

Naturalistic observation– Observation of naturally occurring

behavior without intervention


Research Methods

Survey research– A sample of people are

asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, and attitudes in order to represent a larger population


Research Methods

Case study– An in-depth, intensive

investigation of an individual or small group of people


Research Methods

Variables– Behaviors, events, or

other characteristics that can change, or vary in some way

Correlational research– The relationship between

two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated”

– Ranges from +1 to -1– Correlation does not

mean “causation”


Research Methods

Experiment– The relationship between

two (or more) variables is investigated by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation


Experimental Research

Experimental manipulation– The change that an

experimenter deliberately produces in a situation

Treatment– The manipulation

implemented by the experimenter

Experimental group– Any group receiving a

treatment Control group

– A group that receives no treatment


Experimental Research

Independent variable– The variable that is

manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent variable– The variable that is

measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable


Experimental Research: Final Step

Random assignment to condition– Participants are assigned

to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone

Significant outcome– Use of statistical

procedures in order to determine whether or not differences between groups are large enough to be significant

Replication– Repetition of findings

using other procedures in other settings


Research Challenges: Ethics

Protection of participants from physical and mental harm

The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior

The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary

The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures prior to participation in the experiment

Informed consent

– Deception and debriefing


Research Challenges

Choosing participants who represent the scope of human behavior

Should animals be used in research?


Threats to Experiments

Experimental bias– Factors that distort how

the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment

• Experimenter expectations

• Participant expectations

Placebo– A false treatment, such

as a pill, “drug”, or other substance without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient


Becoming An Informed Consumer of Psychology

What was the purpose of the research?

How well was the study conducted?

Are the results presented fairly?

asas psikologi introduction of psychology

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