arvan - a non-ideal theory of justice

8/10/2019 Arvan - A Non-Ideal Theory of Justice

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A NON-IDEAL THEORY OF JUSTICE

By

Marcus Samuel Arvan

A D sser!a! "n Su#m !!e$ !" !%e Facul!y "& !%e

DE'ARTMENT OF 'HILOSO'HY

In 'ar! al Ful& llmen! "& !%e Re(u remen!sF"r !%e De)ree "&

DOCTOR OF 'HILOSO'HY

In !%e *ra$ua!e C"lle)e

THE UNI+ERSITY OF ARI,ONA

../


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THE UNI+ERSITY OF ARI,ONA *RADUATE COLLE*E

As mem#ers "& !%e D sser!a! "n C"mm !!ee0 1e cer! &y !%a! 1e %ave rea$ !%e$ sser!a! "n 2re2are$ #y Marcus Samuel Arvan

en! !le$ A N"n-I$eal T%e"ry "& Jus! ce

an$ rec"mmen$ !%a! ! #e acce2!e$ as &ul& ll n) !%e $ sser!a! "n re(u remen! &"r

!%e De)ree "& D"c!"r "& '% l"s"2%y

Da!e3 /4564./T%"mas C%r s! an"

Da!e3 /4564./*eral$ *aus

Da!e3 /4564./M c%ael * ll

Da!e3

Da!e3

F nal a22r"val an$ acce2!ance "& !% s $ sser!a! "n s c"n! n)en! u2"n !%ecan$ $a!e7s su#m ss "n "& !%e & nal c"2y "& !%e $ sser!a! "n !" !%e *ra$ua!eC"lle)e8

I %ere#y cer! &y !%a! I %ave rea$ !% s $ sser!a! "n 2re2are$ un$er my $ rec! "nan$ rec"mmen$ !%a! ! #e acce2!e$ as &ul& ll n) !%e $ sser!a! "n re(u remen!8

Da!e3 /4564./D sser!a! "n D rec!"r3 T%"mas C%r s! an"


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STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

T% s $ sser!a! "n %as #een su#m !!e$ n 2ar! al &ul& llmen! "& !%ere(u remen!s &"r an a$vance$ $e)ree a! T%e Un vers !y "& Ar 9"na an$ s$e2"s !e$ n !%e Un vers !y L #rary !" #e ma$e ava la#le !" #"rr"1ers un$er !%e

rules "& !%e L #rary8Br e& (u"!a! "ns &r"m !% s $ sser!a! "n are all"1a#le 1 !%"u! s2ec al

2erm ss "n0 2r"v $e$ !%a! accura!e ac:n"1le$)emen! "& s"urce s ma$e8Re(ues!s &"r 2erm ss "n &"r e;!en$e$ (u"!a! "n &r"m "r re2r"$uc! "n "& !% smanuscr 2! n 1%"le "r n 2ar! may #e )ran!e$ #y !%e au!%"r8

SI*NED3 Marcus Samuel Arvan


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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I !%an: my m"!%er0 &a!%er0 an$ #r"!%er &"r !%e r l"ve an$ su22"r!< T%"masC%r s! an" &"r % s )u $ance0 2a! ence0 an$ !%e less"ns I learne$ &r"m % m a#"u!

%"1 !" #e a #e!!er 2% l"s"2%er an$ c"llea)ue< *eral$ *aus &"r s%ar n) % sun$ers!an$ n) "& Ra1ls0 an$ &"r !%e m"un!a ns "& c"mmen!s %e 2r"v $e$ meC%a2!er 5?&"r !%e seven!%0 e )%!%0 an$ & &!een!% ! mes< Lee S%e2s: &"r "ur e;2er ence "n !% @"# mar:e!< C%r s Br"1n &"r #e n) a )""$ &r en$ !%r"u)%"u! )ra$ua!e sc%""l< myc"mmen!a!"rs Helena DeBres an$ Dav $ Rasmussen an$ au$ ence a! !%e ..Eas!ern D v s "n Mee! n) "& !%e Amer can '% l"s"2% cal Ass"c a! "n< au$ encesa! !%e R"c:y M"un!a n '% l"s"2%y C"n&erence an$ N"r!%1es!ern '% l"s"2%yC"n&erence &"r en$ur n) an early vers "n "& C%a2!er < Dan Denne!! &"r )e!! n)me s!ar!e$ "n !%e r"a$ "& 2% l"s"2%y0 &"r 1arn n) me a#"u! )ra$ua!e sc%""l0 an$&"r m2ar! n) !" me !%e &un$amen!als an$ "2! m s! c 2% l"s"2% cal "u!l"": !%a! I

%ave carr e$ 1 !% me ever s nce % s n!r"$uc!"ry 2% l"s"2%y class a! Tu&!s< J"%nHa1!%"rne &"r rem n$ n) me !%a! ser "us 2% l"s"2%y can an$ s%"ul$ #e &un! : C+&& ( !) R , *!) P&')('6, " + I !,T$ +&8 !) M+&!,' 8...................................................................122

2.3.2./. D "' &! % >/ : @+, ) !&') "" + P!& '('6! '+)....................12

2.3.2.(. D "' &! % >( : R "6+)"'* ) ""..............................................125 2.3.2. . D "' &! % > : P+6 ,!&' 8......................................................130

2.3.2. . D "' &! % > : R! '+)!,' 8 !) I) +&% ) ""......................131

2.3.2. .1. T$ P& " %6 '+) ') F!*+& + R! '+)!,' 8 !)

I) +&% ) "".........................................................................133

2.3.2. . D "' &! % > : C+%6+"' '+)....................................................134

2.3.2.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS ! C"#$%#&'(

CHAPTER 3: F ROM THE T WO P RINCIPLES OF N ON -I DEAL THEORY TO H IGHER -O RDER

H UMAN R IGHTS .....................................................................................1))

858 HUMAN R I*HTS AS R I*HTS FUNDAMENTAL TO THE E +ALUATION OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

8 8 ON THE IM'ORTANCE OF BRIN*IN* A NON-IDEAL THEORY OF JUSTICE TO BEAR ON HUMAN R I*HTS3 A BRIEF R E+IE= CHA'TERS 5 AND 8888888888888888888888888

8 8 F ROM THE T =O ' RINCI'LES OF NON-IDEAL THEORY TO A HI*HER -ORDER HUMAN R I*HT TO H A+E THE ' ROMOTION AND ' ROTECTION OF HUMAN R I*HTS CONFORM

TO THE T =O ' RINCI'LES OF NON-IDEAL THEORY 8888888888888888888888888888888888 868 FROM THE HI*HER -ORDER HUMAN R I*HT TO THE ' RESUM'TI+E 'RIORITY

OF >B ASIC? HUMAN R I*HTS O +ER OTHER HUMAN R I*HTS888888888888888888888888888 8 8 H O= THE HI*HER -ORDER HUMAN R I*HT ILLUMINATES >H ARD C ASES?88888888888888885 3. .1. T$ H %!) R'

4.2.1. A. C OMMUNITARIAN A RGUMENTS 8888888888888888888888888888888888888888 4.2.1. B. C OLLECTI@E R IGHT TO S ELF -D ETERMINATION A RGUMENTS 8888888888888888888888 4.2.1.(. R! ,"7 A&< % ) +& T+, &! '+) ') T$ L! + P +6, "...........1 0

4.2.1. . C+)(, "'+)...................................................................................1


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TABLE OF CONTENTS -- C"#$%#&'(

4.2.2. C&' ' + $ S !) !& L'/ &!, A&< % ) A

68 8 FROM THE ' RINCI'LE OF A ''LICATION TO A DEFEASIBLE INTERNATIONAL DUTY TO TOLERATE >B ASIC-R I*HTS-R ES'ECTIN* ? SOCIETIES88888888888888888888888888

4. .1. L'/ &!, R +&%'" G&+ 6" W' $') I,,'/ &!, U) " S+(' ' " !"

B " S! '" 8')< $ P&')('6, + A66,'(! '+)7" D "' &! !..............203 4. .2. L+(!, R +&%'" G&+ 6 C+)" )" " A

+ I) " '( " W' $') S+(' ' "............................................................21

4. . C ONCLUSION ..................................................................................................220


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TABLE OF CONTENTS ! C"#$%#&'(

CHAPTER : F ROM THE T WO P RINCIPLES OF N ON -I DEAL THEORY TO D UTIES TO

A MELIORATE G LOBAL P O+ERTY AND E NGAGE IN F AIR TRADE ..............................221

858 = HY A R*UMENTS FOR ' RINCI'LES OF *LOBAL ECONOMIC JUSTICE AT BEST ESTABLISH C ETERIS P ERIBUS DUTIES888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

8 8 THE NON-IDEAL THEORY OF JUSTICE DEFENDED IN THIS DISSERTATION3 A BRIEF R E+IE= 888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

8 8 = HY THE FUNDAMENTAL ' RINCI'LE OF NON-IDEAL THEORY ONLY DIRECTLY JUSTIFIES AN INTERNATIONAL DUTY TO A MELIORATE SE+ERE ' O+ERTY 8888888888888888888

868 FROM THE ' RINCI'LE OF A ''LICATION TO F AIR TRADE888888888888888888888888888888 8 8 R E'LIES TO ' OTENTIAL OBJECTIONS888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 . .1. I" F!'& T&! ! F!'& C+%6&+%'" +& " W'"$8-W!"$8?..............2

. .2. D+ A) ' D -G,+/!,' ! '+) G&+ 6" S! '" 8 $ P&')('6, +

A66,'(! '+)7" C+&& ( P&')('6, " + " '( D "' &! %?............2

. .3. D+ " F!'& T&! W+&=? D+ " ' R ( S * & P+* & 8?.............. .2 0

8 8 CONCLUSION888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

R EFERENCES .......................................................................................263


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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE A8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888TABLE B8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

TABLE C8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

TABLE D8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888

TABLE E8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888


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A BSTRACT

T% s $ sser!a! "n $e&en$s a >n"n- $eal !%e"ry? "& @us! ce3 a sys!ema! c !%e"ry "&

%"1 !" res2"n$ @us!ly !" n@us! ce8 C%a2!er 5 ar)ues !%a! c"n!em2"rary 2"l ! cal

2% l"s"2%y lac:s a n"n- $eal !%e"ry "& @us! ce0 an$ $e&en$s a var a! "n "& J"%n

Ra1ls7 &am"us "r ) nal 2"s ! "n K !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n K as a me!%"$

1 !% 1% c% !" c"ns!ruc! suc% a !%e"ry8 F nally0 C%a2!er 5 uses !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n !" ar)ue &"r a F ) !% ) !, P&')('6, + N+)-I !, T$ +&8 3 a

2r nc 2le !%a! re(u res n@us! ces !" #e $eal! 1 !% n 1% c%ever 1ay 1 ll #es!

sa! s&y !%e 2re&erences "& all relevan! n$ v $uals0 2r"v $e$ !%"se n$ v $uals are

all ra! "nal0 a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$0 #r"a$ly m"ral0 an$ acce2! !%e c"rrec! > $eal

!%e"ry? "& &ully @us! c"n$ ! "ns8 C%a2!er !%en ar)ues &"r !%e P&')('6, +

A66,'(! '+) K an e2 s!em c 2r nc 2le !%a! re2resen!s !%e Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le7s

sa! s&ac! "n c"n$ ! "ns n !erms "& !%e a ms "& ac!ual "r %y2"!%e! cal re&"rm s!

)r"u2s8 C%a2!ers - !%en use !%ese !1" 2r nc 2les !" ar)ue &"r su#s!an! ve v e1s

re)ar$ n) )l"#al4 n!erna! "nal @us! ce8 C%a2!er ar)ues !%a! !%e !1" 2r nc 2les

es!a#l s% a % )%er-"r$er %uman r )%! &"r all "!%er %uman r )%!s !" 2r"m"!e$ an$

2r"!ec!e$ n acc"r$ance 1 !% !%e !1" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 C%a2!er 6

ar)ues !%a! !%e !1" 2r nc 2les $e&eas #ly re(u re !%e n!erna! "nal c"mmun !y !"

!"lera!e un@us! s"c e! es0 2r"v $e$ !%"se s"c e! es res2ec! !%e m"s! #as c r )%!s "&

n$ v $uals8 F nally0 C%a2!er ar)ues !%a! !%e !1" 2r nc 2les m2ly a $u!y "& !%e

n!erna! "nal c"mmun !y !" amel "ra!e !%e m"s! severe &"rms "& )l"#al 2"ver!y0

as 1ell as a $u!y !" 2ursue >&a r !ra$e? n n!erna! "nal ec"n"m cs8


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I NTRODUCTION

Su22"se y"u acce2!e$ s"me !%e"ry "& @us! ce acc"r$ n) !" 1% c% !%a! s"me se! "&

c"n$ ! "ns0 0 s &ully @us! s8 Su22"se ne;! !%a! c"ul$ #e #r"u)%! a#"u! &r"m

ac!ual 8e8 less-!%an-&ully-@us! c"n$ ! "ns n e !%er "& !1" 1ays3

Sc%eme 53 ="ul$ m2"se m l$ !" m"$era!e c"s!s "n 2e"2le e8)80 $a ly

nc"nven ences0 2u#l c 2r"!es!s0 e!c8 "ver !%e c"urse "& . years8

Sc%eme 3 ="ul$ m2"se severe c"s!s "n 2e"2le e8)8 mass ve

unem2l"ymen!0 2"ver!y0 e!c8 "ver !%e c"urse "& "nly years8

Y"u 1"ul$ 2resuma#ly 1an! !" :n"1 1%e!%er e !%er0 #"!%0 "r ne !%er0 "& !%ese

sc%emes s 2erm ss #le "r re(u re$ #y @us! ce85 I& y"u lac:e$ !% s : n$ "&

:n"1le$)e0 y"u 1"ul$ lac: s"me!% n) "& )rea! m2"r!ance8 Y"u 1"ul$ :n"1

1% c% : n$s "& s"c al c"n$ ! "ns 1"ul$ #e &ully @us!0 #u! y"u 1"ul$ n"! :n"1 %"1

!%"se c"n$ ! "ns c"ul$ #e @us!ly #r"u)%! n!" e; s!ence &r"m !%e 1"rl$ as !

2resen!ly s8

I! m )%! c"me as a # ! "& sur2r se !%a! c"n!em2"rary 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y s

n r"u)%ly suc% a 2re$ camen!8 '"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers %ave $e&en$e$ a var e!y "&

> $eal !%e"r es? K !%e"r es "& 1% c% : n$s "& s"c al c"n$ ! "ns 1"ul$ #e &ully @us!0

"r a! leas! m"re @us! !%an !%e c"n$ ! "ns n 1% c% 1e & n$ "urselves8 J"%n Ra1ls

&am"usly ar)ue$ n A T$ +&8 + " '( 0 &"r e;am2le0 !%a! a @us! s"c e!y 1"ul$

c"n&"rm !" !1" 2r nc 2les3 a 2r nc 2le "& e(ual #as c l #er!y0 an$ a 2r nc 2le "&

e(ual !y "& "22"r!un !y !%a! re(u res s"c e!y0 m"re )enerally0 !" #e !" !%e

1 I! seems a! leas! a c"nce2!ual 2"ss # l !y !%a! !%ere m )%! #e n" @us! 1ays !" #r n) a#"u! an"!%er1 se @us! en$8 All 2a!%s !"1ar$ an "!%er1 se @us! en$ m )%! m2"se c"s!s u2"n 2e"2le !%a!are s m2ly !"" severe &"r any means !" !%a! en$ !" #e 2erm ss #le8


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ma; mum a$van!a)e "& !s 1"rs! "&& mem#ers8 R"#er! N"9 c: ar)ue$ n

A)!&($8 S ! !) U +6'! !%a! a @us! s"c al "r$er 1"ul$ #e "ne n 1% c%

n$ v $uals7 na!ural r )%!s 1ere res2ec!e$ #y "!%ers8 A var e!y "& %uman r )%!s

!%e"r es ar)ue !%a! 2e"2le %ave %uman r )%!s !" all s"r!s "& !% n)s0 suc% as r )%!s

!" l &e0 means !" su#s s!ence0 &ree$"m "& s2eec%0 rel ) "n0 ass"c a! "n0 an$ "&!en0

many "!%er !% n)s as 1ell86 An$ s" "n8 N"ne "& !%ese !%e"r es nclu$e a &ully

)eneral analys s "& 1%a! ! s @us! !" $"0 %"1ever0 n "r$er !" #r n) a#"u! !%e s"r!s

"& c"n$ ! "ns !%ey $escr #e8 On !%e c"n!rary0 a num#er "& m2"r!an! & )ures n

2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y $ra1 a!!en! "n !" !%e &ac! !%a! !%ey0 an$ 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ym"re )enerally0 lac: suc% a !%e"ry8 Ra1ls0 &"r e;am2le0 $ra1s a!!en! "n !" !%e

$ea !%a! a !%e"ry "& @us! ce s%"ul$ %ave !1" 2ar!s3 a 2ar! s2ec &y n) &ully @u

c"n$ ! "ns0 an$ a 2ar! s2ec &y n) %"1 !" #r n) a#"u! !%"se c"n$ ! "ns8 He says0

T%e n!u ! ve $ea s !" s2l ! !%e !%e"ry "& @us! ce n!" !1" 2ar!s8 T%e

& rs! "r $eal 2ar! 1"r:s "u! !%e 2r nc 2les !%a! c%arac!er 9e a 1ell-

"r$ere$ s"c e!y un$er &av"ra#le c rcums!ances8 I! $evel"2s !%e c"nce2! "n

"& a 2er&ec!ly @us! #as c s!ruc!ure an$ !%e c"rres2"n$ n) $u! es an$

"#l )a! "ns "& 2ers"ns un$er !%e & ;e$ c"ns!ra n!s "& %uman l &e8 My ma n

c"ncern s 1 !% !% s 2ar! "& !%e !%e"ry8 N"n $eal !%e"ry0 !%e sec"n$ 2ar!0 s

1"r:e$ "u! a&!er an $eal c"nce2! "n "& @us! ce %as #een c%"sen !

2 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 0 83 N"9 c: 5G 6 84 See e8)8 *r && n ..50 ../ 0 N c:el .. 0 an$ !%e S!an&"r$ Encycl"2e$ a "& '% l"s"2%y7sen!ry0 >Human R )%!s0? a! %!!23442la!"8s!an&"r$8e$u4en!r es4r )%!s-%uman48


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c"ns s!s "& !%e 2r nc 2les &"r )"vern n) a$@us!men!s !" na!ural l m !a! "ns

an$ % s!"r cal c"n! n)enc es0 an$ 2r nc 2les &"r mee! n) n@us! ce8

=%en ! ac!ually c"mes !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 %"1ever0 Ra1ls "nly $eals 1 !% >a

&e1 s2ec al cases? K !%e cases "& c v l $ s"#e$ ence an$ c"nsc en! "us re&usal K

s!a! n)0 "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry m"re )enerally0 >I s%all n"! a!!em2! !" ) ve a

sys!ema! c ans1er !" !%ese (ues! "ns8? Ra1ls s n"! !%e "nly 2% l"s"2%er !"

$ra1 a!!en! "n !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 "nly !" se! ! as $e8 R"#er! N"9 c: %as sa $0

re&err n) !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 >I $" n"! :n"1 "& a !%"r"u)% "r !%e"re! cally

s"2% s! ca!e$ !rea!men! "& suc% ssues8? I! "nly !a:es a #r e& survey "& !%e 2% l"s"2% cal l !era!ure !" see !%a!

c"n!em2"rary 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y lac:s any!% n) l :e a &ully sys!ema! c n"n- $eal

!%e"ry "& @us! ce8 Al!%"u)% s"me 2% l"s"2%ers0 suc% as R"nal$ D1"r: n0 %ave

a!!em2!e$ !" )ra22le 1 !% a 1 $e ran)e "& ssues 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 suc% as

!%e (ues! "n "& %"1 !" re&"rm %eal!% care an$ !%e e!% cs "& a&& rma! ve ac! "n0/

1%ereas "!%ers %ave a!!em2!e$ !" un$ers!an$ !%e c"m2ensa!"ry @us! ce0 "r %"1

!" rec! &y 2as! n@us! ces0G 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y s m2ly lac:s any acc"un! "& !%e

m"s! )eneral 2r nc 2les !%a! "u)%! !" )"vern %"1 1e $eal 1 !% n@us! ce8

'% l"s"2%ers $" "& c"urse %ave var "us m"ral !%e"r es a! !%e r $ s2"sal0 suc% as

u! l !ar an sm0 an! an m"ral !%e"r es0 an$ v r!ue !%e"r es8 N"ne "& !%ese s"r!s "&

!%e"r es seem 1ell su !e$ !" !%e !as:0 %"1ever a! leas! 1 !%"u! a )rea! $eal "&

5 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5 86 I# $87 N"9 c: 5G 6 3 5 88 D1"r: n ... 3 'ar! II89 See R"#er!s .. &"r a num#er "& 2a2ers "n !%e !"2 c8


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$evel"2men! 8 Rela! vely &e1 2% l"s"2%ers are u! l !ar ans0 &"r "ne !% n)0 an$ ! s

n"! clear0 "n !%e "!%er %an$0 %"1 a an! an !%e"ry0 "r a v r!ue !%e"ry0 c"ul$

res"lve m2"r!an! (ues! "ns "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry ! s %ar$ !" see %"1 e !%er : n$

"& !%e"ry c"ul$ %el2 us $ec $e0 &"r e;am2le0 #e!1een Sc%emes 5 an$ men! "ne$

earl er 8

T% s $ sser!a! "n a ms !" rec! &y !% s s !ua! "n8 I! $e&en$s a 2ar! cular

me!%"$ &"r nves! )a! n) n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 $e&en$s !1" )eneral 2r nc 2les "& n"n-

$eal !%e"ry0 an$ & nally0 a22l es !%"se 2r nc 2les !" s"me m2"r!an! ma!!ers "&

)l"#al4 n!erna! "nal @us! ce8 C%a2!er 5 ar)ues !%a! a var a! "n "& J"%n Ra1ls7&am"us >"r ) nal 2"s ! "n? K !%e N+)-I !, O&'


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!" n@us! ce n 1% c%ever 1ay 1 ll #es! sa! s&y !%e c"llec! ve class "& 2re&erences5.

!%a! n$ v $uals 1"ul$ %ave & eac% "& !%em 1ere ra! "nal0 a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$0

#r"a$ly m"ral0 an$ acce2!e$ !%e c"rrec! $eal !%e"ry "& @us! ce 1%a!ever ! m )%!

#e 8

C%a2!er rec")n 9es !%a! !%e Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal T%e"ry

ra ses a num#er "& $ && cul! 2% l"s"2% cal (ues! "ns K (ues! "ns c"ncern n) !%e

na!ure "& ra! "nal !y0 >a$e(ua!e n&"rme$-ness0? m"ral !y0 an$ s" "n8 Ra!%er !%an

a!!em2! !" 2r"v $e !%e"re! cal ans1ers !" !%ese (ues! "ns K (ues! "ns !%a! lar)e

num#ers "& "!%er acc"m2l s%e$ 2% l"s"2%ers %ave n"! ye! $e& n ! vely "r n s"mecases0 sa! s&ac!"r ly ans1ere$ K C%a2!er ns!ea$ $e&en$s a 2urely 2rac! cal

s"lu! "n8 C%a2!er ar)ues &"r a P&')('6, + A66,'(! '+) 3 an e2 s!em c 2r nc 2le

!%a!0 "r s" I cla m0 em#"$ es !%e #es! ava la#le me!%"$ &"r a22ly n) !%e

Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le ) ven !%e very &ac! !%a! 1e lac: &ully sa! s&ac!"ry

!%e"re! cal ans1ers !" !%e a&"remen! "ne$ ssues8 T%e #as c $ea #e% n$ !%e

'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n s !%a! even !%"u)% 1e lac: !%e"re! cal s"lu! "ns !"

var "us 2r"#lems0 1e %ave an a$e(ua!e en"u)% )ras2 "& !%e relevan! ssues !"

a22ly !%e Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le 1 !% s"me @us! & e$ c"n& $ence8 T%e 'r nc 2le "&

A22l ca! "n0 a! any ra!e0 ns!ruc!s us !" !a:e !%e a ms "& var "us >re&"rm s!

)r"u2s? K ac!ual "r %y2"!%e! cal #"$ es "& n$ v $uals 1%" 1e %ave reas"n !" !a:e

!" #e c"ncerne$ 1 !% mee! n) n@us! ce K !" re2resen! !%e Fun$amen!al

'r nc 2le7s sa! s&ac! "n c"n$ ! "ns an$ !%ere&"re0 1%a! @us! ce re(u res 0

$e2en$ n) "n %"1 1ell !%"se )r"u2s sa! s&y an m2"r!an! class "& $es $era!a810 As rea$ers 1 ll see n C%a2!er 50 I 1 s% !" un$ers!an$ !% s class "& 2re&erences n !erms "& a>s"c al 2re&erence "r$er n)?0 "r a"')1 ll "&!%e 2e"2le? s" !" s2ea: 8


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C%a2!ers - !%en ar)ue &r"m !%ese !1" 2r nc 2les !" su#s!an! ve

c"nclus "ns 1 !% n !%e $"ma n "& )l"#al4 n!erna! "nal @us! ce8 C%a2!er ar)ues

!%a! !%e !1" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry m2ly a % )%er-"r$er %uman r )%!3 !%e

r )%! !" %ave all "!%er %uman r )%!s 2r"m"!e$0 an$ v "la! "ns "& %uman r )%!s

el m na!e$ "r rec! & e$0 n 1ays !%a! c"n&"rm !" !%e !1" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal

!%e"ry8 C%a2!er als" ar)ues !%a! !% s % )%er-"r$er %uman r )%! v a !%e !1"

2r nc 2les m2l es a s!r"n) 2resum2! "n n &av"r "& !%e 2r "r !y "& !1" >#as c?

r )%!s K !%e r )%!s !" l &e an$ &ree$"m &r"m severe su&&er n) K "ver all "!%er

r )%!s8 C%a2!er als" ar)ues0 & nally0 !%a! !%e % )%er-"r$er %uman r )%!llum na!es0 an$ 2laus #ly res"lves0 s"me >%ar$ cases? 1%ere ! s n"! clear 1%a!

@us! ce an$ %uman r )%!s re(u re8 S2ec & cally0 I ar)ue0 #y re&erence !" !%e

'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n0 !%a! !%ere are !1" reas"ns 1%y @us! ce &"r# $s v "la! n)

!%e %uman r )%! a)a ns! !"r!ure n "r$er !" 2r"!ec! !%e %uman r )%! !" l &e "& even

very lar)e num#ers "& 2e"2le8 I ar)ue0 & rs!0 !%a! !%e 'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n

re(u res us !" @u$)e !% s case #y re&erence !" n!erna! "nal la1 1% c% &"r# $s

!"r!ure 0 as 1ell as n a$$ ! "n #y re&erence !" !%e m"ral*!, " "& !%e very

2e"2le 1%"se l ves !"r!ure m )%! #e u! l 9e$ !" 2r"!ec!8 I&0 as I ar)ue0 many

2e"2le "22"se !"r!ure n 2r nc 2le K &0 !%a! s0 many 2e"2le 1"ul$ n"! 1an!

!"r!ure !" #e u! l 9e$ !" 2r"!ec! !%e r l ves 1% c%0 I ar)ue0 s 2laus #ly !%e case K

! &"ll"1s &r"m !%e 'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n !%a! !"r!ure s un@us! &"r !%e s m2le

reas"n !%a! ! un$ercu!s !%e values0 an$ 2re&erence0 "& !%e very 2e"2le ! 1"ul$ #e

u! l 9e$ !" 2r"!ec!8

C%a2!er 6 !%en ar)ues &r"m !%e 'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n !%e c"nclus "n

!%a! @us! ce $e&eas #ly re(u res &"re )ners !" !"lera!e un@us! s"c e! es u2 !" !%e


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2" n! !%a! !%"se s"c e! es v "la!e !%e m"s! #as c %uman r )%!s "& n$ v $uals8 My

ar)umen! &"r !% s c"nclus "n s !%a! "ur #es! em2 r cal ev $ence0 #"!% % s!"r cal

an$ n !%e 2resen!-$ay0 n$ ca!es !%a! !%"se re&"rm s! )r"u2s !%a! %ave !%e

s!r"n)es! cla m !" sa! s&y !%e 'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n7s $es $era!a K >l"cal?

re&"rm s! )r"u2s n un@us! s"c e! es !%emselves K !en$ !" 2re&er &"re )ners !"

!"lera!e !%e r s"c e!y u2 !" !%e 2" n! !%a! #as c %uman r )%!s are v "la!e$8

F nally0 C%a2!er ar)ues &r"m !%e Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal

T%e"ry !" a $u!y "& !%e n!erna! "nal c"mmun !y !" amel "ra!e 2"ver!y resul! n)

n )rea! %uman su&&er n)0 an$ &r"m !%e 'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n !" !%e c"nclus "n!%a! "!%er ec"n"m c n@us! ces s%"ul$ #e $eal! 1 !% v a >&a r !ra$e8? I ar)ue !%a!

#ecause !%ere s n" s n)le re&"rm s! )r"u2 !%a! can cla m !" #es! sa! s&y !%e

'r nc 2le "& A22l ca! "n7s $es $era!a0 "nly a num#er "& "22"s n) )r"u2s0 !%e

'r nc 2le m2l es !%a! 1e %ave a $u!y !" 2ursue a !'& (+%6&+%'" #e!1een !%"se

)r"u2s7 a ms8 I c"nclu$e !%a! &a r !ra$e 2rac! ces #es! a22r"; ma!e suc% a

c"m2r"m se8


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CHAPTER 1

G ROUNDWORK FOR A N ON -I DEAL T HEORY OF J USTICE

T% s c%a2!er ar)ues n 5 !%a! 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y 2resen!ly lac:s a >n"n- $eal

!%e"ry? "& @us! ce K a !%e"ry0 !%a! s0 "& 1%a! ! s &"r 2ers"ns an$ ns! !u! "ns !"

res2"n$ @us!ly !" n@us! ces8 I! !%en ar)ues n !%a! $ue !" !%e na!ure "& n"n-

$eal !%e"ry0 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers "u)%! !" a$"2! a var a! "n "& J"%n Ra1ls7

&am"us >"r ) nal 2"s ! "n? K a >N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n? K !" nves! )a!e n"n-

$eal !%e"ry8 e;2l ca!es an$ &ur!%er $e&en$s !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n8

F nally0 6 ar)ues &r"m !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n !" 1%a! I call !%e

Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal T%e"ry K a 2r nc 2le !%a! n"! "nly

llum na!es n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 su))es! n) &ur!%er avenues "& $evel"2men!0 #u!

1% c% als"0 n v r!ue "& !s !%e"re! cal neu!ral !y0 s%"ul$ "nce a)a n a22eal !"

l #eral 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers )enerally0 rres2ec! ve "& 1%a!ever !%e r 1 $er

c"mm !men!s may #e8

5858NON-IDEAL THEORY 3 A N UNDERDE+ELO'ED DOMAIN OF IN UIRY

T%ere are many > $eal !%e"r es? "& &ully @us! "r le) ! ma!e s"c al c"n$ ! "ns n

c"n!em2"rary 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y8 Here s #r e& sam2l n) "& s"me "& !%e cen!ral

cla ms "& s"me "& !%ese !%e"r es3

J"%n Ra1ls7 !%e"ry "& $"mes! c @us! ce3 T%e #as c s!ruc!ure "& a &ully @u

$"mes! c s"c e!y 1"ul$ c"n&"rm !" !%e &"ll"1 n) !1" 2r nc 2les355

11 T% s s Ra1ls7 .. 3 - & nal s!a!emen! "& % s 2r nc 2les8 See Ra1ls 5GGGa3 &"r earl er0an$ sl )%!ly $ &&eren!0 vers "ns8 N"!e als" !%a! Ra1ls !a:es !%e F rs! 'r nc 2le !" !a:e 2r "r !y "ver!%e Sec"n$0 an$ !%e & rs! 2ar! "& !%e Sec"n$ 'r nc 2le !" !a:e 2r "r !y "ver !s sec"n$ 2ar! Ra1ls


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21

F rs! 'r nc 2le3 Eac% 2ers"n %as an e(ual cla m !" a &ully a$e(ua!e

sc%eme "& e(ual #as c r )%!s an$ l #er! es0 1% c% sc%eme s

c"m2a! #le 1 !% !%e same sc%eme &"r all< an$ n !% s sc%eme !%e

e(ual 2"l ! cal l #er! es0 an$ "nly !%"se l #er! es0 are !" #e

)uaran!ee$ !%e r &a r value8

Sec"n$ 'r nc 2le3 S"c al an$ ec"n"m c ne(ual ! es are !" sa! s&y

!1" c"n$ ! "ns3 & rs!0 !%ey are !" #e a!!ac%e$ !" 2"s ! "ns an$ "&& ces

"2en !" all un$er c"n$ ! "ns "& &a r e(ual !y "& "22"r!un !y< an$sec"n$0 !%ey are !" #e !" !%e )rea!es! #ene& ! "& !%e leas! a$van!a)e$

mem#ers "& s"c e!y8

Ra1ls7 !%e"ry "& n!erna! "nal @us! ce3 A &ully @us! n!erna! "nal "r$er

1"ul$ #e a S"c e!y "& 'e"2les3 a 1"rl$ "& n$e2en$en! l #eral-$em"cra! c

s"c e! es an$ ll #eral-un$em"cra! c #u! >$ecen!? s"c e! es !%a!0 r"u)%ly

s2ea: n)0 res2ec! "ne an"!%er7s au!"n"my 85

Ra1ls an-C"sm"2"l !an !%e"r es "& )l"#al @us! ce3 A &ully @us! )l"#al s"c al

"r$er 1"ul$ c"n&"rm !" )l"#al anal")ues "& Ra1ls7 !1" 2r nc 2les "&

$"mes! c @us! ce85

5GGGa3 -60 5 .-5 812 See Ra1ls 5GGG# 0 es2ec ally 28 813 Al!%"u)% !%ere s s"me $ sa)reemen! "ver !%e c"n!en! !%a! !%e a22r"2r a!e )l"#al anal")uess%"ul$ %ave #ecause !%e )l"#al "r$er s s" $ &&eren! !%an a $"mes! c s"c e!y 0 Be !9 5G/ 3 G "r ) nal 2"s ! "n? !" c"ns!ruc! a n"n- $eal

!%e"ry "& @us! ce8 T% s m )%! seem !" #e a s!ran)e cla m n$ee$0 %"1ever8 =%y

s%"ul$ a 2% l"s"2%er 1%" re@ec!s Ra1ls7 "r ) nal 2"s ! "n ar)umen! #e 2re2are$

!" u! l 9e s"me vers "n "& !%e "r ) nal 2"s ! "n 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ryP My & rs!

re2ly s s m2ly !%a!0 a! !%e en$ "& !%e $ay0 1e see !%a! !%e >N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n? as I call ! lea$s !" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry !%a! 2"l ! cal

2% l"s"2%ers "& all s!r 2es can n &ac! acce2!8 As 1e 1 ll see n 5860 I #el eve !%a!

!%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n lea$s !" a Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal

T%e"ry !%a! essen! ally nc"r2"ra!es$'($ * & 1 $er 2% l"s"2% cal c"mm !men!s

a !%e"r s! %as n!" n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 My & rs! cla m0 !%en0 s !%a! >!%e 2r""& s n

!%e 2u$$ n)?3 !%a! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n lea$s0 n an llum na! n) 1ay0

26 See Bell" ..6 0 as 1ell as Man$er an$ *"l$sm !% 5GG 0 &"r c"mm"n cr ! c sms "& !%esens! !u! "ns8


30/276


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% s 2ar! n u2%"l$ n) @us! ns! !u! "ns8? T%e s!r c!-c"m2l ance assum2! "n

means0 as Ra1ls 2" n!s "u!0 !%a! !%e 2ar! es are reas"n n) !" 2r nc 2les "& $eal

!%e"ry8 T%ey are reas"n n) !" an a)reemen! "n 2r nc 2les !" )"vern a >1ell-

"r$ere$ s"c e!y0? n"! a s"c e!y n 1% c% 2e"2le can #e e;2ec!e$ !" &a l !" a# $e #y

!%e 2r nc 2les a)ree$ u2"n !%e la!!er0 "& c"urse0 s !%e $"ma n "& n"n- $eal

!%e"ry 8

N"1 clearly0 & 1e are )" n) !" u! l 9e an "r ) nal 2"s ! "n 1 !% n n"n- $eal

!%e"ry0 ! 1 ll %ave !" $ &&er &r"m Ra1ls7 $eal !%e"re! c "r ) nal 2"s ! "n n a!

leas! "ne cr ! cal res2ec!8 Ra1ls % msel& $ra1s a!!en! "n !" !% s res2ec! n !%e&"ll"1 n) 2assa)e K a 2assa)e n 1% c% %e ac!ually $ scusses !%e 2"ss # l !y "&

nves! )a! n) n"n- $eal !%e"ry 1 !% a &ur!%er0 n"n- $eal !%e"re! c s!e2 "& % s

"r ) nal 2"s ! "n3

T%e n!u ! ve $ea s !" s2l ! !%e !%e"ry "& @us! ce n!" !1" 2ar!s8 T%e & rs!

"r $eal 2ar! assumes s!r c! c"m2l ance an$ 1"r:s "u! !%e 2r nc 2les !%a!

c%arac!er 9e a 1ell-"r$ere$ s"c e!y un$er &av"ra#le c"n$ ! "ns N"n $eal

!%e"ry0 !%e sec"n$ 2ar!0 s 1"r:e$ "u! a&!er an $eal c"nce2! "n "& @us! ce

%as #een c%"sen< "nly !%en $" !%e 2ar! es as: 1% c% 2r nc 2les !" a$"2!

un$er less %a22y c"n$ ! "ns8/

Ra1ls se!s as $e !%e !as: %e men! "ns %ere0 s!a! n)0 "nce a)a n0 !%a!0 >I s%all n"!

a!!em2! !" ) ve a sys!ema! c ans1er !" !%ese (ues! "ns8?G S! ll0 1e can see &r"m

Ra1ls7 remar:s 1%a! a n"n- $eal !%e"re! c use "& !%e "r ) nal 2"s ! "n !%e N"n-

27 Ra1ls 5G 5 3 /828 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5 829 I# $8


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I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ #e l :e8 Ra1ls7 remar:s n$ ca!e0 (u !e

reas"na#ly0 !%a! Ra1ls !%"u)%! !%a! $el #era! "ns n !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n "u)%! !" "ccur a&!er 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry are arr ve$ a!8 I say !%a!

!% s s reas"na#le #ecause0 clearly0 n "r$er !" nves! )a!e n"n- $eal !%e"ry K n

"r$er0 !%a! s0 !" arr ve a! 2r nc 2les &"r mee! n) n@us! ce K 1e mus! & rs! :n"1

1%a! n@us! ce s8 N"! ce0 ne;!0 !%a! 1e nee$ n"! %ave arr ve$ a! 2r nc 2les "& $eal

!%e"ry #y Ra1ls7 "r ) nal 2"s ! "n n "r$er !" u! l 9e !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n &"r n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 =e m )%! very 1ell re@ec! Ra1ls7 "r ) nal 2"s ! "n

ar)umen! !" % s !1" 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry &"r any "& !%e many reas"ns !%a!Ra1ls7 cr ! cs %ave a$$uce$8 Ra1ls7 ar)umen! !" % s !1" 2r nc 2les "& @us! ce s0

a&!er all0 (ues! "na#le "n many )r"un$s8. S"me cr ! cs cla m !%a! Ra1ls s%"ul$

%ave un$ers!""$ !%e 2ar! es !" % s "r ) nal 2"s ! "n as n"! 2ursu n) >2r mary

)""$s?0 #u! ra!%er s m2ly !%e r "1n e;2ec!e$ u! l !y0 a s!ra!e)y !%a! !%ese cr ! cs

c%ar)e 1"ul$ lea$ !%e 2ar! es !" a)ree !" n"!% n) "!%er !%an !%e very !%e"ry "&

@us! ce !%a! Ra1ls e;2l c !ly se!s "u! !" re@ec!3 u!l !ar an sm8 O!%er cr ! cs acce2!

Ra1ls7 use "& 2r mary )""$s #u! (ues! "n Ra1ls7 ar)umen! !%a! !%e 2ar! es 1"ul$

a)ree !" % s !1" 2r nc 2les "& @us! ce8 T%e m2"r!an! !% n)0 n any case0 s !%a! !

seems0 "&&%an$ a! leas!0 !%a! 1e c"ul$ sens #ly a22ly !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n !" any 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry0 an$ %ave !%e 2ar! es $el #era!e !"

2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry &r"m !%"se 2r nc 2les8 I! s als" m2"r!an! !" n"!e

!%a! any N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n Ra1ls an "r "!%er1 se 1 ll m2"se

c"ns!ra n!s "n !%e ra! "nal m"! va! "n "& !%e 2ar! es !%a! $ $ n"! e; s! n Ra1ls7

$eal !%e"re! c "r ) nal 2"s ! "n8 Because !%e 2ar! es !" a N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

30 F"r n ce summar es "& !%ese cr ! c sms0 see Barry 5G an$ yml c:a .. 3 C%8 8


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33

'"s ! "n are $el #era! n) !" 2r nc 2les !" )"vern %"1 n@us! ces are !" me! K

#ecause0 !%a! s0 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry are alrea$y "n %an$ K !%e 2ar! es

cann"! #e c"nce ve$ as 2urely ra! "nal8 T%ey mus! #e c"nce ve$ as ra! "nal

su#@ec! !" !%e c"ns!ra n! !%a! !%ey all mus! !a:e an n!eres! n K an$ n$ee$0 #e

m"! va!e$ #y K 1%a!ever 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry are a$"2!e$8 T%us0 & 1e are

Ra1ls ans0 1e mus! c"nce ve !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n as

#e n) m"! va!e$ #y Ra1ls7 !1" 2r nc 2les "& @us! ce< & 1e are N"9 c:eans 1e mus!

c"nce ve !%e 2ar! es as m"! va!e$ !" res2ec! "ne an"!%er7s m"ral r )%!s0 as 1ell as

m"! va!e$ !" rec! &y 2as! v "la! "ns "& r )%!s< an$ s" "n8N"1 I sus2ec! !%a! ! m )%! n"! #e clear !" many rea$ers a! !% s 2" n! %"10

& !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n are c"nce ve$ as m"! va!e$ #y

"ne7s &av"re$ $eal !%e"ry0 !%ere s any &ur!%er >r""m? &"r !%e 2ar! es !" reas"n !"

a ra! "nal a)reemen!8 =e 1 ll re!urn !" !% s ssue s%"r!ly8 Be&"re 1e $" s"0

%"1ever0 1e s%"ul$ als" n"!e !%a! !%e e;ac! s2ec & ca! "n "& !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n7s ve l "& )n"rance 1 ll $e2en$ "n "ne7s &av"re$ $eal !%e"ry as

1ell8 Clearly0 !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ #e a&&"r$e$

1%a!ever0 an$ "nly 1%a!ever0 n&"rma! "n !%e $eal !%e"ry a$"2! says !%ey s%"ul$

#e a&&"r$e$8 S"0 &"r e;am2le0 su22"se 1e en$"rse a N"9 c:ean $eal !%e"ry3 an

!%e"ry 1% c% says !%a! @us! ce s a % s!"r cal ma!!er "& n$ v $uals7 r )%!s an$

v "la! "ns "& !%"se r )%!s e8)80 N"9 c: says !%a! 2e"2le %ave 2r"2er!y r )%!s !"

2ar! cular !% n)s0 an$ !%a! & !%ey are $e2r ve$ "& !%e r 2r"2er!y0 !%ey "u)%! !"

%ave !%e r 2r"2er!y re!urne$ "r "!%er1 se #e c"m2ensa!e$ &"r !%e v "la! "n "&

!%e r 2r"2er!y r )%!s 8 In !% s case !%e 2ar! es !" N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n 1 ll

surely %ave !" #e acc"r$e$ :n"1le$)e "& !%e r "1n en! !lemen!s 8e8 1%a! !%e r


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le) ! ma!e 2r"2er!y-%"l$ n)s are0 1% c% !ems "& 2r"2er!y !%ey %ave #een un@us!ly

$e2r ve$ "&0 1%" %as !%a! 2r"2er!y0 an$ s" "n 8

A &a rly "#v "us (ues! "n %ere0 %"1ever0 s 1%e!%er0 n many cases a! leas!0

!%e $ea !%a! !%e ve l "& )n"rance s%"ul$ #e s2ec & e$ #y re&erence !" $eal !%e"ry

1 ll resul! n any ve l "& )n"rance a! all8 =%a! use0 a&!er all0 1"ul$ a N"9 c:ean

%ave &"r a ve l "& )n"rance "& any s"r!P O&&%an$0 ! 1"ul$ seem !%a! a N"9 c:ean

1"ul$ say !%a! all n&"rma! "n s relevan! !" $eal n) 1 !% n@us! ce K !%a! all 1e

nee$ !" :n"1 s 1%"se r )%!s %ave #een v "la!e$0 an$ %"10 n "r$er !" 2r"2erly

rec! &y n@us! ces8 Le! me e;2la n0 %"1ever0 1%y I !% n: !%a! all 2"l ! cal !%e"r s!s0even N"9 c:eans0 s%"ul$ #e 2re2are$ !" u! l 9e s"me ve l "& )n"rance0 an$ %ence0

!%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n &"r n"n- $eal !%e"ry8

T%e $ea "& !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$0 &"r "#v "us reas"ns0

a22eal !" m"ral "r 2"l ! cal c"ns!ruc! v s!s K 2% l"s"2%ers 1%" #el eve !%a! m"ral

"r 2"l ! cal 2r nc 2les are s2ec & e$ #y s"me s"r! "& m2ar! al $el #era! ve

2r"cess85 T% s s a m"re su#s!an! al 2" n! !%an ! m )%! seem8 F"r 1% le ! m )%!

seem &a rly "#v "us !%a! a Ra1ls an "u)%! !" a$"2! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n n "r$er !" arr ve a! 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 & 1%a! I %ave sa $ s"

&ar s r )%!0 !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n can #e $e!ac%e$ &r"m Ra1ls7

2ar! cular #ran$ "& c"ns!ruc! v sm an$ a!!ac%e$ !" s"me "!%er c"ns!ruc! v s!

m"ral "r 2"l ! cal !%e"ry0 suc% as 2er%a2s T8M8 Scanl"n7s c"ns!ruc! v s! !%e"ry

Ra1ls s a 2"l ! cal #u! n"! a m"ral c"ns!ruc! v s! 8 I 2r"2"se0 !%en0 !%a! r )%!

31 See0 &"r e;am2le0 !%e S!an&"r$ Encycl"2e$ a "& '% l"s"2%y7s en!ry "n c"n!rac!ual sm0%!!23442la!"8s!an&"r$8e$u4en!r es4c"n!rac!ual sm8 32 See # $8 &"r a n ce n!r"$uc! "n !" $ &&eren! c"ns!ruc! v s! !%e"r es833 See Ra1ls .. 3 Lec!ure III8
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractualismhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contractualism


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"&& !%e #a! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n %as a muc% #r"a$er $"ma n "&

a22l ca! "n !%an "ne m )%! %ave !%"u)%!8 S! ll0 I 1an! !" say !%a! !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n %as an even 1 $er $"ma n "& a22l ca! "n !%an !%a!8 Many m"ral

an$ 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers are n"! c"ns!ruc! v s!s0 an$ ye! I 1an! !" say !%a! !%ey

!"" s%"ul$ en$"rse !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n &"r n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 T%e

(ues! "n0 "& c"urse0 s 1%y I !% n: !% s8 T%e ans1er %as !" $" 1 !% !%e very na!ure

"& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 N"n- $eal !%e"ry s s" c"m2le;0 an$ "ur n!u ! "ns n"! "nly

unse!!le$ #u! als" !%e su#@ec! "& reas"na#le $ sa)reemen!0 !%a! m"ral an$

2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers 1%" are n"! c"ns!ruc! v s!s n "!%er $"ma ns "u)%! !" #ec"ns!ruc! v s!s n !% s $"ma n K "r s" I 1 ll n"1 ma n!a n8

I! s !ell n)0 I !% n:0 !%a! !%e !as: "& 2r"v $ n) a &ully sys!ema! c analys s "&

n"n- $eal !%e"ry %as n"! "nly #een e;2l c !ly se! as $e #y all "& !%e !%e"r s!s !%a! I

%ave $ scusse$ %ere K Ra1ls0 N"9 c:0 Buc%anan K #u! n$ee$0 se! as $e #y m"ral

an$ 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers (u !e )enerally8 =%y s ! !%a! Ra1ls0 ar)ua#ly !%e

m"s! sys!ema! c 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%er n % s!"ry0 merely says "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry

"nce a)a n !%a!0 >I s%all n"! a!!em2! !" ) ve a sys!ema! c ans1er !" !%ese

(ues! "ns?P 6 An$ 1%y s !%a! N"9 c: says s m larly "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 >I $" n"!

:n"1 "& a !%"r"u)% "r !%e"re! cally s"2% s! ca!e$ !rea!men! "& suc% ssues?P

=%y0 n s%"r!0 s !%ere suc% a clear )a2 n m"ral an$ 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y 1%ere a

sys!ema! c n"n- $eal !%e"ry n!u ! vely s%"ul$ #eP =%y0 "& all !%e m"ral an$

2"l ! cal !%e"r es !%a! 1e %ave0 $" 1e lac: any s"r! "& &ully )eneral "r sys!ema! c

analys s "& !%e s"r!s "& c"s!s !%a! 1e can m2"se "n 2e"2le0 an$ %"1 !%"se c"s!s

34 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5 835 N"9 c: 5G 6 3 5 8


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"u)%! !" #e $ s!r #u!e$0 &"r !%e sa:e "& el m na! n) "r rec! &y n) n@us! ceP =e $"

"& c"urse %ave )eneral m"ral !%e"r es K suc% as an! an sm0 u! l !ar an sm0 an$

v r!ue !%e"r es8 S! ll0 as $e &r"m u! l !ar an sm0 1% c% s 1 $ely cr ! c 9e$0 n"ne "&

!%ese !%e"r es seem 2ar! cularly 1ell-su !e$ !" 2r"v $e a )eneral acc"un! "& !%e

c"s!s !%a! 1e can m2"se "n 2e"2le !" "verc"me n@us! ce0 n"r %"1 !%"se c"s!s

"u)%! !" #e $ s!r #u!e$ am"n) 2ers"ns 8 T" 2u! !%e ma!!er #lun!ly0 ! seems !"

me !%a! c"n!em2"rary 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y lac:s any sys!ema! c acc"un!s "& n"n-

$eal !%e"ry &"r !%e s m2le reas"n !%a!0 $ue !" all "& !%e c"m2le; ! es an$

unse!!le$ n!u ! "ns 1e %ave a#"u! n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 ! seems %ar$ !" :n"1 even 1%ere !" #e) n !%e"r 9 n)8 =e %ave seen0 a&!er all0 !%a! Allen Buc%anan s (u !e

e;2l c ! a#"u! !%e &ac! !%a! %e !a:es n"n- $eal !%e"ry !" #e >!"" n$e!erm na!e? !"

ma:e muc% %ea$1ay8 Ra1ls ma:es s m lar remar:s0 say n) !%a! > n !%e m"re

e;!reme an$ !an)le$ ns!ances "& n"n $eal !%e"ry 1e may #e a#le !" & n$ n"

sa! s&ac!"ry ans1er a! all8? I! seems !" me0 n "!%er 1"r$s0 !%a! !%e &un$amen!al

c%allen)e "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry s !% s3 ! s )enerally !%"u)%! !%a! a sys!ema! c n"n-

$eal !%e"ry 1"ul$ #e $es ra#le0 ye! !%e very $"ma n "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry seems

res s!an! !" sys!ema! c analys s8 T%e"r es0 #y !%e r na!ure0 s m2l &y ma!!ers8 Ye!

n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 #y !s very na!ure0 seems alm"s! %"2elessly c"m2le;8

I #el eve0 %"1ever0 !%a! !%e very c%allen)e "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry 2resen!s us

1 !% %ere s%"1s us !%e r )%! 1ay !" )" a#"u! ans1er n) !8 =e mus! & n$ a 1ay !"

s m2l &y sys!ema! 9e 1%a! 1e can 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry 1 !%"u! a!!em2! n) !"

s m2l &y "r sys!ema! 9e !%"se as2ec!s "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry !%a! cann"! #e

s m2l & e$ "r sys!ema! 9e$8 T% s 1 ll 2resuma#ly #e a $ && cul! en$eav"r8 =e

36 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 8


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mus! #e) n #y a!!em2! n) !" $ s! n)u s% !%"se !% n)s !%a! can #e s m2l & e$ an$

sys!ema! 9e$ &r"m !%"se !%a! cann"! K an$ ! s 2rec sely !% s0 I 2r"2"se0 !%a! !%e

N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s )""$ &"r8 Le! me e;2la n8

=e "&!en %ave all s"r!s "& va)ue0 unsure0 an$ c"n&l c! n) n!u ! "ns 1 !% n

n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 even 1%en 1e a)ree "n m"s! ma!!ers "& $eal !%e"ry8 C"ns $er

& rs!0 &r"m a N"9 c:ean 2" n!-"&-v e10 !%e &ac! !%a! m"s! 2e"2le n !%e Un !e$

S!a!es !"$ay %ave #ene& !!e$ &r"m mmensely &r"m 2as! n@us! ces8 T%e slau)%!er0

$ s2lacemen!0 an$ many &rau$s 2er2e!ra!e$ u2"n !%e "r ) nal na! ve 2e"2le "&

N"r!% Amer ca s an en"rm"us #lac: mar: "n !%e % s!"ry "& !%e Un !e$ S!a!es8 S"!"" s !%e ns! !u! "n "& slavery8 An$ many "& us !"$ay %ave #ene& !!e$ &r"m !%ese

n@us! ces8 Caucas an Amer cans &are &ar #e!!er !%an Na! ve Amer cans an$

A&r can Amer cans n every (uan! & a#le as2ec!8 =e l ve l"n)er0 ma:e m"re

m"ney0 are c"nv c!e$ &"r &e1er cr mes0 an$ s" "n8 T%e (ues! "n s3 1%a!0 n l )%!

"& !%e 2as! n@us! ces !%emselves an$ !%e $"1ns!ream e&&ec!s "& !%"se n@us! c

$"es @us! ce re(u re n"1P C"ns $er !%e ssue &r"m a N"9 c:ean 2" n!-"&-v e18

N"9 c: ma n!a ns !%a! !%e m"ral r )%!s !%a! %e ascr #es !" 2ers"ns are s"me%"1

&"un$e$ n !%e an! an $ea !%a! 2e"2le "u)%! !" #e !rea!e$ as >en$s- n-

!%emselves8?/ Acc"r$ n) !" N"9 c:0 1e mus! res2ec! 2ers"ns7 r )%!s as >s $e-

c"ns!ra n!s? "n %"1 1e !rea! !%em &"r !%e s m2le reas"n !%a! eac% 2ers"n0 > s a

se2ara!e 2ers"n % s s !%e "nly l &e %e %as8?G Ye! !%e $ea !%a! eac% 2ers"n %as

"ne an$ "nly "ne l &e !" l ve an$ !%ere&"re "u)%! !" #e a#le !" l ve ! as s%e 1 s%es0

37 %!!23441118rural%"me8"r)42u#s4%s)analys s4!s ...4Na! veOverv e182$& 38 See N"9 c: 5G 6 3 /- 5839 N"9 c: 5G 6 3 8


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s" l"n) as s%e $"es n"! &"rce "r c"erce "!%ers !" l ve a)a ns! !%e r 1 s%es 1% c% s

clearly N"9 c:7s #as c $ea6. seems %ar$ !" a22ly 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 Eac%

2ers"n 1%" %as #ene& !!e$ &r"m % s!"r cal n@us! ces %as @us! as muc% "& a cla m

!" l ve %er l &e as s%e 1 s%es as any"ne 1%" %as su&&ere$ !%e e&&ec!s "& !%

n@us! ces8 Ye! 1%a! s ! !" say !% sP I& 1e !a:e 2r"2er!y a1ay &r"m !%e 2ers"n

1%" %as #ene& !!e$ &r"m n@us! ces $ue !" n" &aul! "& %er "1n !" c"m2ensa!e

!%"se 1%" %ave su&&ere$ !%e e&&ec!s "& !%"se n@us! ces le! us say ! s %

ances!"rs 1%" c"mm !!e$ !%e n@us! ces 0 1e n!u ! vely n!ru$e u2"n %er a# l !y

!" l ve %er l &e as s%e 1 s%es8 I&0 "n !%e "!%er %an$0 1e $" n"! !a:e 2r"2er!y a1ay&r"m %er !" c"m2ensa!e !%"se 1%" %ave su&&ere$ 0 1e n!u ! vely n!ru$e u2"n

!%e r a# l !y !" l ve !%e r l ves as !%ey 1 s% s nce !%ey %ave #een un@us!ly $e2r ve$

"& %"l$ n)s !%ey 1"ul$ %ave %a$ & !%e r ances!"rs %a$ n"! #een un@us!ly $e2r ve$

"& !%e r 2r"2er!y 8 O&&%an$0 ! seems as !%"u)% $ &&eren! N"9 c:eans c"ul$ %av

very $ &&eren!0 as 1ell as uncer!a n0 !%"u)%!s a#"u! !% s s"r! "& case8 T%e

N"9 c:ean !% n:s !%a! n" "ne s%"ul$ #e >use$0? ye! ! seems !%a! n "r$er !"

c"m2ensa!e !%e v c! ms "& 2as! n@us! ces0 1e mus! n &ac! use s"me"ne K !%a! 1e

mus! n!ru$e u2"n n$ v $uals7 l ves n "r$er !" $eal 1 !% !%e &ac! !%a! 2as!

n$ v $uals7 l ves 1ere un@us!ly n!ru$e$ u2"n8 Ye! & N"9 c:eans can $ sa)ree

a#"u!0 an$ %ave (u !e uncer!a n v e1s as N"9 c: $"es a#"u!0 1%a! "u)%! !" #e

$"ne n !%ese cases0 %"1 can a N"9 c:ean $evel"2 a reas"na#le n"n- $eal !%e"ryP

N"1 c"ns $er a sec"n$ e;am2le "& n@us! ce8 >L #eral? 2"l ! cal !%e"r es

are un v"cal n !%e r c"mm !men! !" !%e v e1 !%a!0 n s"me sense0 all 2e"2le40 N"9 c: 5G 63 - says0 >S $e c"ns!ra n!s e;2ress !%e nv "la# l !y "& "!%er 2ers"ns8 Bu! 1%ymay n"! "ne v "la!e 2ers"ns &"r !%e )rea!er s"c al )""$P888T" use a 2ers"n $"es n"! su&& c en!lyres2ec! an$ !a:e acc"un! "& !%e &ac! !%a! %e s a se2ara!e 2ers"n0 !%a! !% s s !%e "nly l &e %e %as8?


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"u)%! !" #e !rea!e$ as 2"l ! cal e(uals8 D &&eren! !%e"r es ) ve very $ &&eren!

acc"un!s0 "& c"urse0 "& 1%a! !% s e(ual !y c"ns s!s n8 M"s! l #eral !%e"r es0 a! any

ra!e0 are c"mm !!e$ !" !%e $eas !%a! @us! ce re(u res all 2ers"ns n s"c e!y !"

en@"y !%e same #as c 2"l ! cal r )%!s0 suc% as r )%!s !" &ree$"m "& e;2ress "n0

ass"c a! "n0 $em"cra! c v"! n) r )%!s0 an$ s" "n8 Bu! n"1 1%a! a#"u! 1%en !%ese

s"r!s "& c"n$ ! "ns &a l !" e; s! n a s"c e!yP On !%e "ne %an$0 ! na!ural !" !% n:

!%a! &un$amen!al 2"l ! cal ne(ual ! es "u)%! !" #e el m na!e$ as e&& c en!ly as

2"ss #le8 On !%e "!%er %an$0 1%en 1e ac!ually l"": a! !%e a ms an$ 2"l c es "&

l #eral re&"rm s! )r"u2s0 an$ !%e n$ v $uals !%a! c"m2"se !%"se )r"u2s0 ns"c e! es !%a! &all s%"r! "& !%ese l #eral s!an$ar$s0 1e "&!en )e! a very $ &&eren!0

m"re c"m2le; 2 c!ure "& %"1 !%"se ne(ual ! es "u)%! !" el m na!e$8 S"0 &"r

e;am2le0 1%a! are 1e !" ma:e "& !%e &ac! !%a! s"me 1"men7s )r"u2s n Iran

e;2l c !ly &av"r )rassr""!s measures !" "verc"me n@us! ces K measures !%a! 1 ll

#e sens ! ve !" !%e nee$s "& 1"men >"n !%e )r"un$? n !%e real 1"rl$ K "ver

n!erna! "nally-#ase$ measuresP65 *rassr""!s m"vemen!s 1"ul$ seem !" #e

sens ! ve !" !%e : n$s "& m2"r!an!0 #u! su#!le0 !rans ! "n-rela!e$ c"ncerns v" ce$

#y !%e &"ll"1 n) Iran an 1"man !" !a:e @us! "ne e;am2le 3

!%e e;2er ence !%a! I 1an! !" !ell s n re)ar$s !" "ne "& my cl"ses! &am ly

mem#ers0 my &a!%er8 My &a!%er s a very : n$0 s ncere0 rel ) "us an$ 2 "us

41 T%e >One M ll "n S )na!ures? n Iran cam2a )n asser!s as !s a ms0 >!" $en! &y !%e every$ayc"ncerns "& 1"men0 es2ec ally !%e r le)al nee$s an$ 2r"#lems rely n) "n !%e nee$s $en! & e$ #y 1"men !%emselves?0 >!" carry n) "u! #"!!"m-u2 re&"rm an$ !" crea! n) c%an)e !%r"u)%)rassr""!s an$ c v l s"c e!y n ! a! ves0 an$ see:s !" s!ren)!%en 2u#l c ac! "n an$ em2"1er 1"men8? I! als" )"es "u! "& !s 1ay !" res!r c! 2ar! c 2a! "n n !%e m"vemen! !" Iran an men an$ 1"men8 11181e-c%an)e8"r)4s2 282%2Par! cle5/8
http://www.we-change.org/spip.php?article18http://www.we-change.org/spip.php?article18


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%uman #e n)8 A! !%e same ! me %e s $ra1n !" :n"1le$)e0 re&lec! "n an$

l") c as 1ell8 A! & rs!0 %e 1"ul$ !ry !" ans1er my cr ! c sms "& !%e s!a!us

(u" la1s 1 !% : n$ly a$v s n) me n"! !" see: !%e reas"ns an$ causes &"r

!%ese % s!"r c n@us! ces an$ $ scr m na! "n #e!1een men an$ 1"men8 He

1"ul$ say >'r"#a#ly !%ere s s"me 1 s$"m em#e$$e$ n !%e une(ual la1s

!%a! I %ave n"! &"un$0 an$ &"r !% s reas"n I s%"ul$ s!u$y m"re8? Due !" !% s

ra! "nale0 my &a!%er 1as a)a ns! c%an) n) !%e la1s8 I l s!ene$ !" my &a!%er0

s" 1 !% muc% 2ers s!ence an$ $ l )ence I researc%e$ !%e l !era!ure0 #u! !%e

m"re I s!u$ e$0 !%e $ee2er my c"nv c! "ns #ecame !%a! !%e la1s 1ere$ scr m na!"ry an$ un@us!8

= !% all !% s0 a su#c"nsc "us &ear )re1 n me8 =%a! & my 2a! en! &a!%er0

1%" %as s2en! % s l &e n 2r"m"! n) sc ence an$ rel ) "n an$ %as n"

e;2ec!a! "ns &r"m any"ne "r any ran: n)s0 1as !" #ec"me "&&en$e$ an$

!a:e a1ay % s : n$ness &r"m me8 Because "& !% s0 I s!"22e$ !%e $ scuss n)

!% s !"2 c 1 !% % m0 #u! I :e2! u2 "n my researc%8

A&!er @" n n) !%e cam2a )n an$ #a!!l n) 1 !% mysel&0 I #r"ac%e$ !%e su#@ec!

"& !%e m"vemen! an$ !s )"als 1 !% &r en$s an$ ne )%#"rs8 All !%e 1% le I

1as a&ra $ "& 1"rry n) my &a!%er8 Fr"m !%e c"rner "& my eye0 I :e2!

1a!c% n) &"r % s reac! "ns8

Tal: n) "& !%e cam2a )n am"n) &am ly an$ &r en$s resul!e$ n a var e!y "&

(ues! "ns re)ar$ n) !%e val $ !y "& !s )"als (ues! "ns !%a! rarely c"me u2

1%en !al: n) 1 !% "!%er ac! v s!s8 O& c"urse0 I $e&en$e$ !%e 1"man7s


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r )%!s m"vemen! "& my c"un!ry as 1ell as !%e nal ena#le r )%!s "& Musl m

1"men 1 !% s!r"n) reas"ns an$ I e;2la ne$ !%a! !%e curren! la1s are

crea! n) many 2r"#lems &"r 1"men8 I als" $escr #e$ !%e 2"s ! ve ne1

m"vemen!s n "!%er Islam c c"un!r es !%a! 1ere a!!em2! n) !" c"rrec! !%e r

"1n $ scr m na!"ry la1s8 S nce I #el eve !%a! Islam s a rel ) "n !%a!

$e&en$s @us! ce an$ e(ual !y0 a! leas! !%a! s 1%a! my &a!%er !au)%! me0 1%y

s%"ul$ Musl m 1"men #e (u e! n !%e &ace "& n@us! ceP Are 1e less

$eserv n) !%an "!%er 1"menP S nce 1e are Musl ms0 $"es !% s mean 1e

s%"ul$ #e 1 !%"u! r )%!sP

T%ese (ues! "ns c"n! nue$ &"r s"me ! me an$ I n"! ce$ my &a!%er care&ully

m"n !"r n) my ans1ers8 Days an$ 1ee:s 2asse$ #y n s m lar &as% "n un! l

I )ra$ually &el! !%a! !%e cl"u$s "& sa$ness an$ 1"rry 1ere s!ar! n) !" l &!

&r"m my &a!%er7s : n$ an$ c"m2ass "na!e &ace8 L !!le #y l !!le0 %e

$evel"2e$ a sm le "& su22"r! &"r me an$ my &ell"1 cam2a )ners8 F nally0

"ne $ay 1% le s )na!ures 1ere #e n) c"llec!e$ &r"m var "us &r en$s an$

&am ly0 my &a!%er as:e$ !" s )n an$ #e 2ar! "& !%e cam2a )n as 1ell8

T%a! n )%!0 I cr e$ !ears "& @"y8 T%e rel e& I &el! ma$e me l )%!er0 as &

c"ul$ &ly8 F"r s"me ! me I &el! !%a! my $ear &a!%er 1as $ s!anc n) % msel&

&r"m me an$ I !%"u)%! !%a! I 1as )" n) $"1n a 2a!% !%a! %e $ sa22r"ve$

"&8 H s #ec"m n) 2ar! "& !%e cam2a )n #r"u)%! us cl"ser8 I 1as s" %a22y8


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Yes0 I %ave learne$ a # ) less"n !%a! c%an)e !a:es ! me an$ I %ave !" #e

m"re 2a! en!8 I %ave real 9e$ !%a! n&luenc n) "!%er 2e"2le7s #el e&s an$

"2 n "ns !a:es ! me an$ $"esn7! %a22en "ver n )%!Q

=%a! s n!eres! n) s !%a! my &a!%er s n"1 very 2ers s!en! n 1an! n) !"

c"llec! s )na!ures &r"m &r en$s an$ c"-1"r:ers8 I %ave 1 !nesse$ many "&

% s ar)umen!s an$ $ scuss "ns n !%e e&&"r! !" c"nv nce % s &r en$s &"r !%e

nee$ &"r 1"men7s r )%!s0 as 1ell as !%e nee$ !" n!er2re! rel ) "n #ase$ "n

c%an) n) ! mes8 I )e! un#el eva#le ener)y &r"m % m an$ I #as: n !%e

%a22 ness !% s #r n)s me 8

L"n) #e&"re !%e s!ar! "& !%e >One M ll "n S )na!ure? cam2a )n0 I 1as

&rus!ra!e$ 1 !% !%e $ && cul! 2l )%! "& 1"men an$ I 1 s%e$ &r"m !%e #"!!"m

"& my %ear! &"r !%ese un&a r la1s a)a ns! 1"men !" c%an)e8 In )a!%er n)s

an$ var "us )e!-!")e!%ers0 I 1"ul$ #r"ac% !%e !"2 c "& !%e 2r"#lems !%a!

1"men &ace !"$ay0 #u! !%ere 1ere ! mes 1%en I 1"ul$ l"se !%e m"! va! "n

&"r $ scuss "ns an$ ar)umen!s8 I! 1as as &0 I 1as $ev" $ "& %"2e8 In &ac!0

2r "r !" 1"r: n) 1 !% !%e cam2a )n0 I 1"ul$ "nly s2ea: 1 !% s2ec & c

2e"2le suc% as cl"se &r en$s an$ s"me &am ly mem#ers0 an$ I 1"ul$

)enerally av" $ #r n) n) u2 !%e !"2 c "& 1"men7s $ && cul! es n lar)er

)r"u2s "r n !%e 2resence "& s!ran)ers8 S"me! mes I 1"ul$ #e as%ame$8

L"1 sel& es!eem an$ n"! :n"1 n) all !%e &ac!s 1"ul$ cause me !" s!"2 s%"r!

"& men! "n n) 1"men7s ssues an$ I 1"ul$ all"1 !%e s"c al )a!%er n) !" )"

a#"u! !s !ra$ ! "nal r"u! ne8


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H"1ever0 s nce @" n n) !%e cam2a )n0 I sl"1ly #e)an !" &eel a sense "&

c"nv c! "n an$ res2"ns # l !y n ar! cula! n) !%e 2a n an$ $ && cul! es "&

1"men0 an$ my sel& c"n& $ence n $ scuss n) !%ese ssues n s"c al

)a!%er n)s )re10 es2ec ally n !%e 2resence "& my &am ly el$ers8 In a 1ay0

ans1er n) 2e"2le7s (ues! "ns a#"u! !%e var "us $e!a ls "& !%e la1s ma$e

me even m"re a1are "& &em n sm an$ !%e s !ua! "n "& !%e 1"men n my

c"un!ry8 M"re m2"r!an!ly0 I :ne1 !%a! I 1as n"! al"ne8 n"1 n) !%a!

many unac(ua n!e$ &r en$s "& !%e cam2a )n n Te%ran an$ "!%er 2ar!s "&

Iran 1ere #usy c"llec! n) s )na!ures )ave me a )""$ &eel n)8 N" l"n)er&eel n) al"ne n !% s small c !y )ave me a sense "& su22"r! an$ %"2e8 Be n)

a mem#er "& !%e cam2a )n )ave me a ne1 sense "& $en! !y86

O&&%an$0 ! seems !%a! l #eral 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers 1 ll #e ncl ne$ !" $ sa)ree a

)rea! $eal a#"u! 1% c% : n$s "& !rans ! "n-rela!e$ 2re&erences are m"rally

le) ! ma!e8 One !%e "ne %an$0 !%e c"ncerns "& !%e 1"man @us! men! "ne$ seem

m2"r!an! !" !a:e ser "usly8 On !%e "!%er %an$0 s @us! ce really !%e s"r! "& !% n)

1e s%"ul$ &"res!all "u! "& c"ncern &"r &am l al rela! "nsP Fam ly s surely

m2"r!an!0 #u! s ! !%a! m2"r!an! 8e8 m2"r!an! en"u)% !" ma:e a $ &&erence as

!" %"1 1e $eal 1 !% n@us! ce P

I 2r"2"se !%a! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s !%e un (uely r )%! : n$ "&

me!%"$ &"r res"lv n) !%ese 2r"#lems3 !%e 2r"#lem #e n) !%a! 1%en ! c"mes !"

many & n"! m"s! ssues0 "ur m"ral n!u ! "ns are unclear0 uns!a#le0 an$ !%e

su#@ec! "& reas"na#le $ sa)reemen!8 I& 1e s !ua!e ra! "nal n$ v $uals 1%" acce2!

42 %!!234411181e-c%an)e8"r)4s2 282%2Par! cle


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s"me $eal !%e"ry T #e% n$ a ve l "& )n"rance !%a!0 & rs!0 2r"v $es !%em 1 !%

1%a!ever n&"rma! "n T says !%ey s%"ul$ #e a&&"r$e$ an$ a)a n0 n N"9 c:7s case0

!% s m )%! #e all % s!"r cal n&"rma! "n 0 #u! 1% c% als"0 2reven!s !%"se

2ar! es &r"m :n"1 n) 1% c% 2ar! cular v e1s !%ey %ave n !%e $"ma n "& n"n-

$eal !%e"ry0 1e n e&&ec! ma) ne a $ev ce #y 1% c% a$%eren!s "& T can c"me !" a

&a r res"lu! "n !" !%e n$e!erm nac es an$ reas"na#le $ sa)reemen!s !%a! 1e %ave

seen e; s! 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry8

T%e "#v "us (ues! "n a! !% s 2" n! s3 1%y s%"ul$ 2% l"s"2%ers a$"2! !%e

N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n !" res"lve !%ese ssues ns!ea$ "& a$"2! n) a>c"m2e! ! ve? a22r"ac% !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry K an a22r"ac% acc"r$ n) !" 1% c%

eac% "& !%em0 as an un (ue 2r"2"nen! "& !%a! $eal !%e"ry0 !%e"r 9es acc"r$ n) !"

% s "1n v e1s an$ n!u ! "ns !" c"nclus "ns 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ryP T% s s0

a&!er all0 !%e 1ay 1e usually $" !% n)s n 2% l"s"2%y0 sc ence0 an$ n$ee$0 n

#us ness an$ 2"l ! cs8 =e all"1 2e"2le0 an$ !%e"r es0 !" c"m2e!e0 an$ !%e en$ "&

!%e $ay0 !%e las! "ne s!an$ n) s !%e 1 nner "r !%e"ry 1e a$"2! 8 =%y !% n: !%a!

!% s s !%e 1r"n) a22r"ac% 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ryP

I 2r"2"se !%a! !%ere are !1" reas"ns 1%y m"ral an$ 2"l ! cal !%e"r s!s

s%"ul$ 1 s% !" c"me !" a &a r res"lu! "n !" !%e uncer!a n! es an$ $ sa)reemen!s

!%a! ar se 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 F rs!0 I 2r"2"se !%a! $ue !" !%ese uncer!a n! es

an$ $ sa)reemen!s0 n"n- $eal !%e"ry seems !" me un (uely ll-su !e$ !" !%e

c"m2e! ! "n m"$el8 I! s n!eres! n)0 I !% n:0 !%a! !%ere really %asn7! #een any

c"m2e! ! "n0 as ! 1ere0 1 !% res2ec! !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 As 1e %ave seen n !%e

cases "& Ra1ls0 N"9 c:0 D1"r: n0 an$ Buc%anan0 eac% "& !%"se !%e"r s!s se!s as $e

!%e m"s! c"n!en! "us ssues "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry &"r an"!%er $ay8 T%e reas"n &"r


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!% s0 ! seems !" me0 s !%a! n "r$er &"r a c"m2e! ! "n !" even !a:e 2lace0 1e mus!

%ave s"me $ea "& 1%a! !%e >& n s% l ne? s K "& 1%a! a )""$ !%e"ry 1"ul$ l"":

l :e0 #r"a$ly s2ea: n)8 My 2" n! s s m2ly !%a! 1% le 1e $" seem !" %ave s"me

$ea "& 1%a! !%e & n s% l ne l"":s l :e 1%en ! c"me !" $eal !%e"ry K 1e Ra1ls ans

#el eve !%a! Ra1ls7 !%e"ry ma:es !%e #es! sense "& "ur v e1s "& @us! ce$ue res2ec!? &"r "ne

an"!%er as !%e"r s!s0 an$ >$ue %um l !y?0 !%a! are 2ar! cularly relevan! 1 !% n

n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 =e %ave seen0 "nce a)a n0 !%a! !%ere seem !" #e unusually

#r"a$0 an$ $ee20 levels "& uncer!a n!y an$ $ sa)reemen! 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry

K !%a! !%ere seems !" #e l !!le a)reemen! am"n) m"ral an$ 2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%ers

a#"u! 1% c% ma!!ers are even relevan! 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 T%ere are0 !

seems !" me0 !1" 1ays !" 1ays !" res2"n$ !" !% s 2r"#lem8 One 1ay s !" 2r"cee$

as 1e $" n m"s! "!%er areas "& 2% l"s"2%y K #y 1ay "& n$ v $ual 2% l"s"2%ers

2resen! n)0 $e&en$ n)0 an$ sys!ema! 9 n) !%e r "1n 2% l"s"2% cal n!u ! "ns0 1 !%

!%e %"2e !%a! en"u)% "!%er 2% l"s"2%ers 1 ll s%are !%e r n!u ! "ns s" !%a! many

"!%er 2% l"s"2%ers 1 ll & n$ !%e r !%e"ry 2laus #le8 T% s n"! "nly seems %"2eless

!" me n n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 %"1ever< I 2r"2"se !%a! ! s unacce2!a#ly s"l 2s s! c8 I


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!% n:0 & rs!0 !%a! 2rec sely #ecause "& %"1 muc% $ sa)reemen! !%ere s n n"n-

$eal !%e"ry0 any !%e"ry !%a! a 2% l"s"2%er #ases "n % s4%er "1n n!u ! "ns s n"!

l :ely !" )a n many a$%eren!s0 le! al"ne 1 $es2rea$ acce2!ance8 I! als" seems !"

me0 %"1ever0 !%a! !% s a22r"ac% s%"1s s"me!% n) l :e an na$e(ua!e am"un! "&

res2ec! &"r "ur &ell"1 !%e"r s!s0 an$ n$ee$0 a lac: "& $ue %um l !y "n !%e 2ar! "&

!%e 2% l"s"2%er 1%" !%e"r 9es n suc% a 1ay8 I! seems !" me !%a! 1%en 1e

rec")n 9e 2ar! cularly #r"a$ ma!!ers "& $ sa)reemen! n a 2ar! cular $"ma n "&

n(u ry am"n) 2e"2le 1e "!%er1 se a)ree 1 !% an$ !a:e !" #e reas"na#le 8e8

!%"se 1%" a! leas! a)ree 1 !% us "n ma!!ers "& $eal !%e"ry 0 1e %ave an "#l )a! "n!" ) ve eac% suc% 2ers"n7s n!u ! "ns a >&a r %ear n)? K s"me!% n) !%a!0 "nce

a)a n0 !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n seems !" #e a $ev ce &"r acc"m2l s% n)8

N"1 I e;2ec! !%a! !%e &"ll"1 n) (ues! "n m )%! #e ra se$ %ere3 1%y !% n:

!%a! suc% an a22r"ac% s a22r"2r a!e merely &"r n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 ra!%er !%an

$eal !%e"ry0 "r n$ee$0 2% l"s"2%y (u !e )enerallyP '% l"s"2%ers $"0 a&!er all0

$ sa)ree (u !e "&!en a#"u! 1%a! s relevan! n $ &&eren! & el$s8 S%"ul$ 1e #e &a r

!" all 2% l"s"2% cal v e1s n all $"ma ns0 suc% as ma) ne a N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n &"r e2 s!em"l") s!s0 "r 2% l"s"2%ers "& m n$0 an$ s" "nP As an as $e0 I

ac!ually !% n: !%a! !%ere s s"me!% n) reas"na#le a#"u! !% s8 I! %as al1ays s!ruc:

me as 2ecul ar !%a! $ual s!s n !%e 2% l"s"2%y "& m n$ suc% as Dav $ C%almers

seem s" c"nv nce$ !%a! >2%en"menal c"nsc "usness? ra ses ser "us 2% l"s"2% cal

2r"#lems0 !%a! >9"m# es? are c"nce va#le0 an$ s" "n0 1%en as a ma!!er "& &ac!

"!%er c"nsc en! "us 2% l"s"2%ers suc% as Dan el Denne!!0 mysel&0 an$ many

"!%ers ser "usly re2"r! !" & n$ n"!% n) very mys!er "us a#"u! c"nsc "usness0

9"m# es !" #e nc"nce va#le0 an$ s" "n8 H"1 can 1e #e sure !%a! !%ere s a


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2r"#lem 1%en0 a22aren!ly0 many 2e"2le 1%" are as c"nsc en! "us an$

s"2% s! ca!e$ as 1e are $ sa)ree 1 !% !%e very 2rem ses 1 !% 1% c% 1e #e) nP

S! ll0 as m2"r!an! as I !% n: !%ese (ues! "ns are0 I $" n"! 1an! !" 2us% !% s l ne "&

!%"u)%! !"" &ar8 I 1an! !" su))es! ns!ea$ !%a! 1%en ! c"mes !" $eal !%e"ry n

2"l ! cal 2% l"s"2%y a! leas!0 1e "&!en are @us! & e$ n re@ec! n) "!%ers v e1s an$

n!u ! "ns8 I! seems !" me !%a! !%e >c"m2e! ! "n? m"$el s a22r"2r a!e &"r $eal

!%e"ry s m2ly #ecause !%ere are m"ral an$ 2"l ! cal n!u ! "ns n !% s $"ma n !%a!

are 1 $ely %el$ K n!u ! "ns !%a! 1e can a22eal !" s%"1 !%a! "ur &av"re$ !%e"ry

$"es a muc% #e!!er @"# "& sys!ema! 9 n) c"mm"n n!u ! "ns !%an "!%er !%e"r es8I! seems !" me0 !" c"nclu$e0 !%a! $eal !%e"ry s very $ &&eren! !%an n"n- $eal

!%e"ry8 In $eal !%e"ry0 !%ere s muc% c"mm"n )r"un$ !" #e %a$8 I& 1e are !"

ma:e any %ea$1ay n n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 n c"n!ras!0 1e mus! )ra22le 1 !% !%e

$ s! nc! lac: "& c"mm"n )r"un$8 An$ !% s0 I ma n!a n0 s 1%a! !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n s an un (uely )""$ $ev ce &"r $" n)8

58 8THE NON-IDEAL ORI*INAL ' OSITION E 'LICATED

Le! me n"1 e;2l ca!e !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n n m"re $e!a l s" !%a! 1e

can see %"10 "r s" I #el eve0 ! lea$s us !" a Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal

T%e"ry !%a! sys!ema! 9es 1%a! can #e sys!ema! 9e$ 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry n a

1ay !%a! I !% n: 1e 1 ll see 2aves a 2a!% !%a! 1 ll ena#le us !" res"lve0 n a

2r nc 2le$ 1ay0 !%e uncer!a n! es an$ ma!!ers "& reas"na#le $ sa)reemen! 1 !% n

n"n- $eal !%e"ry !%a! cann"! #e sys!ema! 9e$8

=e %ave alrea$y seen !%a! !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n

are !" #e c"nce ve$ as acce2! n)0 an$ as m"! va!e$ #y !%e acce2!ance "&0


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1% c%ever $eal !%e"ry0 T0 1e &av"r8 T%e ne;! (ues! "n !" a$$ress s !%e

s2ec & ca! "n "& !%e ve l "& )n"rance8 T%e ve l "& )n"rance0 as I %ave alrea$y

su))es!e$0 "u)%! !" a&&"r$ !%e 2ar! es :n"1le$)e "& 1%a!ever n&"rma! "n "ne7s

&av"re$ $eal !%e"ry0 T0 says !%ey s%"ul$ #e a&&"r$e$8 T%us0 !" re2ea! a 2" n

ma$e earl er0 a N"9 c:ean N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ a&&"r$ !s 2ar! es

!%e #es! ava la#le :n"1le$)e "& !%e % s!"ry "& 2r"2er!y %"l$ n)s0 n@us! ces0 an$

s" "n8 T%e na!ural (ues! "n n"1 s3 & !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n a&&"r$s !s

2ar! es 1%a!ever :n"1le$)e T says !%ey s%"ul$ #e a&&"r$e$0 1%a! ve l "&

)n"rance s !%ere0 reallyP T%e ans1er !" !% s (ues! "n 1as alrea$y men! "ne$ nmy ar)umen! &"r !%e use "& an "r ) nal 2"s ! "n n n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 T%e ve l "&

)n"rance n !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n se!s !1" s"r!s "& l m !s "n !%e

2ar! es7 $el #era! "ns3 ! s%"ul$ 1 !%%"l$ &r"m !%em any an$ all :n"1le$)e

!%a! "ne7s &av"re$ $eal !%e"ry0 T0 says s%"ul$ #e 1 !%%el$ &r"m !%em &"r

Ra1ls an0 !% s 1 ll #e all >sel&- n$ v $ua! n)? n&"rma! "n suc% as "ne7s race0 se;0

e!c8 < #u! ! s%"ul$ als" 1 !%%"l$ &r"m !%em any an$ all :n"1le$)e "& !%e

2ar! cular v e1s a#"u! n"n- $eal !%e"ry !%a! !%ey0 as an a$%eren! "& T0 m )%!

%"l$8 I! s n v r!ue "& !% s &ea!ure0 I su#m !0 !%a! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n

re2resen!s a &a r res"lu! "n !" !%e $ sa)reemen!s an$ n$e!erm nac es !%a!

2r"2"nen!s "& T &ace 1 !% n n"n- $eal !%e"ry an$ s%"ul$ c"mm"nly 1an! a &a r

res"lu! "n !"0 & my ar)umen! n s c"rrec! 8

T% s #r n)s us !" a s"me1%a! ve; n) ssue3 !%e ssue "& 1%"0 "r 1%a!0 !%e

2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n re2resen! an$ %"1 8 H"1 can 1e

s(uare !%e $ea !%a! all "& !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n acce2!0

an$ are m"! va!e$ #y0 1% c%ever 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry 1e &av"r 1 !% !%e $ea


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!%a! !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s su22"se$ !" #e $ev ce &"r >$eal n) 1 !%

n@us! ce8? T%e ans1er s !%a! 1e mus! $ s! n)u s% !%e 2r nc 2les acce2!e$ #y0 an$

!%e m"! va! "ns "&0 !%e 2ar! es &r"m 1%a! !%e 2ar! es can e;2ec! 2e"2le n !%e real

1"rl$ !" acce2! an$ #e m"! va!e$ !" $"8 T%e #as c $ea #e% n$ !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 a&!er all0 s !% s3 1e 1an! !" :n"1 1% c% 2r nc 2les "u)%! !"

)"vern s"c al !rans ! "n !" a &ully @us! s!a!e "& a&&a rs ) ven !%e &ac! !%a! many

2e"2le n !%e real 1"rl$ 1 ll n"! acce2! "r #e m"! va!e$ !" c"n&"rm !" 1% c%ever

2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry 1e en$"rse8 In l )%! "& !% s0 1e can see0 I !% n:0 !%a! ! s

em nen!ly sens #le &"r !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n !" acce2!an$ #e m"! va!e$ #y 1% c%ever 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry 1e es2"use0 #u! als"0

!%a! !%ey s%"ul$ a m !" c"me !" an a)reemen! "n 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry

&r"m !%e :n"1le$)e !%a! many 2e"2le n !%e real 1"rl$ 1 ll re@ec! !%e r &av"re$

2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry0 an$ n$ee$0 even !%e r 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8

T% s s !%e relevan! n"! "n "& >2ar! al c"m2l ance8? T%e 2ar! es mus! l"": !" a)ree

!" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry n l )%! "& !%e levels "& acce2!ance an$

m"! va! "n !%ey can e;2ec! "& ac!ual 2e"2le n !%e real 1"rl$8

=e can n"1 ma:e sense "& 2rec sely 1%" !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n re2resen!0 an$ %"18 In!u ! vely0 eac% 2ers"n s un$er an

"#l )a! "n !" su22"r! @us! s"c al c"n$ ! "ns8 T%e &ac! !%a! !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-

I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n acce2!0 an$ are m"! va!e$ #y0 !%e c"rrec! 2r nc 2les "&

n"n- $eal !%e"ry means0 !%en0 !%a! !%e 2ar! es re2resen! all "& us n !%e ac!ual

1"rl$ (ua !%e "#l )a! "n 1e are un$er !" su22"r! @us! c"n$ ! "ns even !%"u)%0 as

a ma!!er "& &ac!0 many "& us &a l !" l ve u2 !" "ur "#l )a! "n !" su22"r! !%"se

c"n$ ! "ns8 T% s 2" n! can %el2 us see %"1 1%a! m )%! a22ear !" #e an


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nc"%erence "& !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s n"! an nc"%erence a! all8 T%e

"s!ens ve nc"%erence s !% s3 %"1 can !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n a)ree !" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry ) ven !%e r :n"1le$)e !%a!0 "nce

!%e ve l "& )n"rance s >ra se$? an$ !%ey & n$ !%emselves n s"c e!y0 !%ey m )%!

re@ec! !%e 2r nc 2les a)ree$ !" "u! "& !%e r re@ec! "n0 n !%e real 1"rl$0 "& !%e

c"rrec! 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry P T%e ans1er !" !% s (ues! "n s s m2le8 =e are

!ry n) !" arr ve a! 2r nc 2les s2ec &y n) 1%a! @us! ce re(u res %ere an$ n"1 n !%e

real 1"rl$ "n !%e assum2! "n !%a! many 2e"2le 1 ll n"! l ve u2 !" !%e "#l )a! "n

!%ey are un$er !" su22"r! @us! c"n$ ! "ns8 I! s 2er&ec!ly sens #le0 !%en0 &"r !%e2ar! es !" #e m"! va!e$ #y 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry !%a! !%ey can e;2ec!

!%emselves !" re@ec! n !%e real 1"rl$8 T%e r m"! va! "n re2resen!s !%e $ea !%a!

!%ey are un$er an "#l )a! "n !" su22"r! @us! c"n$ ! "ns re)ar$less "& 1%e!%er !%ey

ac!ually l ve u2 !" !%a! "#l )a! "n8

T% s c"nce2! "n "& !%e m"! va! "n "& !%e 2ar! es s%e$s s"me l )%! "n %"1

!%e 2ar! es "u)%! !" $el #era!e8 S nce !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal

'"s ! "n are c"nce ve$ as acce2! n) !%e c"rrec! 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry0 !%ey

mus! #e m"! va!e$ !" a$vance !%e n!eres!s !%a! 2e"2le n !%e real 1"rl$ 1"ul$

%ave "nly ns"&ar as !%"se n!eres!s are c"ns"nan! 1 !% !%e $eman$s "& $eal

!%e"ry8 T%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 as suc%0 "u)%! !" ac! vely

a m !" !%1ar! any an$ all >un@us!? en$s "& n$ v $uals n !%e real 1"rl$ an$

ns!ea$ a m !" a$vance !%e n!eres!s !%a! >un@us! n$ v $uals? 1"ul$ %ave & !%"se

n$ v $uals $ $ l ve u2 !" !%e r "#l )a! "n !" su22"r! @us! ns! !u! "ns8 T% s

means0 n s%"r!0 !%a! eac% 2ar!y !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n 1 ll %ave !"

reas"n c"un!er&ac!ually a#"u! n$ v $uals n !%e real 1"rl$8 T%ey 1 ll %ave !"


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$el #era! ve 2r"cess0 as "22"se$ !" 2reem2! vely se!! n) 2"!en! ally relevan!

ssues as $e a! !%e very "u!se!8 Sec"n$0 & !%e 2r nc 2les "& N"n-I$eal T%e"ry 1e

arr ve a! "n !%e #as s "& !% s assum2! "n c"n&l c! 1 !% "ur c"ns $ere$ m"ral

n!u ! "ns0 1e can al1ays )" #ac:0 rev se N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 an$ !ry

a)a n 1 !% a $ &&eren! s2ec & ca! "n al!%"u)%0 as I !% n: 1e 1 ll s""n see0 !%e

$e&aul! s!ance !%a! I am a$v"ca! n) $"es n"! lea$ !" 2r nc 2les !%a! "&&en$ "ur

c"nv c! "ns 8

Be&"re m"v n) "n0 ! m2"r!an! !" see 1%y Ra1ls ans u! l 9 n) !%e N"n-

I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n "u)%! n"! !" c"nce ve !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal'"s ! "n as a m n) s m2ly !" a$vance !%e r s%ares "& !%e >2r mary )""$s? #as c

r )%!s an$ l #er! es0 "22"r!un ! es0 1eal!%0 nc"me0 an$ s"c al #ases "& sel&-

res2ec! !%a! Ra1ls %as !%e 2ar! es n % s $eal "r ) nal 2"s ! "n $el #era!e

a#"u!86 F"r Ra1ls0 ! s 2rec sely !%e "r ) nal 2"s ! "n7s s!r c!-c"m2l ance

assum2! "n !%a! ma:es ! ra! "nal &"r !%e 2ar! es !" !%e "r ) nal 2"s ! "n !"

$el #era!e "n !%e #as s "& 2r mary )""$s8 S nce !%e 2ar! es :n"1 5 !%a! !%e

2r mary )""$s are all-2ur2"se )""$s &"r 2ursu n) c"nce2! "ns "& !%e )""$0 an$

!%ey :n"10 n v r!ue "& !%e assum2! "n "& s!r c!-c"m2l ance0 !%a! !%ey 1 ll n"!

un$er)" any c"s!s n rece v n) !%"se )""$s0 !%ey can ra! "nally assume !%a!

!%ey $" 1an! m"re "& !%"se )""$s ra!%er !%an &e1er8 T%e 2r"#lem0 "& c"urse0 s

!%a! "nce ma!!ers "& !rans ! "n are #r"u)%! n!" !%e 2 c!ure as !%ey are 1 !% n

n"n- $eal !%e"ry 0 !%e 2ar! es mus! !a:e ser "usly !%e $ea !%a! !%ey m )%! %ave !"

su&&er en"rm"us c"s!s n "r$er !" en@"y m"re "& a 2r mary )""$8 =e can see %"1

!% s s #y re&err n) #ac: !" !%e au!"# ")ra2% cal s!"ry !"l$ #y !%e a&"remen! "ne$

43 See Ra1ls 5G 50 5GGGa 3 5 8


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Iran an 1"man8 T% s 1"man a22ears !" re)ar$ %ersel& as %av n) muc% !" )a n n

a cer!a n 2r"cess "& ac% ev n) l #eral-$em"cra! c r )%!s8 S%e seems !" see a )rass-

r""!s a22r"ac% as all"1 n) %er !" ma n!a n a %eal!%y rela! "ns% 2 1 !% %er &a!%er0

an$ sees %ersel& as learn n) an$ $evel"2 n) as a resul! "& %er en)a)emen! n !%e

s"c al m"vemen!8 T" s m2ly 2r"v $e %er 1 !% m"re r )%!s an$ l #er! es n s"me

"!%er 1ay K #y0 &"r e;am2le0 Un !e$ Na! "ns n!erven! "n K m )%! se! #ac: !%ese

n!eres!s !%a! s%e c"nce ves "& %ersel& as %av n)8 T%us0 !%ere s a sense n 1% c%

#as c r )%!s an$ l #er! es are n"! all-2ur2"se )""$s un$er c"n$ ! "ns "& n@us! ce8

T%ey are n"! necessar ly )""$s &"r ac% ev n) !%e var "us !rans ! "nal )""$s !%a!2e"2le can #e c"ncerne$ 1 !%8

T%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n mus! &"r !% s reas"n #e

c"nce ve$ as a#an$"n n) !%e s n)le-m n$e$ c"ncern !%ey %a$ 1 !% 2r mary )""$s

n Ra1ls7 $eal !%e"re! c "r ) nal 2"s ! "n8 Ra1ls7 2r mary )""$s are !" rema n

n !%e #ac:)r"un$ "& !%e r $el #era! "ns0 !" #e sure0 @us! ns"&ar as &"r reas"ns

alrea$y ) ven !%e 2ar! es %ave a #ac:)r"un$ $es re !" real 9e !%e &ully @us!

c"n$ ! "ns !%a! Ra1ls7 !1" 2r nc 2les "& @us! ce s2ec &y !%e 2ar! es arr ve$ a!

!%"se 2r nc 2les0 a&!er all0 #y $el #era! n) a#"u! 2r mary )""$s 8 T%e 2" n! s

s m2ly !%a! ns"&ar as a! !% s 2" n! "& !%e r $el #era! "ns !%e 2ar! es can clearly

%ave $ ver) n) n!eres!s K n !%e $eal s!a)e eac% 2ar!y %a$ n!eres!s n !%e same

2r mary )""$s< a! !% s s!a)e $ &&eren! 2ers"ns may %ave $ &&eren!0 an$ even

"22"s n)0 !rans ! "n-rela!e$ c"ncerns K !%e 2ar! es can n" l"n)er ra! "nally

re)ar$ Ra1ls an 2r mary )""$s as !%e a22r"2r a!e #as s &"r !%e r $el #era! "ns8

T%e (ues! "n !%en0 "#v "usly0 s3 "n 1%a! #as s s%"ul$ !%ey $el #era!eP T%e "nly

2laus #le rema n n) ans1er 1"ul$ seem !" #e !%e "ne !%a! Ra1ls e;2l c !ly


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n!r"$uce$ 2r mary )""$s n % s $eal !%e"re! c ar)umen! n "r$er !" av" $3 !%e

ac!ual n!eres!s n&"rme$ 2re&erences0 2er%a2s !%a! !%e 2ar! es can e;2ec! !"

%ave "nce !%e ve l "& )n"rance s l &!e$866

Is !% s m"ve a1ay &r"m 2r mary )""$s 2r"#lema! cP I 2r"2"se0 !" !%e

c"n!rary0 !%a! ! llum na!es an m2"r!an! $ &&erence #e!1een $eal !%e"ry an$

n"n- $eal !%a! Ra1ls % msel& a22ears !" rec")n 9e8 F"r al!%"u)% Ra1ls says !%a!0

>Jus! ce as &a rness re@ec!s !%e $ea "& c"m2ar n) an$ ma; m 9 n) "verall 1ell-

#e n) n ma!!ers "& 2"l ! cal @us! ce?6 0 1%en %e $ scusses !%e case "& slavery a

clear case "& n@us! ce 0 %e n"! "nly says0 >I %ave assume$ !%a! ! s al1ays !%"se 1 !% !%e lesser l #er!y 1%" mus! #e c"m2ensa!e$8 =e are al1ays !" a22ra se !%e

s !ua! "n &r"m !%e r 2" n!-"&-v e1 ?6 < %e als" says0 $ scuss n) !%e case "& %"1 !"

$eal 1 !% n@us! ce 1%en !%"se 1%" su&&er n@us! ce may #e una#le !" l"": "u! &"r

!%e r #es! n!eres!s0 !%a!0 >'a!ernal s! c $ec s "ns are !" #e )u $e$ #y !%e

n$ v $ual7s "1n se!!le$ 2re&erences an$ n!eres!s as &ar as !%ey are n"! rra! "nal0

"r &a l n) :n"1le$)e "& !%ese0 #y !%e !%e"ry "& 2r mary )""$s8?6 Ra1ls % msel&

seems !" rec")n 9e0 !%en0 !%a! 1%en ! c"mes !" n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 ! s n$ v $uals7

2re&erences K a! leas! ns"&ar as !%e r 2re&erences are ra! "nal an$ a$e(ua!ely

n&"rme$ K !%a! are !%e m"s! a22r"2r a!e measure "& n!er2ers"nal c"m2ar s"ns8

T%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ a m !" a$vance !%e

>@us! n!eres!s? "& !%e 2e"2le !%ey re2resen!0 !%en0 1%ere !%ese are un$ers!""$ as

!%e >ra! "nal? an$ >a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$? 2re&erences !%ey 1"ul$ %ave & !%ey44 See e8)8 Ra1ls .. 3 0 5 /-/45 Ra1ls .. 3 5//46 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5/847 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5G


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l ve$ u2 !" !%e r "#l )a! "ns !" su22"r! @us! ns! !u! "ns ! s surely als" !%e case

!%a! n$ v $uals %ave 2ree; s! n) "#l )a! "ns n"! !" ac! "u!s $e "& !%e #"un$s "&

"r$ nary m"ral !y K suc% as #y c"mm !! n) mur$er K s" !%ere 2ar! es 1 ll %ave !"

!a:e n!" acc"un! an a$$ ! "nal >m"ral 9 n)? c"ns!ra n! "n !%e r c"un!er&ac!ual

reas"n n) as 1ell 8 T%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n seem !" #e n a

$ && cul! K an$ n$ee$0 alm"s! m2"ss #le K s !ua! "n0 !%en8 H"1 are !%ey !" ma:e

!%ese s"r!s "& c"un!er&ac!ual es! ma! "nsP I! m )%! c"me as a sur2r se !%a! I $"

n"! !% n: !%a! 1e can0 n"r !%a! 1e nee$ !"0 se!!le !% s (ues! "n 2r "r !" all"1 n)

!%e 2ar! es !" $el #era!e !" a 2r nc 2le "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 I !% n: !%a! 1e s%"ul$rec")n 9e K an$ n$ee$0 !%a! !%e 2ar! es !%emselves s%"ul$ rec")n 9e K !%a! !%ere

may #e a )rea! am"un! "& $ sa)reemen! "ver !%e very (ues! "n "& 1%a!

n$ v $uals7 n!eres!s 1"ul$ #e & !%"se n$ v $uals 1ere >ra! "nal?0 >a$e(ua!ely

n&"rme$?0 >m"ral?0 an$ >l ve$ u2 !" !%e r "#l )a! "n !" $es re @us! ns! !u! "ns8? I

!% n: !%a! 1e can )e! &r"m !%ese a$m !!e$ly an$ 2r"#a#ly nev !a#ly va)ue an$

un$ers2ec & e$ $eas !" a Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal T%e"ry0 an$ !%en

see0 n l )%! "& !%ese ssues0 2rec sely %"1 ! s !%a! !%a! 2r nc 2le re(u res a

sec"n$ary 2r nc 2le !" %el2 us res"lve !%ese ssues $"1ns!ream0 as ! 1ere8 Le!

me e;2la n8

5868FROM THE NON-IDEAL ORI*INAL ' OSITION TO A FUNDAMENTAL ' RINCI'LE OF NON-IDEAL THEORY

=e n"1 %ave 1%a! I !a:e !" #e a &ull s2ec & ca! "n "& !%e s !ua! "n "& !%e N"n-

I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n as c"n@" ne$ 1 !% 1% c%ever $eal !%e"ry 1e l :e 8 T%e

2ar! es are !" #e c"nce ve$ as a m n) !" a$vance !%e a ms !%ey can e;2ec! !" %ave0

"nce !%e ve l "& )n"rance s ra se$0 & !%ey 1ere ra! "nal0 a$e(ua!ely


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n&"rme$0 an$ acce2!e$ !%e c"rrec! 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry0 v un$er

un@us! c"n$ ! "ns8 In a$$ ! "n0 1e s%"ul$ als" 2resuma#ly a$$ !1" m"re

c"ns!ra n!s8 F rs!0 !%e 2ar! es s%"ul$ 2resuma#ly v res2ec! any an$ all m"ral

"#l )a! "ns !%ey m )%! %ave m"re #r"a$ly acc"r$ n) !" 1 $ely acce2!e$

s!an$ar$s0 suc% as "r$ nary 2r"% # ! "ns a)a ns! mur$er0 !%e&!0 $ece2! "n0 e!c80

"r0 & "ne #el eves a 2ar! cular m"ral !%e"ry0 suc% as an! an sm0 U! l !ar an sm0

"r s"me &"rm "& + r!ue T%e"ry0 1%a!ever !%a! !%e"ry 2rescr #es 8 Sec"n$0 !%e

2ar! es s%"ul$ als" v acce2! 1%a!ever 2r nc 2les "& rec! & ca! "n0 "r

c"m2ensa!"ry @us! ce0 m )%! &all $ rec!ly "u! "& !%e $eal !%e"ry !%ey acce2!86/

T%e (ues! "n n"1 s %"10 ) ven all "& !%ese &ea!ures "& !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 !%e 2ar! es !" "u)%! !" $el #era!e8 S"me rea$ers0 &"ll"1ers "&

Ra1ls0 m )%! 1"n$er 1%e!%er0 & Ra1ls7 $eal !%e"ry s acce2!e$ &"r ns!ance 0

48 I %ave assume$ s" &ar !%a! !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n are !" $el #era!e &r"m2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry !" 2r nc 2les "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 T% s leaves "u! s"me!% n) 2"!en! ally

m2"r!an!8 S"me $eal !%e"r es0 suc% as R"#er! N"9 c:7s l #er!ar an !%e"ry0 nclu$e "r en!a lcer!a n 2r nc 2les "& rec! & ca! "n "r c"m2ensa! "n8 S"0 &"r ns!ance0 as N"9 c: 5G 63 0 5 - 05 0 ./0 .-5 2" n!s "u!0 % s acc"un! "& na!ural r )%!s seems !" nclu$e a na!ural r )%! "&2ers"ns !" %ave 2as! v "la! "ns "& !%e r "!%er r )%!s e8)80 !%e r r )%!s !" l &e0 l #er!y0 an$ 2r"2er!y 0"r !%e 2as! v "la! "n "& !%e r ances!"rs7 r )%!s r )%!s 1% c% 1"ul$ #e )enerally res2ec!e$ n !%es"r! "& >m n mal?0 l #er!ar an s!a!e N"9 c: es2"uses !" #e rec! & e$0 1%ere !% s s un$ers!""$0r"u)%ly s2ea: n)0 as e !%er re!urn n) !" !%"se 1%"se r )%!s %ave #een v "la!e$ 1%a! %as #een!a:en &r"m !%em e8)8 !%e r 2r"2er!y 0 "r c"m2ensa! n) !%em &"r !% n)s !%a! %ave #eenun@us!ly !a:en #u! cann"! #e re!urne$ suc% as !%e &ree$"m "& l ves "& "nes ances!"rs & !%ey %ave

#een enslave$ "r su#@ec! !" )en"c $e 8 S!r c!ly s2ea: n)0 suc% 2r nc 2les are 2r nc 2les "& n"n-$eal !%e"ry8 S! ll0 s nce !%ey &all "u! "& $eal !%e"ry $ rec!ly0 !%ey are n"! !" #e arr ve$ a! v a !%eN"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n8 In !% s case0 !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ #e un$ers!""$n"! as es!a#l s% n) all "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry0 #u! ns!ea$0 as & ll n) "u! !%e res! "& n"n- $eal !%e"ry) ven 1%a!ever 2r nc 2les "& rec! & ca! "n &all $ rec!ly "u! "& $eal !%e"ry8 See R"#er!s7 ..an!%"l")y "& several recen! 2a2ers a#"u! rec! & ca!"ry @us! ce &"r a survey "& s"me recen! !%"u)%!a#"u! rec! & ca!"ry @us! ce8


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!%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n "u)%! !" #e c"nce ve$ as reas"n n)

acc"r$ n) !" !%e same s!ra!e)y !%a! Ra1ls m2u!es !" !%e 2ar! es !" % s $eal

!%e"re! c "r ) nal 2"s ! "n3 !%e s"-calle$ >ma; m n? rule0 !%e rule !%a! selec!s !%e

>#es! 1"rs!? "u!c"me0 "r ma; m 9es !%e s!an$ n) "& !%e 1"rs! "&& n s"c e!y86G

T%ere are clear reas"ns 1%y !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$

n"! reas"n acc"r$ n) !" ma; m n0 %"1ever0 even & a)a ns! Ra1ls7 many cr ! cs

1e acce2! Ra1ls7 use "& ma; m n 1 !% n $eal !%e"ry8 Ra1ls0 &"r % s "1n 2ar!0

n"!es !%a! ma; m n s "nly ra! "nal 1%en !%ree c"n$ ! "ns are @" n!ly sa! s& e$3

namely0 1%en 5 !%e $el #era! n) 2ar!y - es are )n"ran! "& 2r"#a# l ! es< !%e2ar! es care very muc% a#"u! av" $ n) a su#-ma; m n resul! a resul! 1"rse !%an

ma; m n 1"ul$ all"1 < an$ !%e 2ar! es $" n"! care very muc% a#"u! ac% ev n)

a resul! a#"ve 1%a! ma; m n assures8. C"n$ ! "ns an$ are n"! sa! s& e$ n

!%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 %"1ever8 'e"2le 1%" 1an! @us! ce K even 2e"2le

1%" !% n: !%a! an $eally @us! s"c e!y 1"ul$ c"n&"rm !" Ra1ls7 $ &&erence

2r nc 2le K can care very muc% a#"u! %"1 (u c:ly suc% a @us! resul! s #r"u)%!

a#"u!8 S"0 &"r ns!ance0 su22"se0 @us! &"r !%e sa:e "& ar)umen!0 !%ere 1ere !1"0

an$ "nly !1"0 1ays !" #r n) a#"u! a s"c e!y !%a! &ully c"n&"rme$ !" !%e $ &&erence49 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 - 8 S"me 2e"2le ev $en!ly !% n: !%a! Ra1ls "nly uses ma; m n !" ar)ue &"r% s sec"n$ 2r nc 2le "& @us! ce !%e $ &&erence 2r nc 2le 0 n"! #"!% "& % s 2r nc 2les a! leas! a &e1rea$ers "& !% s c%a2!er %ave !a:en ssue 1 !% my un$ers!an$ n) "& Ra1ls7 use "& ma; m n 8 I re2ly!%a! !%ere s clear !e;!ual ev $ence n &av"r "& my n!er2re!a! "n a! Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5 0 1%ere

Ra1ls says e;2l c !ly0 "& ma; m n0 !%a!0!% s l ne "& !%"u)%! s 2rac! cally $ec s ve & 1e can es!a#l s% !%e 2r "r !y "& l #er!y8 F"r

!% s 2r "r !y m2l es !%a! !%e 2ers"ns n !%e "r ) nal 2"s ! "n %ave n" $es re !" !ry &"r )rea!er )a nsa! !%e e;2ense "& !%e #as c e(ual l #er! es8 T%e m n mum assure$ #y !%e !1" 2r nc 2les n le; cal"r$er s n"! "ne !%a! !%e 2ar! es 1 s% !" @e"2ar$ 9e &"r !%e sa:e "& )rea!er ec"n"m c an$ s"c ala$van!a)es8 Ra1ls 5GGGa3 5 850 Ra1ls 5GGGa 3 5 6- 8


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2r nc 2le K a s"c e!y n 1% c% all ne(ual ! es are ma; mally #ene& c al !" !%e

1"rs! "&&8 Acc"r$ n) !" Sc%eme 50 le! us su22"se0 1e ac% eve !% s resul! #y

ma: n) !%e 1"rs! "&& even 1"rse "&& &"r a s%"r! 2er "$ "& ! me0 #u! !%a! 1e c"ul$

#r n) a#"u! a s"c e!y !%a! c"n&"rme$ !" !%e $ &&erence 2r nc 2le n !1" years ! me8

On !%e "!%er %an$0 Sc%eme 1"ul$ a m !" ma; mally #ene& ! !%e 1"rs! "&& a!

every 2" n! n ! me m"v n) &"r1ar$0 a resul! 1% c% 1"ul$ sl"1 $"1n s"c al

2r")ress s" !%a! a s"c e!y !%a! &ully c"n&"rme$ !" !%e $ &&erence 2r nc 2le c"ul$

"nly #e #r"u)%! a#"u! a&!er a muc% l"n)er 2er "$ say0 & &!y years 8 T%e la!!er

sc%eme c"n&"rms !" a ma; m n 2r nc 2le "& s"c al 2r")ress K a ma; m n 2r nc 2le"& n"n- $eal !%e"ry8 I! s %ar$ !" see0 %"1ever0 1%y !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n s%"ul$ !a:e !%emselves une(u v"cally as 2re&err n) !%e sc%eme

!%a! !%a! 2r nc 2le en!a ls Sc%eme "ver Sc%eme 58 T%e 2ar! es %ave every

reas"n !" e;2ec! !%a! many "& !%e 2e"2le !%ey re2resen! K 2e"2le 1%" $es re a

@us! s"c e!y K ac!ually $" 2re&er Sc%eme 5 !" Sc%eme 8 T%e (ues! "n n"1 s3 &

!%e 2ar! es "u)%! n"! !" ra! "nally $el #era!e acc"r$ n) !" ma; m n0 1% c%

s!ra!e)y !%ey s%"ul$ a$"2!8 I su#m ! !%a! #ecause !%e 2ar! es !" !%e N"n-I$eal

Or ) nal '"s ! "n are0

a Be% n$ a ve l "& )n"rance 2reven! n) !%em &r"m :n"1 n) 1%" !%ey

are 0

# Acce2! 1%a!ever 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry an$ rec! & ca! "n 1e !a:e !"

#e c"rrec!0 #u! "!%er1 se0

c Ra! "nally 1an! !" a$vance 1%a!ever en$s !%ey m )%! %ave un$er

1%a!ever c"n$ ! "ns "& n@us! ce are a! ssue0 s" l"n) as !%"se en$s are


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ra! "nally %el$0 a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$0 an$ c"ns s!en! 1 !% 1%a!ever

#r"a$er m"ral "#l )a! "ns !%ey m )%! %ave0

an$ !%ere s ev $en!ly n"!% n) m"re 1e can say a#"u! !%em0 !%en0 "n !%e

assum2! "n !%a! !%e $ea "& a >s"c al 2re&erence "r$er n)? s c"%eren!50 !%e

&"ll"1 n) 2r nc 2le &alls "u! "& !%e N"n-I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n $ rec!ly3

T%e Fun$amen!al 'r nc 2le "& N"n-I$eal T%e"ry3 F"r any ac! "n A0 a)en!

B0 an$ less-!%an-&ully-@us! s"c al c"n$ ! "ns C 2as! "r 2resen! 0"+('!,

" '( 2 re(u res B !" 2er&"rm A ) ven C & an$ "nly &0 "& all ava la#le

ac! "ns0 B %as su&& c en! reas"n !" e;2ec! A !" #es! sa! s&y !%e s"c al2re&erence "r$er n) !%a! 1"ul$ e; s! & every relevan! n$ v $ual $e& ne$

rela! ve !" $eal !%e"ry 1ere ra! "nal0 a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$0

en$"rse$ !%e c"rrec! 2r nc 2les "& $eal !%e"ry an$ rec! & ca! "n 0 #u! v

"!%er1 se $es re$ !" a$vance % s4%er !rans ! "n-rela!e$ 2re&erences v

1 !% n !%e #r"a$er c"ns!ra n!s "& "r$ nary m"ral !y0 v ) ven C8

51 A s"c al 2re&erence "r$er n) s a s n)le "r$er n) "& 2re&erences0 "r 2re&erence-ran: n)0re2resen! n) !%e 2re&erences "& many n$ v $uals c"ns $ere$ as an a))re)a!e8 I! s su22"se$ !"re2resen!0 s" !" s2ea:0 !%e >1 ll "& !%e 2e"2le8? As 1e 1 ll s""n see0 !%ere are many (ues! "nssurr"un$ n) !%e $ea "& suc% an "r$er n)8 I 1 ll $ scuss !%ese (ues! "ns m"men!ar ly852 I 1an! !" n"!e %ere !%a! I am "nly 2ur2"r! n) !" es!a#l s% 1%a!"+('!, " '( re(u res "& us0 n"! 1%a! "ur m"ral $u! es as 2ers"ns are"'%6,'(' & 8 M"s! "& us !en$ !" !% n: !%a! c"ns $era! "ns "&

s"c al @us! ce are n"! !%e "nly m"rally relevan! &ea!ure "& !%e 1"rl$8 In!u ! vely0 $u! es "& @us! cemay #e "u!1e )%e$ #y "!%er m"ral $u! es "r 2erm ss "ns8 I may #e un$er a $u!y "& @us! ce !"su22"r! !" el m na! "n "& rac al $ scr m na! "n0 an$ ye! m"ral !y m )%! re(u re me !" se! as $e !% s$u!y s" !%a! I can a!!en$ !" my 2ers"nal $u!y !" care &"r a $y n) &r en$8 I cann"! 2ur2"r! !" se!!le!%e (ues! "ns "& 1%en "r %"1 c"ns $era! "ns "& @us! ce "u!1e )% "!%er m"ral c"ns $era! "ns8 I"&&er my !%e"ry merely as an acc"un! "& 1%a! s"c al " '( re(u res n res2"nse !" n@us! ce 0leav n) ! an "2en (ues! "n "& 1%ere s"c al @us! ce & )ures n!" !%e # ))er m"ral 2 c!ure8


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T% s 2r nc 2le s a$m !!e$ly c"m2le;0 an$ ra ses many $ && cul! (ues! "ns8 I %ave

alrea$y men! "ne$0 n n!r"$uc n) !%e 2r nc 2le !sel&0 !%e s"r!s "& (ues! "ns !%a!

ar se c"ncern n) !%e $ea "& a s"c al 2re&erence "r$er n)8 An"!%er se! "& 2r"#lems

2er!a ns !" !%e res! "& !%e 'r nc 2le7s c"n$ ! "ns8 S" &ar I %ave #een !rea! n) !%e

!erms >ra! "nal?0 >a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$?0 an$ s" "n0 as !%"u)% !%ese !erms are

clear an$ un2r"#lema! c8 T%ey are ne !%er clear n"r un2r"#lema! c0 %"1ever8

=e 1 ll c"me #ac: !" !%ese ssues s%"r!ly8 F"r n"10 I 1an! !" $ra1 a!!en! "n !"

!%e &ac! !%a!0 %"1ever c"m2le; an$ $ && cul! !%e 'r nc 2le may #e0 ! em#"$ es a

&a rly s m2le an$0 I !% n:0 % )%ly 2laus #le $ea8 T%e 'r nc 2le says s m2ly !%a! a @us! res2"nse !" n@us! ce s "ne !%a! a$vances eac% 2ers"n7s >le) ! ma!e? n!eres!s

e(ually0 1%ere !%e r le) ! ma!e n!eres!s are un$ers!""$ as !%e 2re&erences !%ey

1"ul$ %ave & !%ey 1ere ra! "nal0 a$e(ua!ely n&"rme$0 an$ s" "n8 T% s s surely a

2laus #le cla m8 I sus2ec!0 n &ac!0 !%a! m"s! "& us alrea$y a! leas! !ac !ly #el eve

s"me!% n) very cl"se !" !8 M"s! 2e"2le 1%" care a#"u! "verc"m n) n@us! ces

(u !e na!urally care a#"u! !%e 1ell-#e n) "& 2ers"ns0 a! leas! ns"&ar as !%e 1ell-

#e n) "& 2ers"ns s c"ns s!en! 1 !% 1%a! @us! ce re(u res8 Bu! n"1 & !%e N"n-

I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n lea$s us !" n"!% n) m"re !%an !% s K !" n"!% n) m"re !%an

an $ea m"s! "& us alrea$y acce2!e$ a! leas! m2l c !ly K 1%a! )""$ s !%e N"n-

I$eal Or ) nal '"s ! "n0 reallyP D $ 1e really nee$ !P 'er%a2s 1e c"ul$ %ave

arr ve

arvan - a non-ideal theory of justice

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