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An ergonomics model of the soccer training processThomas Reillya Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences , Liverpool John Moores University ,Liverpool, UKb Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences , Liverpool John Moores University, TheHenry Cotton Campus , 1521 Webster Street, Liverpool, L3 2ET, UK E-mail:Published online: 18 Feb 2007.

To cite this article: Thomas Reilly (2005) An ergonomics model of the soccer training process, Journal of Sports Sciences,23:6, 561-572, DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021245

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An ergonomics model of the soccer training process

THOMAS REILLY

Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK

(Accepted 24 July 2004)

AbstractAn ergonomics model of training is described in which the demands of the game and the tness proles of soccer players areplaced in perspective. The demands of the game may be gauged by monitoring the work rate of players during matches andthe concomitant physiological responses. These indices suggest an increased tempo in contemporary professional soccercompared with previous decades, a trend replicated in the tness levels of players. The simulation of the exercise intensity corresponding to match-play has enabled sport scientists to study discrete aspects of play under laboratory conditions.Observations highlight the value of exercising with the ball where possible, notably using activity drills in small groups.

Small-sided games have particular advantages for young players, both in providing a physiological training stimulus and asuitable medium for skills work. While complementary training may be necessary in specic cases, integrating tness traininginto a holistic process is generally advisable.

Keywords: Aerobic power, body composition, eld tests, small-sided games, specicity

Introduction

Training for soccer may be placed in an ergonomicscontext. The game can be viewed as imposing arange of demands on its players who must possess

the necessary tness to cope with these demands.Fitness for soccer calls for a combination of differentphysiological characteristics. Training these factorsenables the player to add training effects to his or herendowed characteristics so that ultimate potentialcan be realized. Even though the training effects forsome characteristics may be moderate in magnitude,the impact on performance characteristics can still besubstantial.

As soccer is a team game, a priority in preparingplayers for match-play must be to harness theirindividual capabilities so that the group becomes aneffective competitive unit. The dilemma for the

coach or manager is often which team selection isthe most appropriate for the forthcoming engage-ment. One difculty the trainer faces is theidentication of individual weaknesses that can beremedied in training, over and above the overallconditioning work for the team. There is also theneed to take positional role into account to ensurespecicity of the training programme. These factors

are incorporated in the ergonomics model illustratedin Figure 1.

Fitness tests can provide an indication of playersdistinctive strengths and deciencies. They can alsobe employed to determine the effectiveness of any

systematic change in training regimen. A prole of tness test data juxtaposed alongside physiologicalresponses to match-play can highlight the extent towhich players can impose demands on themselvesand provide pointers as to when they are under-performing in matches by not meeting the

Figure 1. An ergonomics model for the analysis of football.

Correspondence: T. Reilly, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, The Henry Cotton Campus, 15 21Webster Street, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

Journal of Sports Sciences , June 2005; 23(6): 561 572

ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd


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requirements of the game. In such instances, thisindividual may be omitted from the team selectionuntil tness is remedied or may be assigned analternative tactical role.

The self-imposed demands chosen by playersreect both their commitment to the teams effortsand their own abilities to pace themselves throughoutthe game. The choice of exercise intensity representsa subjective judgement with regard to what is thoughtto be tolerable. Since the majority of activity is spentin running off-the-ball (Reilly & Thomas, 1976),the individual who has been over-committed may notrecover in time to engage in the next bout of criticalactivity on-the-ball. The ne timing of self-chosenstrenuous efforts is an important product of thetraining process.

This review represents an attempt to place thetraining process in soccer within the ergonomicsmodel. Some consideration is rst given to thephysiological demands of the game. Some insightinto these demands is added by reviewing tnessdata on contemporary professional players. Theattention is directed to training programmes, bothsoccer-specic and general conditioning. The useof small-sided games for young players is consid-ered before the review culminates in an overviewthat places training in the context of talentdevelopment.

Physiological demands of the game

Playing soccer constitutes intermittent exercise inwhich the timing of the high-intensity efforts is

acyclical and therefore unpredictable. A team coa-ched and trained to perform at a high tempo has acompetitive edge over an equally skilled but less topposition. If recovery periods in between bouts of strenuous efforts are inadequate in duration, tran-sient fatigue will ensue. Mohr, Krustrup andBangsbo (2003) showed that activity was reducedin the 5 min immediately after a 5-min period of sustained exercise at high intensity.

In a review of the prolonged run-up, which theKorean team adopted in preparing for the 2002World Cup Finals, Verheijen (2003) described howinitially the team could not keep up the desired pace

of the game for the full 90 min. Players made high-intensity runs less frequently and fewer explosiveactions as the second half progressed. After asystematic training programme, they were able tomaintain a high tempo for the entire match. By theend of the next phase of training, the team wasprepared to raise the pace of the game even higher,and recover more quickly between actions.

Notwithstanding the repeated sprints and thecontests for possession of the ball that entailanaerobic exercise, most activity during a game

employs aerobic metabolism. Bangsbo (1994) calcu-lated that the major substrate used by the activemuscles is glycogen, the stores of which that arelocated in active muscles contribute more than doglycogen sources mobilized from hepatic depots.There is also a substantial engagement of lipidmetabolism compatible with endurance exercise.The contribution of protein is relatively minor ataround 2 4%, although Wagenmakers, Brookes,Coakley, Reilly and Edwards (1989) demonstratedthat protein metabolism is employed in exercisesustained for 90 min well before muscle glycogenconcentrations are depleted.

It has been estimated that the energy expenditureduring match-play averages 70 75% of maximaloxygen consumption (Bangsbo, 1994, Reilly, 1997).It has been calculated that the total energy expendedin a game approximates 6.317 MJ (Reilly & Thomas,1979). These estimates were based on extrapolationsfrom heart rate and motion analysis data duringtraining games, utilizing individually calibrated heartrate oxygen uptake relationships determined underlaboratory conditions. Although such an approach toestimating energy expenditure during intermittentexercise may be criticized, errors appear to beaveraged out over the period of measurement(Ainslie, Reilly, & Westerterp, 2003; Bangsbo,1994). Saltin (1973) demonstrated that glycogen inthe vastus lateralis approached depletion towards theend of a game. Players who undertook strenuoustraining the day before the match had severely lowered concentrations of glycogen even at half-timeand played at a reduced work rate during the second

half.The contemporary game at the professional levelseems to be more demanding than suggested inmuch of the early literature (e.g. Reilly & Thomas,1976) and therefore calls for a more systematicapproach to training. Strudwick and Reilly (2001)compared the work rates of English Premier Leagueplayers over two seasons (1998 1999 and 1999 2000) with previous observations of top EnglishLeague players before 1992. The current playerscovered approximately 1.5 km more in a game thantheir earlier counterparts, the differences beingmanifest among all the playing positions (see Figure

2). Williams, Lee and Reilly (1999) have providedevidence of a faster tempo of the game in the 1997 1998 season compared with the 1991 1992 season,including more movement of the ball and shorterintermissions in play. Changes in the rules, such asthe rule prohibiting the goalkeeper from picking up aback-pass, the penalizing of time-wasting and per-mission to use three substitutes, have contributed tothe rise in tempo. The end result is an increasedreliance on optimum training programmes to meetthese elevated demands.

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to incremental exercise may be more useful toapplied sports scientists than are maximal values.Grant and McMillan (2001) showed how lactateproles were sensitive to detraining effects due toinjury and to subsequent improvements in tness asrehabilitation goals were being reached.

Physiological variables strongly related to endur-ance running performance do appear therefore to berelevant to soccer. These sports differ in that thelatter is also heavily reliant on muscle strength andpower. There is a wealth of data supporting thesuperiority of soccer players to age-matched counter-parts in measures of muscle strength determinedusing isometric (Reilly & Thomas, 1980) andisokinetic dynamometry (Fowler & Reilly, 1993).Professional players perform signicantly better at allangular velocities and in eccentric as well asconcentric modes than do players of a lesser standard(Rahnama, Reilly, Lees, & Graham-Smith, 2003).The proling of individuals can help to identify asymmetric imbalances in peak torque between leftand right limbs and between leg exors andextensors. Once weaknesses are identied in indivi-dual proles, these should be rectied usingappropriate physical conditioning regimens.

The strength of the lower limbs of soccer playershas been assessed using isokinetic dynamometry. Anasymmetrical difference between limbs or a dispro-portionate balance between the knee exors and kneeextensors may predispose a player towards muscu-loskeletal injury. Rahnama et al . (2003) reported thatPremier League players were superior in strength tosize-matched sub-elite players at a range of angular

velocities, for dominant and non-dominant limbsand for concentric as well as eccentric modes of action. Oberg, Moller, Gillquist and Ekstrand (1986)found relatively greater fast speed/slow speed ratiosin national players compared with other players,highlighting the relevance of strength assessments toactions in the game. For injury prevention purposes,it would appear that the relative eccentric strength of the knee exors compared with the concentricstrength of the knee extensors is a determining

factor. This index has been termed the dynamiccontrol ratio (Aagaard, Simonsen, Magnusson,Larson, & Dyhre-Poulson, 1998).

The muscularity of professional soccer players isreected in the physique or somatotype. Interna-tional players competing in the Copa Americachampionships displayed a mean somatotype withhigh mesomorphy values but low endomorphy values(Rienzi et al ., 2000). The gains in muscular strengthshould not compromise speed of movement. Strud-wick, Reilly, and Doran (2002) showed that playersin an English Premier club had similar tness proles(including aerobic power) to those of a top GaelicFootball side, except for their faster running speedsover 10 and 30 m. Besides the ability to accelerateover short distances, another distinguishing featurein soccer is agility or the ability to change direction of movement quickly (Reilly, Williams, Nevill, &Franks, 2000).

Accompanying the muscular make-up of contem-porary professional players is a low level of adiposity (see Table II). As is to be expected, the percentadiposity tends to be decreased as the seasonprogresses (Casajus, 2001) and in the off-season doesnot regress to the high gures reported in previousdecades (White, Emery, Kane, Groves, & Risman,1988). There is a problem in comparing valuesexpressed as a percentage of body fat when the guresare derived from different methodologies and com-puted using different formulae. The majority of thedata reported were acquired from estimations basedon skinfold thicknesses, but occasionally the referencemethod of hydrodensitometry has been used. The use

of skinfold thicknesses has been criticized on the basisof a weak relationship with internal fat depots and theconcentration of upper body sites in the case of Durnin and Womersleys (1974) equations (Clarys,Martin, & Drinkwater, 2002). Nevertheless, there is agood relationship between values recorded using dualenergy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and percentbody fat predicted from four upper body skinfoldmeasures (Egan, Reilly, Chantler, & Lawlor, 2004), asshown for observations on 16 Premier League players

Table II. Adiposity in soccer players (mean percentages for players, including goalkeepers, are cited)

Team % Body fat References

English First Division 19.3 White et al . (1998)Portugese First Division 10.9 Puga et al . (1993)English Premier (early season) 12.6 Dunbar & Power (1997)Spanish professionals 7.9 Mujika, Padilla, Ibanez, Izquierdo, & Gorostiaga (2000)English Premier team 12.3 Strudwick et al . (2002)Copa America 10.6 Rienzi et al . (2000)La LigaEarly season 8.6 Casajus (2001)Mid-season 8.2

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pre season (see Figure 3) The DEXA technique islikely to be the reference method of the future and,while the technology is expensive, it has the addedbenet of indicating bone mineral density. The extentto which the skeletal system responds to footballtraining or protects against injury is yet to beestablished.

In summary, it would appear that elite contem-porary footballers have distinct features. Theseinclude few low values of maximal oxygen uptakeamong the squad, combined with good endurancecapabilities in mid-season. They have a muscularmake-up and lower adiposity than players of previousdecades. They are further characterized by speedover short distances and by their agility.

Soccer-specic training

In view of the extra energetic costs of exercising withthe ball at a given speed of locomotion (Reilly & Ball,1984), working with the ball has been advocated as ameans of facilitating training stimuli. This practicewould be economical in use of players time, whenphysical training is integrated with technical aspectsof preparation. This strategy does not exclude theuse of additional general conditioning, which may include running, weight-training, exibility exercisesand agility drills, and other regimens such asplyometrics (stretch shortening exercises) anddeep-water running.

The traditional training programme may bedivided into different components, as shown inFigure 4. The rst four elements (warm-up,

calisthenics, running, circuit training) constitutephysical training, whereas the remainder representwork with the ball. The recovery component is thesum of intermissions between the discrete sections of the training session. It is evident from mean heart

rate responses that the more intense parts of thesession are when the ball is used (Reilly, 1979).

Reilly and White (2003) compared the effects of aclassical interval training programme in a group of young players in an English Premier League club.The training consisted of additions to the normalprogramme, the players doing interval runningconsisting of six 4-min runs with a 3-min recovery in between efforts, three times a week for 6 weeks.The experimental group played ve-a-side games foran equivalent duration and recovery, with vocalencouragement from the trainer. Both groups main-tained their aerobic tness and lactate prolesequally, the training being conducted in mid-season.It is clear from the typical heart rate responses inFigure 5 that the soccer-specic work provided acomparable training stimulus to classical intervaltraining.

In a related study, Sassi, Reilly and Impellizzeri(2003) compared small-sided games under differentconditions with formal interval training. In thisstudy, the interval training consisted of 4 6 1000-m runs, while the number of players, dimensions of the playing area, technical factors and so on werevaried systematically. The results, summarized inTable III, show how the inclusion of a goalkeeperand an emphasis on pressing the player in possessioninuence the responses. They show that appropri-ately designed exercises can raise the intensity to alevel that exceeds interval running. It was concludedthat small-group work with the ball can presentphysiological training stimuli comparable with andsometimes exceeding interval running without the

ball. In contrast, technical/tactical training presents amoderate challenge to the circulatory system, morecompatible with maintenance programmes or recov-ery on days following competitive matches.

The observations on elite players have beencorroborated in participants at a recreational levelin indoor four-a-side leagues. MacLaren, Davids,Isokawa, Mellor and Reilly (1988) showed thatmetabolic and hormonal responses of players ex-ceeded those found in typical outdoor games at thislevel. Noradrenaline, adrenaline and blood lactateconcentrations were greatly increased, values duringthe league nal reaching 414%, 228% and 130%,

respectively, of the values noted after recreationalgames. It was concluded that the four-a-side versionof indoor soccer has important implications for itsuse as a training method for the outdoor competitiveformat or as a recreational activity in its own right.Similar conclusions were drawn by Miles, MacLa-ren, Reilly and Yamanaka (1993) in a study of femaleparticipants. It would appear that small-sided gamescan provide an acceptable means of training theoxygen transport system in both sexes at elite andrecreational levels.

Figure 3. Percent body fat of Premier League soccer players(n = 16) pre season determined by dual-energy absorptiometry (DEXA) and estimated from skinfolds according to Durnin andWomersley (1974). Mean values for DEXA were 13.26 + 1.84and for skinfolds 12.99 + 1.97 ( r = 0.88).

An ergonomics model of soccer training 567


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A variety of drills for execution with the ball havebeen designed to train the metabolic systems forapplication to soccer. These have incorporated thetraining of the aerobic system (Reilly & Bangsbo,1998), anaerobic endurance (see Bangsbo, 1993)and running speed (Wilson, 2001b). They alsoaccommodate the period between matches, includ-ing recovery days and more intense training,regulated by blood lactate responses, heart rate andperceived exertion (Bangsbo, 1994; Drust, 1999). In

particular, attention has been drawn to the opportu-nities offered by small-sided games as a means of simultaneously acquiring physiological and skillstraining effects.

Small-Sided games and young players

Young players need to develop their physiologicaldeterminants of tness in conjunction with gamesskills and decision-making in a soccer context. Thesefactors depend not only on the intensity of exercisebut also on the direct involvement in activities withthe ball. Youth soccer matches can be played by a

reduced number of players on smaller pitches,depending on the players age.Platt, Maxwell, Horm, Williams and Reilly

(2001) examined the inuence of small-sidedgames on players actions, combining physiologicalinvestigation with a notation analysis of playersaged under 12. Three-a-side was found to besuperior to ve-a-side on all of the criteriaemployed. The mean heart rate was higher in thethree-a-side version throughout the 15-min periodof observation. The smaller group of players had

more involvement with play, dribbled more withthe ball and had more opportunities for executingskills such as passing and shooting (see Figure 6).Furthermore, they had more relative success inthese skills than their counterparts in the ve-a-sidegame. The results support the promotion of thethree-a-side game for young players, althoughsuitable pitch dimensions should be established tot the tness levels of the group.

In contrast, Castagna, Belardinelli and Abt (2003)

found that moderately trained and skilled Italianhigh-school students (aged 16 17 years) reached anaverage only of 53% of maximal oxygen uptakeplaying ve-a-side on a court measuring 40 6 29 m.They concluded that this intensity would have littleimpact on the development of aerobic power. Whileacknowledging that dimensions of the playing area,number of players and rules employed affect theexercise intensity, the duration of play may also be aninuential factor, as is the motivational climate inwhich the practice is conducted. Castagna et al .advised that the physiological load of small-sidedgames should be quantied before they are used

within a training programme for the development of aerobic power.The dribbling elements of the game could

enhance important game skills. Reilly et al .(2000) reported that dribbling capability distin-guished elite under-16 players from age-matchedplayers at a lower level more than did shooting,passing or ball control tests. Since dribblingtypically entails changes in direction to deceive anopponent, it also offers a convenient means of training agility.

Figure 4. The traditional allocation of training time to its different components. Sessions started with a warm-up and callisthenics (exibility and agility) and ended with drills and games (from Reilly, 1979).

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Complementary training

Although recognizing the value of integrating thephysiological preparation of players with game-related activities, some aspects of physical condition-

ing may require individual attention. The mainreason for this requirement is that competitive play may not provide the necessary training stimulus at asufcient intensity, for long enough or often enoughto secure a physiological adaptation. A further reason

Figure 5. Typical heart rate response to interval training (4 6 4 min with 3 min recovery) and small-sided games over the same time periods(from Reilly & White, 2003).



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is that conditioning embraces protecting against

injury as well as enhancing performance. In aclassical study, Ekstrand (1982) demonstrated thata systematic programme of exibility training re-duced the incidence of injuries over a season of Swedish League soccer. His programme of exercisestargeted muscles susceptible to injury in the game,notably the hamstring group and the thigh adduc-tors.

There are also positional differences in tnessrequirements whereby certain players need to focuson conditioning work that enhances their roles. Forexample, plyometric and complex training is likely tobe more benecial to central defenders than mideld

players (Wilson, 2001a,b), whereas whole-body agility is important for goalkeepers (Whall, 2001).Non-specic activities can also help to add variety

to the habitual activity of players. Running andweight-training can have a positive inuence onplayers because of the psychophysical calibrationinherent in these activities. Wislff et al . (2004)demonstrated how the benets of weight-trainingtransferred positively to performance in a gamecontext. They also provided a quantitative measureof performance in terms of time, distance or load

lifted. Alternative modes of exercise, such as various

forms of running in water, offer an acceptable meansfor promoting recovery after matches (Reilly, Dow-zer, & Cable, 2003). Running in deep water avoidsimpact loading on muscles likely to be sore followinggames: it can be used as part of a warm-down whenfacilities are available, or as recovery training thefollowing day. During the off-season, any formaltraining may be for general conditioning purposes(Edwards et al ., 2003b).

Overview

An ergonomics model allows training to be con-

sidered as interfacing with the demands of the gameon the one hand and with the capabilities of playerson the other. Preparation for competition is opti-mized when technical, tactical and physiologicalrequirements are integrated in the planning cycles.Such a holistic approach favours the use of exerciseswith the ball as far as it is possible. This principle isunderlined in the case of young players whose talentis to be developed concomitantly with natural growthand development processes. In this instance, priority is given to deliberate practice and acquisition of

Table III. Heart rate (beats min7 1 ) and blood lactate concentration (mmol l

7 1 ) during two different training drills (mean + s) (data fromSassi et al ., 2003)

4 vs 4 8 vs 8

4 6 1000 mWithout

goalkeeperWith

goalkeeperFree

touchFree touch(pressing)

Technical tacticaldrills

Heart rate 167 + 4 178 + 7 174 + 7 160 + 3 175 + 4 140 + 5Blood lactate 7.9 + 3.4 6.4 + 2.7 6.2 + 1.4 3.3 + 1.2 2.9 + 0.8

Figure 6. A comparison of activity during three-a-side and ve-a-side games in boys aged under 12 years (from Platt et al ., 2001).

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game skills and awareness (Williams & Reilly, 2000),while recognizing the value of physiological criteriafor training appropriate to age (Stratton, Reilly,Williams, & Richardson, 2004).

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