Aristotle and Aristotle and PoeticsPoeticsfrom “Classical Antiquity”from “Classical Antiquity”

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Aristotle (384 B.C. – 322 B.C) was Aristotle (384 B.C. – 322 B.C) was born in Stagira, Macedonia, the son born in Stagira, Macedonia, the son of a court physician.of a court physician.

He is considered to be one of the He is considered to be one of the greatest figures in the history of greatest figures in the history of human thought. human thought.

While still a youth, he became a While still a youth, he became a student of Plato at Athens.student of Plato at Athens.

After teaching in Asia Minor and After teaching in Asia Minor and studying in Lesbos, he was asked by studying in Lesbos, he was asked by King Philip of Macedon to serve as a King Philip of Macedon to serve as a tutor to the young Alexander (342- tutor to the young Alexander (342- 336 B.C.)336 B.C.)

Afterwards, Aristotle returned to Afterwards, Aristotle returned to Athens, where he founded the Athens, where he founded the famous Perpatetic School and famous Perpatetic School and lectured on subjects covering widely lectured on subjects covering widely diverse fields, including physics, diverse fields, including physics, zoology, politics, ethics, zoology, politics, ethics, metaphysics, logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics, logic, rhetoric, and poetry. poetry.

Aristotle’s Aristotle’s Poetics Poetics is not only the most is not only the most important critical work of classical antiquity. important critical work of classical antiquity. It is also perhaps the most influential work in It is also perhaps the most influential work in the entire history of criticism. the entire history of criticism.

The unique value of the The unique value of the Poetics Poetics may be may be expressed in at least three ways, not to expressed in at least three ways, not to mention others:mention others:

1. It marks the beginning of literary criticism. 1. It marks the beginning of literary criticism. The beginning of critical analysis and the The beginning of critical analysis and the discovery of principles by which analysis discovery of principles by which analysis can proceed are obviously larger and more can proceed are obviously larger and more essential steps than any one later essential steps than any one later elaboration or development of these elaboration or development of these principles. principles.

2. Throughout some periods, particularly the 2. Throughout some periods, particularly the Renaissance and the early 18Renaissance and the early 18thth century, the century, the PoeticsPoetics served as a starting point and served as a starting point and sometimes as guide for literary criticism. sometimes as guide for literary criticism.

3. The 3. The Poetics Poetics is the best key to the temper is the best key to the temper and aims of Greek art generally. Aristotle did and aims of Greek art generally. Aristotle did not try to deduce a theory of literature from not try to deduce a theory of literature from an abstract theory of esthetics. He looked at an abstract theory of esthetics. He looked at literature directly, almost as a naturalist literature directly, almost as a naturalist would regard it. He scrutinized it as a would regard it. He scrutinized it as a province of knowledge with a concrete body province of knowledge with a concrete body of material of its own; and this body of of material of its own; and this body of material was Greek literature itself. material was Greek literature itself.

More than any other critical statement of antiquity, More than any other critical statement of antiquity, Poetics Poetics offers, however briefly and incompletely, offers, however briefly and incompletely, the approach to literature of one of the most gifted the approach to literature of one of the most gifted peoples in history—a people, indeed, which peoples in history—a people, indeed, which virtually created the premises and values of virtually created the premises and values of Western civilization. Western civilization.

Many of the issues it raises have a perennial Many of the issues it raises have a perennial importance—an importance that results from the importance—an importance that results from the range and penetration of Aristotle’s own mind, and range and penetration of Aristotle’s own mind, and also from the remarkable success, and fertile also from the remarkable success, and fertile creativity of the Greek approach to art upon which creativity of the Greek approach to art upon which the the Poetics Poetics rests.rests.

In so far as it is an answer to Plato, Aristotle’s In so far as it is an answer to Plato, Aristotle’s PoeticsPoetics justifies poetry on two grounds: the truth justifies poetry on two grounds: the truth and validity of poetry as an and validity of poetry as an imitation imitation of nature—or of nature—or as a form of knowledge—and secondly, the as a form of knowledge—and secondly, the morally desirable effect of this awareness upon morally desirable effect of this awareness upon the human mind. the human mind.

Whereas Plato regarded the ultimate reality as Whereas Plato regarded the ultimate reality as consisting of pure “Ideas,” divorced from the consisting of pure “Ideas,” divorced from the concrete, material world, Aristotle conceived of concrete, material world, Aristotle conceived of reality or nature as a reality or nature as a process of becoming or process of becoming or developingdeveloping: a process in which form manifests : a process in which form manifests itself through concrete material, and in which the itself through concrete material, and in which the concrete concrete takes on form and meaningtakes on form and meaning, working in , working in accordance with persisting, ordered principles. accordance with persisting, ordered principles.

Poetry, then, although it imitates concrete Poetry, then, although it imitates concrete nature, as Plato charged, does not imitate nature, as Plato charged, does not imitate just just the concrete. In fact, its focal point of the concrete. In fact, its focal point of interest—the process of which it is trying to interest—the process of which it is trying to offer a duplicate or counterpoint—is offer a duplicate or counterpoint—is form form shaping, guiding, and developing the shaping, guiding, and developing the concrete concrete into a unified meaning and into a unified meaning and completeness. completeness.

The word The word form form here should be interpreted broadly, here should be interpreted broadly, and not as a synonym for mere “technique” in art. and not as a synonym for mere “technique” in art. It applies to the It applies to the directiondirection which something would which something would take if it were permitted to carry itself out to its final take if it were permitted to carry itself out to its final culmination. culmination.

The term “form” also applies to the value of that The term “form” also applies to the value of that object or event—to its full meaning and character, object or event—to its full meaning and character, and hence to its worth and importance.and hence to its worth and importance.

In a drama, the plot does not include every In a drama, the plot does not include every incident that might happen to us in ordinary life. incident that might happen to us in ordinary life.

Hence Aristotle’s remark that poetry can be “a Hence Aristotle’s remark that poetry can be “a more philosophical and higher thing than history: more philosophical and higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the for poetry tends to express the universaluniversal, history , history the the particularparticular.” .”

That is, history concentrates on specific details as That is, history concentrates on specific details as they happened, regardless of the ultimate form they happened, regardless of the ultimate form (the “universal”) that things would take if allowed (the “universal”) that things would take if allowed to carry themselves out ti their logical conclusion. to carry themselves out ti their logical conclusion.

The dramatist, however, is selective: he omits the The dramatist, however, is selective: he omits the irrelevant, and draws out from the potential form or irrelevant, and draws out from the potential form or pattern of an event as a complete unit. pattern of an event as a complete unit.

Aristotle applied this principle not only to Aristotle applied this principle not only to what what poetry should seek to disclose, or “imitate,” but poetry should seek to disclose, or “imitate,” but also to the also to the way way (the (the harmoniaharmonia) in which this ) in which this imitation is made and presented as a unified thing imitation is made and presented as a unified thing in itself.in itself.

For this reason his emphasis was on plot rather For this reason his emphasis was on plot rather than particular characters; indeed, for Aristotle, the than particular characters; indeed, for Aristotle, the plot was the “soul” or proper form of the drama.plot was the “soul” or proper form of the drama.

The drama imitates The drama imitates actionsactions; otherwise, it is not a ; otherwise, it is not a drama, but something else. drama, but something else.

In imitating actions, therefore, the drama should In imitating actions, therefore, the drama should appropriately be an appropriately be an activity activity itself; and this activity if itself; and this activity if the plot; hence, Aristotle’s emphasis on unity of the plot; hence, Aristotle’s emphasis on unity of interconnection and on a rounded completeness in interconnection and on a rounded completeness in this activity that comprises plot. this activity that comprises plot.

The plot must contain The plot must contain within itself within itself the the conditions that lead to its culmination rather conditions that lead to its culmination rather than rely on mere chance or some external than rely on mere chance or some external deus ex machinadeus ex machina who suddenly resolves all who suddenly resolves all the difficulties artificially. the difficulties artificially.

And if tragedy occupied most of Aristotle’s And if tragedy occupied most of Aristotle’s attention, it is because, more than any other attention, it is because, more than any other type, it can best fulfill the general aim of type, it can best fulfill the general aim of poetry: to present a heightened and poetry: to present a heightened and harmonious imitation of nature, and, in harmonious imitation of nature, and, in particular, those aspects of nature that touch particular, those aspects of nature that touch most closely upon human life. most closely upon human life.

The plot must possess what Aristotle called a The plot must possess what Aristotle called a “unity of action.”“unity of action.”

It must have a beginning, middle, and end. It must have a beginning, middle, and end. Nothing in our experience, of course, is really a Nothing in our experience, of course, is really a

beginning or an end: related events or causes beginning or an end: related events or causes always exist before anyone point, and further always exist before anyone point, and further results always follow. results always follow.

What is meant is simply a beginning that does not What is meant is simply a beginning that does not need preceding action on the stage in order to need preceding action on the stage in order to explain it; a development (or “middle”); and an end explain it; a development (or “middle”); and an end that generally concludes this development so that that generally concludes this development so that more action is not needed to complete the total more action is not needed to complete the total sequence. sequence.

Aristotle’s emphasis on the probability of dramatic Aristotle’s emphasis on the probability of dramatic structure, and on the ordered self-sufficiency of structure, and on the ordered self-sufficiency of the plot, also led him to suggest another desirable the plot, also led him to suggest another desirable principle: that the main character of tragedy should principle: that the main character of tragedy should have a “tragic flaw.”have a “tragic flaw.”

To allow the character to be simply the victim of To allow the character to be simply the victim of unpredictable and undeserved calamities would unpredictable and undeserved calamities would violate the complete, self-contained unity of action. violate the complete, self-contained unity of action.

Moreover, if the calamity that befalls a virtuous Moreover, if the calamity that befalls a virtuous man is completely undeserved, our sense of shock man is completely undeserved, our sense of shock may be so violent that it prevents or obstructs may be so violent that it prevents or obstructs other emotional reactions: the emotional and other emotional reactions: the emotional and imaginative elevation, for example, that comes in imaginative elevation, for example, that comes in witnessing the working out of a pattern of events witnessing the working out of a pattern of events to their culmination, and seeing the total to their culmination, and seeing the total significance emerge into universal applicability. significance emerge into universal applicability.

On the other hand, the character should On the other hand, the character should have standing and capacity; he must have standing and capacity; he must certainly be above average, whether in rank, certainly be above average, whether in rank, mind, or capacity to feel. mind, or capacity to feel.

Moreover, the tragic fall is much greater to Moreover, the tragic fall is much greater to the degree that the character has more the degree that the character has more “multiplicity of consciousness.”“multiplicity of consciousness.”

The tragic hero must have a place from The tragic hero must have a place from which to fall. And the loftier his position is, which to fall. And the loftier his position is, the more disastrous his fall. the more disastrous his fall.

Aristotle’s belief in the Aristotle’s belief in the formative and morally formative and morally desirable effect of art desirable effect of art is implicit in many of is implicit in many of his writings. his writings.

This attitude is quite in This attitude is quite in accord with Greek accord with Greek thought generally; and thought generally; and it was Plato who took a it was Plato who took a novel an atypical novel an atypical position by voicing the position by voicing the misgivings he did. misgivings he did.

He would doubtless He would doubtless have regarded a have regarded a detailed defense as detailed defense as unnecessary. He did unnecessary. He did state, however, more state, however, more or less in answer to or less in answer to Plato, that tragedy Plato, that tragedy produces a healthful produces a healthful effect on the human effect on the human character through what character through what he called a he called a katharsiskatharsis, , “through pity and fear “through pity and fear effecting a proper effecting a proper purgation of emotions.”purgation of emotions.”

A successful tragedy, then, exploits and A successful tragedy, then, exploits and appeals at the start of two basic emotions. appeals at the start of two basic emotions.

One is fear—the painful sense, as Aristotle One is fear—the painful sense, as Aristotle elsewhere describes it, “of impending evil elsewhere describes it, “of impending evil which is destructive…”which is destructive…”

Tragedy, in other words, deals with the Tragedy, in other words, deals with the element of evil, with what we least want and element of evil, with what we least want and most fear to face, with what is destructive to most fear to face, with what is destructive to human life and values; it is this concern that human life and values; it is this concern that makes the theme of the play makes the theme of the play tragictragic. .

In addition, tragedy exploits our sense of “pity”: it In addition, tragedy exploits our sense of “pity”: it draws out our ability to sympathize with others, so draws out our ability to sympathize with others, so that, in our identification with the tragic character, that, in our identification with the tragic character, we ourselves feel something of the impact and we ourselves feel something of the impact and extent of the evil befalling him. extent of the evil befalling him.

There are a few general implications of this view of There are a few general implications of this view of tragedy and catharsis as applied to poetry. tragedy and catharsis as applied to poetry.

To begin with, the To begin with, the katharsiskatharsis that tragedy offers is that tragedy offers is not merely an outlet or escape for emotion. It is not merely an outlet or escape for emotion. It is not simply that men go about full of pent-up not simply that men go about full of pent-up emotions, and that the sight of a dramatic tragedy emotions, and that the sight of a dramatic tragedy every once in awhile serves as a safety valve, so every once in awhile serves as a safety valve, so to speak, by which they let off steam. to speak, by which they let off steam.

More than this, tragedy first of all deliberately More than this, tragedy first of all deliberately excitesexcites in the spectator the emotions of pity and in the spectator the emotions of pity and fear which are then to undergo the “proper fear which are then to undergo the “proper purgation.”purgation.”

Whereas Plato, in the Whereas Plato, in the RepublicRepublic, had adversely , had adversely criticized poetry because it “feeds and waters criticized poetry because it “feeds and waters passions instead of starving them,” Aristotle—both passions instead of starving them,” Aristotle—both psychologically more sophisticated and also more psychologically more sophisticated and also more typically Greek—took for granted that it is typically Greek—took for granted that it is undesirable to “starve” the emotions; and undesirable to “starve” the emotions; and assumed feeling—though he believed it should be assumed feeling—though he believed it should be directed and controlled by intelligence—to be a directed and controlled by intelligence—to be a necessary aspect of human life.necessary aspect of human life.

KatharsisKatharsis, as Aristotle , as Aristotle employed the term, may employed the term, may be described as the use, be described as the use, control, and control, and purificationpurification of of emotion. emotion.

Something desirable Something desirable happens to emotion when happens to emotion when it is aroused and managed it is aroused and managed by poetic tragedy: the by poetic tragedy: the personally disturbing and personally disturbing and morbid is purged or shed morbid is purged or shed off, and the emotion, after off, and the emotion, after undergoing this undergoing this “purgation,” has been “purgation,” has been purified and lifted, as it purified and lifted, as it were to a harmonious were to a harmonious serenity.serenity.

This enlarging of the soul This enlarging of the soul through sympathy, this through sympathy, this lifting of one above the lifting of one above the egocentric, is itself egocentric, is itself desirable and operates to desirable and operates to the advantage of one’s the advantage of one’s psychological and moral psychological and moral health: it joins emotion to health: it joins emotion to awareness, directing it awareness, directing it outward to what is being outward to what is being conceived. conceived.

But in addition to this, But in addition to this, there is a further effect on there is a further effect on the emotion of the the emotion of the observer.observer.

Tragic drama not only arouses our sympathetic Tragic drama not only arouses our sympathetic identification through presenting an “imitation” of identification through presenting an “imitation” of human actions; but, by appealing to our instinct for human actions; but, by appealing to our instinct for harmonia harmonia as well as for as well as for mimesis mimesis (imitation), it also (imitation), it also presents an ordered and proportioned regularity of presents an ordered and proportioned regularity of structure, interrelated through “the law of structure, interrelated through “the law of probability and necessity.”probability and necessity.”

Accordingly, the emotion of the spectator, after Accordingly, the emotion of the spectator, after being drawn out and identified with the “imitation” being drawn out and identified with the “imitation” before him, is then carried along and made part of before him, is then carried along and made part of the harmonious development and working out of the harmonious development and working out of the particular drama. the particular drama.

And the intellectual And the intellectual realization of what has realization of what has happened, emerging happened, emerging through the ordered through the ordered structure and body of structure and body of the drama, is therefore the drama, is therefore also emerging through also emerging through the spectator’s the spectator’s own own feelings; in so feelings; in so emerging, the emerging, the intellectual realization intellectual realization lifts our feelings to a lifts our feelings to a state of harmonized state of harmonized serenity and tranquility.serenity and tranquility.

It has “purged” them of It has “purged” them of the subjective and self-the subjective and self-centered. It has centered. It has enlarged and extended enlarged and extended them through them through sympathy. Above all, it sympathy. Above all, it has joined feeling to has joined feeling to insight, conditioning insight, conditioning our habitual emotion ti our habitual emotion ti that awareness if the that awareness if the essential import of essential import of human actions which human actions which poetry, through poetry, through “imitation,” is capable “imitation,” is capable of offering. of offering.

For beneath the theory of For beneath the theory of katharsiskatharsis lies the lies the general Greek premise that art, in general Greek premise that art, in presenting a heightened and harmonious presenting a heightened and harmonious “imitation” of reality, is formative; that, in “imitation” of reality, is formative; that, in enlarging, exercising, and refining one’s enlarging, exercising, and refining one’s feelings, and in leading them outward, art feelings, and in leading them outward, art possesses a unique power to form the “total possesses a unique power to form the “total man,” in whom emotion has been reconciled man,” in whom emotion has been reconciled to intelligence and harmoniously integrated to intelligence and harmoniously integrated with it. with it.