5 . OM F R I E N D S H I P :

A R I S T O T L E A N D T I R U V A $ k U V A R

The s c r u t i n y of f r i e n d s h i p was an i n t e g r a l p a r t of

moral and p o l i t i c a l phi losophy i n t h e p a s t , a s evidenced by

P l a t o ' s d i s c u s s i o n of it i n h i s d i a l o g u e s Lysis and

Symposion and A r i s t o t l e ' s thorough examinat ion of it i n

Nicomachean Ethics. The g r e a t e s t of Roman o r a t o r s , C i c e r c ,

d e a l s wi th it i n h i s t r e a t i s e D e Amicitia. Honta igne ' s

Essais, an unsys temat ic b u t thorough record of t h e French

w r i t e r ' s r e f l e c t i o n s on h i s l i f e , h i s r e a d i n g , contemporary

e v e n t s and on g e n e r a l moral problems, has one c h a p t e r on

f r i e n d s h i p . H i s j u n i o r Engl i sh contemporary, F r a n c i s Bacon,

wrote one essay on t h e s u b j e c t i n 1612 and ano ther i n 1625

c o n t a i n i n g c l e a r echoes of t h e French p i e c e .

The h i g h e s t form of l o v e , i n P l a t o ' s view, is a

s p i r i t e d companionship between two persons of t h e same sex

untouched by e r o t i c i s m . I n The Lysis, s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t is

f r i e n d s h i p , o r r a t h e r t h e a t t r a c t i o n of one person f o r

ano ther i n a l l i ts v a r i e t i e s , he chooses an a p p r o p r i a t e

s e t t i n g i n which S o c r a t e s , two schoolboys who a r e f a s t

f r i e n d s and two you ths who a r e t h e i r a d m i r e r s a r e t h e c h i e f

c h a r a c t e r s . Advising t h e boys t h a t t h e y shou ld be u s e f u l

and good i f t h e y a r e t o win f r i e n d s , S o c r a t e s s t a r t s

examin ing Homer's s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e g o d s make f r i e n d s by

d rawing l i k e t o l i k e . He f i n a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t n e i t h e r

s i m i l a r s n o r o p p o s i t e s can b e f r i e n d s t o e a c h o t h e r . The

d i a l o g u e t a k e s u s nowhere a s S o c r a t e s h i m s e l f i n d u l g e s i n

s o p h i s t i c and f a l l a c i o u s a rgumen t s w i t h o u t t h rowing any

v a l u a b l e h i n t . He i s c l e a r l y t r a p p e d by t h e a m b i g u i t i e s of

t h e Greek word and what emerges is an u n a t t r a c t i v e and

b a f f l i n g view of f r i e n d s h i p . We f e e l t h a t c r i t i c s a r e j u s t

i n r e j e c t i n g The L y s i s a l o n g w i t h Euthyphro , Laches and

Charmides a s e a c h of t h e s e h a s f a i l e d i n i ts a t t e m p t t o

d e f i n e a s i n g l e v i r t u e . I t is i n The Symposion t h a t P l a t o

s u c c e e d s f amous ly i n d e s c r i b i n g h i s u n i q u e c o n c e p t o f l o v e .

The t r u e p r o g r e s s of l o v e s t a r t s w i t h a f a i r body

and b e g e t s n o b l e t h o u g h t s ; t h e n e x t s t e p i s t o r a t e b e a u t y

of s o u l h i g h e r t h a n b o d i l y b e a u t y and l o v i n g it even i n an

u g l y f r a m e . From t h e r e t h e e x c e p t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l is l e d t o

t h e b e a u t y of knowledge i n a l l i ts fo rms and w i l l no l o n g e r

be devo ted t o one boy o r man o r a c t i v i t y . A l l t h i s is o n l y

a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e sudden g l i m p s e of an amazing b e a u t y

which is e t e r n a l , c h a n g e l e s s , a b s o l u t e and u n i q u e . The man

who h a s c l imbed t h i s l a d d e r f rom a f a i r body t o t h e v i s i o n

o f Beau ty i t s e l f w i l l b e g r a n t e d i m m o r t a l i t y by t h e g o d s .

Both w i t h r e g a r d t o c o n t e n t and form, t h e r e a r e

v i t a l d i f f e r e n c e s between P l a t o ' s and A r i s t o t l e ' s e t h i c s ;

and t h i s is e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of t h e i r app roaoh t o

f r i e n d s h i p . P l a t o c o n t e n d s t h a t o n l y t h e p h i l o s o p h e r can be

t r u l y happy a s he a l o n e a t t h e end of a l o n g and a rduous

t r a i n i n g l e a r n s t o t u r n away f rom t h e c o n f u s i n g world of

o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s t o c o n t e m p l a t e t h e Forms. A r i s t o t l e ' s

view i s more mundane. To him, mora l v i r t u e i s n o t o u t of

t h e r e a c h of common man. Though, l i k e P l a t o , A r i s t o t l e

h o l d s t h e c o n t e m p l a t i v e l i f e t o b e s u p e r i o r t o t h e l i f e of

a c t i o n , he t a k e s t h e v i r t u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l a t t e r t o

be c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of human b e i n g s a s human b e i n g s . I f ,

a c c o r d i n g t o P l a t o , i t is a d e g r a d a t i o n f o r t h e p h i l o s o p h e r

t o come down t o t h e t e r r a f i r m a a f t e r hav ing g a i n e d a

v i s i o n of t h e Good, f o r A r i s t o t l e , p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y i n

t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e i s t y p i c a l l y hunan.

I t i s C i c e r o who r e g a r d s f r i e n d s h i p a s t h e g r e a t e s t

of a l l t h e g i f t s t h e gods have bes towed upon mankind, t h e

s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n b e i n g wisdom. He p l a c e s f r i e n d s h i p above

e v e r y o t h e r human c o n c e r n t h a t c an be imag ined .

Nothing i n t h e whole w o r l d is s o c o m p l e t e l y i n harmony w i t h n a t u r e , and n o t h i n g s2 u t t e r l y r i g h t , i n p r o s p e r i t y and a d v e r s i t y a l i k e .

Examining t h e o r i g i n s of f r i e n d s h i p , C i c e r o c l a i m s t h a t

t h e y l i e i n some th ing p r i m e v a l and n o b l e , something

emana t ing d i r e c t l y from t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s e s of n a t u r e .

. . . i t must be a p roduo t o f n a t u r e r a t h e r t h a n of any d e f i c i e n c y . I t canno t u n d e r any c i r c u m s t a n c e s be d e r i v e d f rom any c a l c u l a t i o n of p o t e n t i a l p r o f i t . I t comes f rom a e e l i n g o f a f f e c t i o n , an i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e h e a r t . 5

As p r o o f , he men t ions t h e f a c t t h a t it i s from l o v e , snor ,

t h a t t h e word f r i e n d s h i p , amicitia, i s d e r i v e d . C i c e r o

r e p e a t e d l y a s s e r t s t h a t o n l y good men have t h e c a p a c i t y t o

be good f r i e n d s and t h a t f r i e n d s h i p of t h e v i r t u o u s is

d e s i r a b l e f o r i ts own s a k e and f o r i t s e l f . N a t u r e a b h o r s

s o l i t u d e and f o r any human b e i n g t h e b e s t s u p p o r t of a l l i s

a good f r i e n d . The Roman p h i l o s o p h e r d raws o u r a t t e n t i o n t o

t h e i n s p i r e d Greek poem i n which Empedocles s a n g t h a t a l l

t h i n g s i n n a t u r e and t h e u n i v e r s e , whe the r s t a t i o n e r y o r

moving, a r e u n i t e d by f r i e n d s h i p . 4

Monta igne ' s e s s a y on f r i e n d s h i p is v e r y d i f f e r e n t

from t h e r e s t of h i s work inasmuch a s it i s a p a s s i o n a t e l y

moving, i n t e n s e l y f e l t and t e n d e r a c c o u n t o f h i s l o v e f o r

h i s f r i e n d , La BoBt i e , a s w e l l a s a g r a n d c e l e b r a t i o n o f

f r i e n d s h i p i t s e l f . He makes a d i s t i n c t i o n between what he

c a l l s a c q u a i n t a n c e and s o v e r e i g n and p e r f e c t f r i e n d s h i p ,

which, he c o n c e d e s , i s r a r e l y f o u n d .

But i n t h e f r i e n d s h i p I s p e a k o f , t h e y ( f r i e n d s ) mix and work t h e m s e l v e s i n t o one p i e c e , w i t h s o

u n i v e r s a l a m i x t u r e , t h a t t h e r e i s no more s ' g n of t h e seam by which t h e y were f i r s t c o n j o i n e d . 5

A l l t h i n g s , w i l l s , t h o u g h t s , o p i n i o n s , g o o d s , w ives , c h i l d r e n , honour s , and l i v e s , b e i n g i n e f f e c t common b e t w i x t them, and t h a t a b s o l u t e c o n c u r r e n c e of a f f e c t i o n s b e i n g no o t h e r t h a n one s o u l i n two b o d i e s ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e v e r y p r o p e r d e f i n i t i o n of A r i s t o t l e ) , t h e y cgn n e i t h e r l e n d n o r g i v e a n y t h i n g t o one a n o t h e r .

Common f r i e n d s h i p w i l l a d m i t of d i v i s i o n ; one may l o v e t h e b e a u t y of t h i s p e r s o n , t h e good-humour of t h a t , t h e l i b e r a l i t y of a t h i r d , t h e p a t e r n a l a f f e c t i o n of a f o u r t h , t h e f r a t e r n a l l o v e of a f i f t h and s o t h e r e s t ; b u t t h i s f r i e n d s h i p t h a t p o s s e s s e s t h e whole s o u l , and t h e r e r u l e s and sways w i t h an a b s o l t e s o v e r e i g n t y , c a n n o t p o s s i b l y admi t a r i v a l . Y

U n l i k e h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , H o n t a i g n e e x p l o r e s t h e r a n g e of

human a c t i v i t y and s e n s i b i l i t y w i t h o u t m e t h o d i c a l l y

a n a l y s i n g o r s y s t e m a t i z i n g i t . "He is n o t c o n c e r n e d t o

a r r i v e a t a s y s t e m a t i c c o r p u s of knowledge a b o u t man, s i n c e

f o r him p h i l o s o p h y is a form of a c t i v i t y r a t h e r t h a n a

d e s c r i p t i o n of u l t i m a t e t r u t h . H i s p u r p o s e i s n o r e p e r s o n a l

t h a n t h e o r e t i c a l , more p o e t i c t h a n p h i l o s o ~ h i c a l . " ~ What

may a l i e n a t e him f rom h i s r e a d e r s is t h e theme o f v a n i t y ,

o r of human i n s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t is a t t h e h e a r t o f h i s

v i s i o n of l i f e . To him, man is no more t h a n a b e a s t . His

c y n i c i s m r e a r s i ts u g l y head i n h i s compar i son be tween

f r i e n d s h i p and ' t h e l o v e we b e a r t o women'.

The f i r e of t h i s , I c o n f e s s . . . is more a c t i v e , more e a g e r , and more s h a r p ; b u t w i t h a l , it is more p r e c i p i t a n t , f i c k l e , moving and i n c o n s t a n t ; a

f e v e r s u b j e c t t o i n t e r m i s s i o n s and paroxysms, t h a t h a s c e a s e d b u t on one p a r t of u s . Whereas i n f r i e n d s h i p , i t i s a g e n e r a l and u n i v e r s a l f i r e , b u t t e m p e r a t e and e q u a l , a c o n s t a n t e s t a b l i s h e d h e a t , a l l g e n t l e and smooth, w i t h o u t po ignancy o r r o u g h n e s s . Moreover , i n l o v e , it i s no o t h e r g t h a n f r a n t i c d e s i r e f o r t h a t which f l i e s f rom u s .

U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , Bacon was i n s p i r e d by M o n t a i g n e ' s t r e a t m e n t

of t h e s u b j e c t .

Bacon ' s e s s a y s a r e found t o be c o l d and p r a c t i c a l

compared t o o t h e r R e n a i s s a n c e w r i t i n g s on f r i e n d s h i p ,

t hough t h e one c a l l e d "Of F r i e n d s h i p " is an e l o q u e n t p l e a

f o r t h e need f o r f r i e n d s h i p . The f i r s t two f r u i t s of

f r i e n d s h i p , he s a y s , a r e p e a c e i n t h e e m o t i o n s and s u p p o r t

o f t h e judgment .

Fo r f r i e n d s h i p maketh indeed a f a i r day i n t h e a f f e c t i o n s , f rom s t o r m and t e m p e s t s ; b u t it maketh d a y l i g h t i n t h e u n d e r s l ~ n d i n g , o u t of d a r k n e s s and c o n f u s i o n of t h o u g h t s .

These a r e f o l l o w e d by t h e l a s t f r u i t , which is " a i d and

b e a r i n g a p a r t i n a l l a c t i o n s and o c c a s i o n s " . l l But i n

o t h e r e s s a y s , where h i s mora l p h i l o s o p h y smacks of

M a c h i a v e l l i , he is s e e n t o b e s c e p t i c a l of b o t h l o v e and

f r i e n d s h i p . Of l o v e , he w r i t e s ,

I t is a s t r a n g e t h i n g t o n o t e t h e e x c e s s o f t h i s p a s s i o n . . . You may o b s e r v e t h a t amongst a l l t h e g r e a t and wor thy p e r s o n s (whereo f t h e memory r e m a i n e t h e i t h e r a n c i e n t o r r e c e n t ) , t h e r e is n o t one t h a t h a t h been t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e mad d e g r e e

of l o v e ; which shows t h a t g r e a t s p i r i t s 13nd g r e a t b u s i n e s s do keep o u t t h i s weak p a s s i o n .

Though he might have known a b o u t t h e c e l e b r a t e d f r i e n d s h i p

of Miche l ange lo and C a v a l i e r i , Monta igne and La BoBt i e , S i r

P h i l i p S idney and Hube r t L a n g u e t , he a s s e r t s t h a t f r i e n d s

a r e c h i e f l y a means t o power . I n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of

f r i e n d s h i p , Bacon can n e v e r b e a s p ro found a s A r i s t o t l e o r

T i r u v a j l u v a r b u t a l l t h e t i m e g i v e s e x p r e s s i o n t o h i s

cyn i c i sm and d i s t r u s t of man.

Love you r f r i e n d a s i f he were t o become y o u r enemy, ggd you r enemy a s i f he were t o become y o u r f r i e n d .

Do n o t b e t r a y even t o y o u r f r i e n d t o o much of y o u r r e a l p u r p o s e and t h o u g h t s ; i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , a s k q u e s t i o n s o f t e n e r t h a n you e x p r e s s o p i n i o n s ; and when you s p e a k , o f f e r d a t a ?ad i n f o r m a t i o n r a t t i e r t h a n b e l i e f s and judgmen t s .

Of a l l t h e s e m e d i t a t i o n s on f r i e n d s h i p t h e one t h a t i s

c l o s e s t t o T i r u v a l f u v a r is t h a t of A r i s t o t l e . The world

view t h a t h a s g i v e n b i r t h t o H o n t a i g n e ' s and Bacon ' s

c y n i c a l a t t i t u d e s t o l o v e and f r i e n d s h i p would have been

V a t l u v a r ' s a b h o r r e n c e . Even C i c e r o ' s a c c o u n t , i n t h e f o r m

of a d i s c u s s i o n , sounds a l i t t l e t o o c a l c u l a t i n g and

a p p e a r s t o be meant ma in ly f o r h i s own s o c i e t y and h i s own

t i m e s a s he is i n t e r e s t e d i n c o n s i d e r i n g how f a r p e r s o n a l

f r i e n d s h i p i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n s t h a t

were i n e v i t a b l e d u r i n g h i s p e r i o d . Whi l e p r o c e e d i n g f rom

l i f e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s t o r e a s o n e d u n i v e r s a l j udgmen t s , w h i l e

a s s e r t i n g e m p h a t i c a l l y t h a t v i r t u e and v i c e a r e w i t h i n t h e

power of homo s a p i e n s and , e s p e c i a l l y w h i l e e l e v a t i n g

f r i e n d s h i p t o a v e r y h i g h l e v e l i n t h e l is t o f u n i v e r s a l

human c o n c e r n s , A r i s t o t l e r eminds u s more o f T i r u v a l j u v a r

t h a n of any of h i s own Western d i s c i p l e s .

Making a d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e c o n t e m p l a t i v e l i f e

and t h e l i f e of a c t i o n , A r i s t c t l e h o l d s t h e f o r m e r t o be

f a r s u p e r i o r t o t h e l a t t e r . The phronimos l e a d s a good

moral l i f e , a l i f e of t e m p e r a n c e , c o u r a g e , j u s t i c e and

c o n t i n e n c e , r e a l i z e s h i s o b l i g a t i o n s of j u s t i c e t o o t h e r s ,

knows t h e v a l u e of emo t ions and c u l t i v a t e s them t h r o u g h t h e

s e r i e s o f mora l v i r t u e s . The sophos, on t h e o t h e r hand,

e x e r c i s i n g h i s i n t e l l e c t i n c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e mos t

e x a l t e d p a r t of r e a l i t y , i t s e s s e n c e s , n e e d s v e r y l i t t l e

e x t e r n a l goods . The l i f e of t h e o r i a l e d by t h e sophos i s ,

a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t l e , more d i v i n e t h a n human, whe reas t h e

whole mora l l i f e and h a p p i n e s s of t h e Phronimos i s o n l y

s e c o n d a r y . F o r A r i s t o t l e , man is a c o m p o s i t e b e i n g , p a r t

a n i m a l , p a r t d i v i n e and t h e v i r t u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

l i f e of a c t i o n a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of human b e i n g s q u a human

b e i n g s , w h i l e t h e l i f e a c c o r d i n g t o r e a s o n is s o m e t h i n g

super-human.

Va;$uvar a l s o s p e a k s of two k i n d s o f l i f e - t h e l i f e

o f t h e h o u s e h o l d e r and t h e l i f e of t h e a s c e t i c b u t g i v e s

e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e t o b o t h . The f o r m e r , i n f a c t , s h o u l d l e a d

t o t h e l a t t e r . The g r e a t e s t b l e s s i n g , i n Va?!uvar's v iew,

is an h o n o u r a b l e home, t h e c rown ing g l o r y of which is

wor thy o f f s p r i n g . l5 The h ~ u s e t ~ o l d e r , b e i n g t h e b e s t of

t h o s e who s t r i v e f o r s a l v a t i o n , i s t h e m a i n s t a y of a l l who

f o l l o w t h e o t h e r t h r e e p a t h s of l i f e - t h e c e l i b a t e s , t h e

l a y a s c e t i c s , and t h e a s c e t i c s . L e a d i n g a v i r t u o u s l i f e

h i m s e l f , he h e l p s o t h e r s i n t h e o b s e r v a n c e of t h e i r vows

and i s , t h e r e f o r e , h o l i e r t h a n t h e a u s t e r e o n e s t h e m s e l v e s .

I f he l i v e s a s he ough t t o l i v e , he w i l l b e l ooked upon a s

a god among men. Love of mankind, h o s p i t a l i t y , u p r i g h t n e s s ,

f o r g i v e n e s s , o b l i g a t i o n s and good w i l l t o a l l , c h a r i t y ,

s e l f - c o n t r o l , p u r i t y o f c o n d u c t , r e f r a i n i n g f rom s l a n d e r ,

v a i n - s p e a k i n g and f rom e v i l - d o i n g a r e among t h e c h i e f

v i r t u e s of t h o s e who have chosen t o l e a d t h e f a m i l y l i f e

whe reas t h e o t h e r g r o u p s h o u l d p r a c t i s e mercy, a b j u r e n e a t ,

u n d e r t a k e penance , a b s t a i n f rom f r a u d and a n g e r and t h e r e b y

g a i n a h i g h e r s p i r i t u a l power and v i s i o n . Host of t h e

v i r t u e s ment ioned i n t h e two l i s ts a r e common t o b o t h t h e

g r o u p s t hough c a t a l o g u e d s e p a r a t e l y t o i n d i c a t e p r i o r i t y

and t h e h o u s e h o l d e r i s e x p e c t e d t o a s c e n d a few r i n g s on

t h e l a d d e r of l i f e , r e a l i s e t h e t r u t h and r e n o u n c e h i s

a t t a c h m e n t s to ' t h i s w o r l d . I f f a m i l y - l i f e is n o t a n end i n

i t s e l f b u t o n l y a p a t h t o a s c e t i c i s m wh ich l e a d s t o

Godhead, t h e a s c e t i c , g i v i n g up a l l s e n s u o u s p l e a s u r e s ,

becomes t h e v e r y embodiment of c h a r i t y , a s l o v e f o r a l l

c r e a t u r e s , compass ion of t h e supreme k i n d a l o n e i s h i s a l l y

i n a s c e t i c i s m .

I t i s b e c a u s e u f t h i s emphas i s on t h e v a l u e of l i f e

on t h e e a r t h t h a t A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r c a l l e d T i r u k k u ~ a f " t h e

l i v i n g e t h i c of l o v e "

T h e r e h a r d l y e x i s t s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e of t h e wor ld a c o l l e c t i o n of maxims i n which we f i n d s o much l o f t y wisdom. . . . On t h e most v a r i e d q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n d u c t of man t o h i m s e l f and t o t h e w o r l d , i ts u t t e r a n c e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by n o b i l i t y and good s e n s e . . . . Maxims a b o u t j o y i n a c t i v i t y , s u c h a s one would n o t e x p e c t f rom I n d i a n l i p s , b e a r w i t n e s s t o t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e wfgld and t h e l i f e a f f i r m a t i o n p r e s e n t i n t h e Kuqa l .

A r i s t o t l e c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e aim of l i f e i s n o t

goodnes s f o r i ts own s a k e b u t h a p p i n e s s . Man's h a p p i n e s s

l i e s i n t h e f u l l f u n c t i o n i n g of h i s power of t h o u g h t , h i s

r e a s o n i n g a b i l i t y . V i r t u e , which c o n t r i b u t e s t o o n e ' s

h a p p i n e s s , i s n o t t h e p o s s e s s i o n of t h e s i m p l e man, b u t t h e

ach i evemen t o f e x p e r i e n c e w h i l e t h e r o a d t o v i r t u e is t h e

midd le way o r t h e g o l d e n mean. Very o f t e n t h e e x t r e m e s a r e

v i c e s and t h e m i d d l e q u a l i t y i s a v i r t u e o r an e x c e l l e n c e .

So between c o w a r d i c e and r a s h n e s s is c o u r a g e ; be tween s t i n g i n e s s and e x t r a v a g a n c e is l i b e r a l i t y ; be tween s l o t h and g r e e d , is a m b i t i o n ; be tween h u m i l i t y and p r i d e i s modes ty ; be tween s e c r e c y and l o q u a c i t y , h o n e s t y ; be tween m o r o s e n e s s and

b u f f o o n e r y , good humour; be tween q u a r r e l s o m e n e s s and f l a t t e r y , f r i e n d s h i p ; be tween H a m l e t ' s i n d e c i s i v e n e s and Q u i x o t e ' s i m p u l s i v e n e s s i s s e l f - c o n t r o l .'7

O b v i o u s l y , t h e g o l d e n mean i s n o t , l i k e t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l

mean, an e x a c t a v e r a g e of two c a l c u l a b l e e x t r e m e s b u t

f l u c t u a t e s w i t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s of each s i t u a t i o n and r e v e a l s

i t s e l f o n l y t o m a t u r e r e a s o n . T h i s d o c t r i n e of t h e mean i s

found t o be t h e f o r m u l a t i o n of a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t t i t u d e

which a p p e a r s i n many s y s t e m s of Greek p h i l o s o p h y i n c l u d i n g

P l a t o ' s and A r i s t o t l e ' s . T h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t

t h e T a m i l s a l s o s e t g r e a t s t o r e on t h e c o n c e p t of t h e

g o l d e n mean. T . P . M e e n a k s h i s u n d a r a n , f o r i n s t a n c e , o b s e r v e s

t h a t t h e f a c t t h e T a m i l s have chosen t o name a c o l l e c t i o n

of poems of mode ra t e l e n g t h N a s i ~ ; a i , a s d i f f e r e n t f rom

Kuruntokai and Neiuntokai which a r e c o l l e c t i o n s of s h o r t

and l o n g poems r e s p e c t i v e l y , r e v e a l s t h e i r f a i t h i n t h e

g o l d e n mean a s t i l a i means d i s c i p l i n e .

T i r u v a J $ u v a r ' s emphas i s on t h e v i a media may b e

e v i d e n t i n t h e many m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e c o n c e p t s of

v i r t u e s he recommends. One s h o u l d b e c o u r a g e o u s b u t n o t

r a s h :

Not t o f e a r what o u g h t t o b e f e a r e d is f o l l y ; it is t h e d u t y of t h e w i s e t o d r e a d what is t o b e d r e a d e d . ( s t . 4 2 8 )

I t is good t o be g e n e r o u s b u t n o t e x t r a v a g a n t :

The w e a l t h of a man w i l l d w i n d l e i n t o n o t h i n g , i f h e , unmindfu l of i t s l i m i t s , l a v i s h e s it w i t h an u n s p a r i n g hand. ( s t , 4 8 0 )

One s h o u l d be e n t e r p r i s i n g b u t g r e e d w i l l l e a d t o d i s a s t e r :

Those who have c l imbed t o t h e t o p of t h e t r e e w i l l l o s e t h e i r l i v e s i f t h e y a t t e m p t t o c l i m b s t i l l h i g h e r . ( s t . 4 7 6 )

The g i f t of t h e t ongue i s t h e r a r e s t uf g i f t s b u t g a r r u l i t y

is a c u r s e :

Those who a r e i n c a p a b l e of e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n a few f a u l t l e s s words would l o v e t o s p e a k a l o t . ( s t . 6 4 9 )

V a i l u v a r u s e s t h e p h r a s e s ' a i a v i n k a ? ' , ' a i a v a r i n -

t C r ' , ' a f a v a l l a ' i n v e r s e s 286, 287 , 288 and 289 t o

u n d e r s c o r e t h e need f o r a s e n s e of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Whi le

condemning f r a u d , he o b s e r v e s ,

The man t h a t h a s weighed t h e t h i n g s of t h i s wor ld and made h i s h e a r t f i r m w i l l n o t commit t h e f o l l y of c h e a t i n g h i s n e i g h b o u r . ( s t . 2 8 7 )

Two s i m i l e s u sed i n d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s i n d i c a t e h i s d e s i r e

t o draw o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g o l d e n mean a s t h e p a t h t o

r i g h t e o u s n e s s .

Even p e a c o c k ' s f e a t h e r s w i l l b r e a k t h e a x l e of a c a r t i f i t is l o a d e d w i t h t o o many of t hem. ( s t . 4 7 5 )

L i k e t h e s c a l e s t h a t r ema in e q u i p o i s e d and weigh j u s t l y , t h e w i s e w i l l i n c l i n e n e i t h e r t o t h i s s i d e n o r t o t h a t and t h i s u p r i g h t n e s s i s t h e i r g l o r y . ( s t . 1 1 8 )

A r i s t o t l e , t h o u g h a d v o c a t i n g t h e g o l d e n mean

unambiguous ly , makes i t c l e a r t h a t i t i s riot enough f o r

h a p p i n e s s . We must have w o r l d l y goods which a l o n e can g i v e

u s f reedom f rom c a r e and g r e e d . V a i j u v a r p o i n t s o u t t h e

need f o r r i c h e s more e m p h a t i c a l l y :

J u s t a s t h i s wor ld i s n o t f o r t h o s e t h a t l a c k w e a l t h , t h e o t h e r wor ld is n o t f o r t h o s e t h a t want c h a r i t y . ( s t . 2 4 7 )

A r i s t o t l e ' s i d e a l man, who is no mere m e t a p h y s i c i a n , i s

d e s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s i n t h e f o u r t h book of Eth ics :

He d o e s n o t expose h i m s e l f n e e d l e s s l y t o d a n g e r b u t is w i l l i n g t o g i v e even h i s l i f e i n g r e a t c r i s e s . He i s e a g e r t o do s e r v i c e t o men though ashamed of hav ing a s e r v i c e done t o him.

He n e v e r f e e l s m a l i c e and a l w a y s f o r g e t s and i g n o r e s i n j u r i e s . He d o e s n o t s p e a k e v i l o f o t h e r s , even of h i s e n e m i e s , u n l e s s it be t o t h e m s e l v e s . He b e a r s t h e a c c i d e n t s o f l i f e w i t h d i g n i t y and #ace , making t h e b e s t of h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e s .

Va. l iuvar ' s i d e a l man may a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d i n

s i m i l a r t e r m s . But t h e n we c a n n o t i g n o r e t h e v i t a l

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o l i f e . A r i s t o t l e ' s

superman, p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y i n c l i n e d , d o e s n o t t a k e l i f e

v e r y s e r i o u s l y , t a l k s and a c t s f r a n k l y , b e c a u s e of h i s

con tempt f o r men and t h i n g s and i s n o t p rone t o vehemence,

f o r he t h i n k s n o t h i n g v e r y i m p o r t a n t . But t h e househo lde r

a s w e l l a s t h e a s c e t i c , a s c o n c e i v e d by V a t i u v a r , c o n s i d e r s

l i f e a v a l e of sou l -mak ing , i s p r e p a r e d t o l e a r n f rom a l l

e x p e r i e n c e s and would n e v e r t r e a t h i s fe l low-human b e i n g s

w i t h con tempt on any a c c o u n t . A r i s t o t l e ' s man of v i r t u e is

h i s b e s t f r i e n d t a k i n g d e l i g h t i n p r i v a c y . V a ? ? u v a r ' s man

may b e a h o u s e h o l d e r o r a v z p a p r a s t a o r a s a n y a s i n b u t

s h o u l d c o n s i d e r i t h i s p r i m e d u t y t o l i v e f o r o t h e r s .

Compassion f o r a l l l i v i n g b e i n g s is t h e c h i e f v i r t u e o f t h e

a s c e t i c . No c h a r i t y , no a s c e t i c i s m .

The Nicomachean Ethics, A r i s t o t l e ' s e t h i c a l

t r e a t i s e , composed i n A thens a t t h e Lyceum i n t h e f o u r t h

c e n t u r y B . C . , s p e a k s of t h e v i r t u e s , t h e fo rms of

f r i e n d s h i p , t h e v a r i e t ~ e s of p l e a s u r e and t h e n a t u r e of

h a p p i n e s s . Of t h e two books on t h e s u b j e c t of f r i e n d s h i p ,

Book V I I I i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : P a r t I d i s c u s s e s t h e

n e e d , n a t u r e and k i n d s of f r i e n d s h i p ; P a r t I1 a n a l y s e s t h e

s o c i a l a s p e c t s of f r i e n d s h i p ; P a r t I11 examines t h e

o b l i g a t i o n s t o w a r d s o n e ' s f r i e n d . Book I X c o n t i n u e s t h e

d i s c u s s i o n on t h e same s u b j e c t i n P a r t I , b e f o r e p a s s i n g on

t o t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p when o b l i g a t i o n s a r e n o t

me t . S e l f - l o v e a s t h e b a s i s of f r i e n d s h i p a s w e l l a s o t h e r

f e a t u r e s of f r i e n d s h i p is b r o u g h t i n i n P a r t 11. The

c o n n e c t i o n between f r i e n d s h i p and h a p p i n e s s i s t h e burden

of P a r t 111. H i s avowed o b j e c t i v e i s t o examine t h e most

n o t a b l e k i n d s of l i f e , t h e l i f e of p l e a s u r e , t h e p o l i t i c a l

l i f e and c o n t e m p l a t i v e l i f e and t o j u d g e t h e w o r t h of each

a c c o r d i n g t o i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o human w e l l - b e i n g . S i n c e he

d i s c u s s e s f r i e n d s h i p i n two books , t o t h e t h r e e human l i v e s

one may add t h e l i f e of f r i e n d s h i p a s a s p e c i a l t y p e of

happy l i f e .

The a r c h i t e c t o n i c s of Tirukkural is much more

complex. A comprehens ive and p e n e t r a t i n g s t u d y of e t h i c s ,

p o l i t y and l o v e , w r i t t e n somet ime between second and f o u r t h

c e n t u r y A.D., it c o n s i s t s of 1330 c o u p l e t s d i v i d e d i n t o 133

s e c t i o n s o f 10 d i s t i c h s e a c h - t h e f i r s t t h i r t y - e i g h t on

Aram ( v i r t u e , mora l and cosmic o r d e r ) , t h e n e x t 70 on Poru;

( w e a l t h , s o c i a l l i f e and p o l i t i c a l s k i l l ) and t h e l a s t

t w e n t y - f i v e on KHmam ( p l e a s u r e ) . The f i r s t f o u r c h a p t e r s ,

b e g i n n i n g w i t h one i n p r a i s e of God, s e r v e a s a k i n d of

p r o l o g u e t o t h e e n t i r e work w h i l e t h e r e s t of t h e c h a p t e r s

i n P a r t I , e x p a t i a t i n g on r i g h t e o u s n e s s , d e f i n e t h e v i r t u e s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f a m i l y l i f e and a s c e t i c i s m . I n t h e s e c o n d

p a r t which p u r p o r t s t o be on t h e body p o l i t i c , t h e r e a r e

s e c t i o n s on 1 . k i n g s h i p , 2 . l i m b s of s t a t e s u c h a s t h e

m i n i s t e r , t h e c o u n t r y , t h e f o r t r e s s , t h e army and t h e

k i n g ' s a s s o c i a t e s , and f i n a l l y 3 . t h e s u b j e c t s . The t h i r d

p a r t , i n i t s two b road s e c t i o n s , d e a l i n g w i t h s e c r e t

c o u r t s h i p and wedded l o v e , p r e s e n t s a number of d r a m a t i c

s c e n e s , e a c h of which i s b r i e f b u t s t r i k i n g and c o n t a i n s a

r e f i n e d a n a l y s i s of v a r y i n g moods of l o v e r s i n a r a r e

f u s i o n of p sycho logy and a e s t h e t i c s .

The s u b - d i v i s i o n s i n t h e f i r s t two p a r t s a r e n o t t o

be t r e a t e d a s w a t e r - t i g h t compar tmen t s ; many of t h e

v i r t u e s l i s t e d i n t h e f i r s t p a r t a r e common t o t h e

h o u s e h o l d e r and t h e a s c e t i c and most of t h e v e r s e s i n t h e

s econd p a r t a r e e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e k i n g and t h e

common man. I t is o f t e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e E t h i c s and t h e

P o l i t i c s of A r i s t o t l e a r e t o g e t h e r conce rned w i t h t h e good

o f man q u a member o f a c i t y - s t a t e and t h a t t h e two works

must be r e g a r d e d a s s u p p l e m e n t i n g e a c h o t h e r and a s

e x p r e s s i n g A r i s t o t l e ' s c o n c e p t i o n of t h e good of man, and

of t h e c o n d i t i o n s of s e c u r i n g and m a i n t a i n i n g i t . ' ' T h i s i s

e q u a l l y t r u e of t h e f i r s t two p a r t s of T i r u k k u z a ; a l s o .

Emphas i s ing t h e complex n a t u r e o f t h e s u b j e c t of

f r i e n d s h i p , V a i f u v a r t r e a t s it i n d i v e r s e s e c t i o n s u n d e r

d i f f e r e n t h e a d i n g s . I n t h e s e c t i o n on t h e h o u s e h o l d e r ' s

v i r t u e s , it is d i s c u s s e d a s l o v e ( c h a p t e r 8) , i n t h e

s e c t i o n on t h e k i n g ' s v i r t u e s , i t i s b r o u g h t i n u n d e r t h e

two h e a d i n g s , G a i n i n g t h e F r i e n d s h i p of Wise Hen ( c h . 4 5 )

and Not Keeping Bad Company ( c h . 4 6 ) . As one o f t h e members

o f t h e body p o l i t i c , i t r e c e i v e s d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t i n f i v e

c h a p t e r s - F r i e n d s h i p (oh.79), T e s t i n g F r i e n d s h i p ( c h . 8 0 ) ,

I n t i m a t e F r i e n d s h i p ( c h . 81), E v i l F r i e n d s h i p ( o h . 8 2 ) , and

I n s i n c e r e F r i e n d s h i p ( c h . 8 3 ) . The h i g h e s t and t h e mos t

d i v i n e form of l o v e , t h e most d i s i n t e r e s t e d l o v e f o r a l l

l i v i n g b e i n g s , is c a l l e d A r u i by V a l l u v a r and d i s c u s s e d i n

a s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r i n t h e s e c t i o n on a s c e t i c i s m .

F r i e n d s h i p , a c c o r d i n g t o A r i s t o t l e , is n e c e s s a r y f o r

a good and happy l i f e , s i n c e i t p l a y s an i n d i s p e n s a b l e r o l e

i n s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l l i f e . I t is a c o n s c i o u s , r e c i p r o c a l

w e l l - w i s h i n g b a s e d on t h e good q u a l i t i e s of f r i e n d s . What,

t h e n , i s t h e b a s i s of f r i e n d s h i p ? A r i s t o t l e ' s answer is

t h a t s e l f - l o v e ( t o p h i l a u t o n ) is t h e s t a n d a r d , model and

r e a l b a s i s of e v e r y f r i e n d s h i p . H i s c o n t e n t i o n is t h a t a l l

t h e s e n t i m e n t s found i n t r u e f r i e n d s h i p have t h e i r p r o t o -

t y p e i n g e n u i n e s e l f - l o v e . A man 's f r i e n d i s a n o t h e r s e l f ,

an e x t e n s i o n of h i s own s e l f . The more he p r o p e r l y l o v e s

h i m s e l f , t h e more he i m p a r t s t r u e l o v e t o h i s f r i e n d s . An

e v i l man c a n n o t have f r i e n d l y f e e l i n g s t o w a r d s h i m s e l f .

A r i s t o t l e is of t h e view t h a t t r u e s e l f - l o v e h a s t o be

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m f a l s e s e l f - l o v e . A man's s e l f - l o v e is t o

be blamed o n l y when he a p p r o p r i a t e s f o r h i m s e l f a l a r g e r

s h a r e t h a n h i s d u e of m a t e r i a l g o o d s , h o n o u r s and b o d i l y

t e m p e r a t e , cou rageous and w i s e , he a p p e a r s t o be t h e t r u e

s e l f - l o v e r . To A r i s t o t l e , t r u e s e l f - l o v e toward t r u e s e l f

is n o t s e l f i s h o r s e l f - c e n t r e d e g o i s m .

I t may b e n o t e d h e r e t h a t i n t h e B r i h a d a r a n y a k a

U p a n i s h a d a l s o , t h e r e i s a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t e l a b o r a t i o n

of t h e theme t h a t o u r l o v e f o r t h e s e l f is t h e b a s i s f o r

o u r l o v e of a l l o t h e r o b j e c t s . I n a c e l e b r a t e d d i a l o g u e ,

M a i t r a y i t e l l s Y a j n a v a l k y a :

V e r i l y , n o t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e husband, my d e a r , is t h e husband d e a r ( t o h i s w i f e ) , b u t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e S e l f , t h e husband is d e a r ( t o h i s w i f e ) . V e r i l y , n o t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e w i f e , my d e a r , i s t h e w i f e d e a r ( t o h e r husband) , b u t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e S e l f , is t h e w i f e d e a r ( t o h e r husband) . V e r i l y , n o t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e s o n s , my d e a r , a r e s o n s d e a r ( t o t h e i r p a r e n t s ) , b u t f o r t h e l o v e of t h e S e l f , a r e t h e s o n s d e a r ( t o t h e i r p a r e n t s ) . . . . V e r i l y , n o t f o r t h e l o v e o f a l l , my d e a r , i s ?A1 d e a r , b u t f o r t h e l o v e o f t h e S e l f i s a l l d e a r .

B u t , u n l i k e A r i s t o t l e , t h e Upan i shad , i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e l f

w i t h God, s t a t e s t h a t it must be u n d e r s t o o d t h a t a l l

o b j e c t s a r e u n i t e d i n Him, t h e S e l f , j u s t a s t h e d i v i n e

l imbs t o t h e body.

V a i i u v a r m e n t i o n s t h e b a s i s of f r i e n d s h i p i n h i s

c h a p t e r " A ~ p u $ a i m a i " (Love ) . F r i e n d s h i p is u l t i m a t e l y d u e

t o t h e i n n a t e f e e l i n g of l o v e , which is t h e h a l l m a r k of

e v e r y human b e i n g .

Love b e g e t s d e s i r e , and d e s i r e b e g e t s t h e immeasurable e x c e l l e n c e of f r i e n d s h i p . ( s t . 7 4 )

They s a y t h a t i t i s t o t a s t e t h e ' l i f e of l o v e t h a t t h e s o u l ha s been u n i t e d w i t h t h e body . ( s t . 7 3 )

The v e r y b l i s s on e a r t h i s t h e r e s u l t of a l i f e of l o v e

( s t . 7 5 ) . J u s t a s t h e b o n e l e s s worm i s b u r n t up by t h e s u n ,

t h e l o v e l e s s b e i n g w i l l b e d e s t r o y e d by Aram

( r i g h t e o u s n e s s ) ( s t . 7 7 ) . L o v e l e s s b e i n g s l i v e i n v a i n . The

l i f e of t h e l o v e l e s s b e i n g i s l i k e t h e f l o u r i s h i n g of a

w i t h e r e d t r e e upon p a r c h e d d e s e r t ( s t . 7 8 ) . O f what a v a i l i s

a l o v e l y o u t s i d e , when t h e s o u l w i t h i n i s d e v o i d of l o v e ?

( s t . 7 9 ) . Love is n a t u r a l f o r e v e r y b e i n g ; b o d i e s of

l o v e l e s s b e i n g s a r e o n l y bones wrapped i n s k i n ( s t . 8 0 ) . I n

s u c h a s s e r t i o n s , Va;;uvar is t r u e t o t h e Tami l l i t e r a r y

t r a d i t i o n which s w e a r s by t h e e s s e n t i a l o n e n e s s of mankind,

u n i v e r s a l l o v e and v i e w i n g God a s t h e v e r y embodiment of

l o v e .

A r i s t o t l e ' s emphas i s on s e l f - l o v e a s t h e b a s i s o f

f r i e n d s h i p and V a l l u v a r ' s on l o v e a r e t y p i c a l of t h e i r

wor ld -v i ews . The Greek p h i l o s o p h e r ' s m o r a l s y s t e m , f o r t h e

most p a r t , " i s d e c i d e d l y s e l f - c e n t r e d . . . . O u t s i d e t h e

books on f r i e n d s h i p v e r y l i t t l e is s a i d t o s u g g e s t t h a t men

can and s h o u l d t a k e a warm p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n o t h e r

p e o p l e ; a l t r u i s m is c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t . T r a c e s of a n

e g o i s t i c v iew a r e p r e s e n t even i n t h e a c c o u n t of

friends hi^."^' On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e Tami l t h i n k e r ' s mora l

s y s t e m s t r e s s e s a l t r u i s m and t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s o b l i g a t i o n s

t o s o c i e t y t o o o f t e n :

Those t h a t l o v e riot a p p r o p r i a t e e v e r y t h i n g t o t h e m s e l v e s ; t h o s e t h a t l o v e a r e p r e p a r e d t o s p a r e even t h e i r bones t o o t h e r s . ( s t . 7 2 )

G ive t o t h e p o o r and l i v e w i t h fame; l i f e h a s no g a i n o t h e r t h a n t h a t . ( s t . 2 3 1 )

The poo r may one d a y p r o s p e r ; b u t t h o s e t h a t l a c k compass ion a r e t h e most impove r i shed and w i l l n e v e r be r edeemed . ( s t . 2 4 8 )

A r i s t o t l e c l a s s i f i e s f r i e n d s h i p i n t o t h r e e t y p e s :

t h e n o b l e ( k s l o n ) , s o u g h t f o r i ts own s a k e , t h e p l e a s a n t

( h F d y ) , t h a t which a p p e a l s t o t h e s e n s e s and t h e u s e f u l

(hrzssimon), t h a t which i s a means t o s o m e t h i n g e l s e . The

f r i e n d s h i p of v i r t u e , ba sed on t h e m o r a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l

q u a l i t i e s p o s s e s s e d and s h a r e d by f r i e n d s , is c o n s i d e r e d

t h e b e s t by A r i s t o t l e . I t a l o n e p u r s u e s t h e e x c e l l e n c e of

f r i e n d s f o r what t h e y a r e and n o t f o r what t h e y h a v e . The

o t h e r two f r i e n d s h i p s b a s e d on a c c i d e n t s o f f o r t u n e ,

b e a u t y , w i t h i n n e s s and o t h e r s w i l l n o t l a s t l o n g . Old

p e o p l e and a few young a d u l t s may g i v e t o p p r i o r i t y t o

p r o f i t whe reas a f r i e n d s h i p of p l e a s u r e may b e found m o s t l y

among t h e young t h a t may be c a r r i e d away by t h e i r e m o t i o n s .

I n a v i r t u o u s f r i e n d s h i p age d o e s n o t m a t t e r a n d i t

c o n t a i n s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of u t i l i t a r i a n and h e d o n i s t i c

f r i e n d s h i p s . The l a s t two a r e more w i d e l y p r e v a l e n t t h a n

t h e f i r s t b e c a u s e f u l l y v i r t u o u s men a r e f ew . I n a n o t h e r

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , A r i s t o t l e r e l a t e s f r i e n d s h i p t o t h e

gove rnmen t . Each l e g i t i m a t e form of gove rnmen t - k i n g s h i p ,

a r i s t o c r a c y , t i m o c r a c y - i n v o l v e s some k i n d of f r i e n d s h i p

b e c a u s e t h e r e is a g o o d w i l l t o w a r d s j u s t i c e i n e a c h . The

f r i e n d s h i p between a k i n g and h i s s u b j e c t s c o n s i s t s i n t h e

k i n g ' s s u p e r i o r v i r t u e by which h e b e s t o w s b e n e f i t s upon

h i s s u b j e c t s , who, i n t u r n , honour , r e s p e c t and obey t h e

k i n g . The f a t h e r - s o n f r i e n d s h i p i n a f a m i l y is a n a l o g o u s t o

t h i s . I n t h e f r i e n d s h i p between a r i s t o c r a t i c r u l e r s and

t h e i r s u b j e c t s , which is s i m i l a r t o t h a t be tween husband

and w i f e , t h e p a r t n e r s u p e r i o r i n e x c e l l e n c e g i v e s more and

i s , i n t u r n , g i v e n more . The c i t i z e n s who a r e i n c o n t r o l i n

t i m o c r a c y a r e e q u a l , j u s t and v i r t u o u s and t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p

i s l i k e t h e f r i e n d s h i p among b r o t h e r s who a r e a l m o s t of t h e

same f o r t u n e and u p b r i n g i n g .

V a i j u v a r a l s o p r e f e r s t h e f r i e n d s h i p of v i r t u e t o

any o t h e r k i n d recommending i t t o t h e p r i n c e a s w e l l a s t o

t h e common man b u t f o c u s s e s h i s a t t e n t i o n on d i s c r i m i n a t i n g

between f r i e n d s h i p of t h e wor thy and mean company and

d e f i n i n g and i d e n t i f y i n g f a l s e and e v i l f r i e n d s h i p . A l l t h e

t h r e e a d v a n t a g e s , v i r t u e , p l e a s u r e and u t i l i t y , a r e

men t ioned by him:

Weigh t h e w o r t h of men of v i r t u e and of m a t u r e knowledge and s e c u r e t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p . ( s t . 4 4 1 )

He e m p h a s i s e s u s e f u l n e s s when he d e c l a r e s ,

C h e r i s h a s f r i e n d s t h o s e who can remove p r e s e n t i l ls and g u a r d you from f u t u r e o n e s . ( s t . 4 4 2 ) .

T r u e f r i e n d s h i p h a s t e n s t o t h e r e s c u e of t h e a f f l i c t e d a s r e a d i l y a s t h e hand of him whose ga rmen t h a s s l i p p e d away. ( s t , 7 8 1 )

What t h i n g s a r e t h e r e t o g a i n a s f r i e n d s h i p ? What o t h e r a rmour s can e q u a l it a s a d e f e n c e ? ( s t . 7 8 1 )

But u s e f u l n e s s s h o u l d n ' t b e uppe rmos t i n t h e minds of

f r i e n d s :

Mean is t h e f r i e n d s h i p i f i t p r o u d l y d e c l a r e s , "He i s s o i n t i m a t e w i t h u s and we s o much w i t h him? ( s t . 7 8 0 )

F r i e n d s who c a l c u l a t e t h e i r p r o f i t s , h a r l o t s who a c c e p t w h a t e v e r is g i v e n and t h i e v e s a r e a l l a l i k e . ( s t . 813)

The p l e a s u r e t h a t one g a i n s f rom f r i e n d s h i p is e x t r a -

o r d i a n r y . C o n s t a n t m e e t i n g s and compan ionsh ip a r e n o t

n e c e s s a r y f o r f r i e n d s h i p , it is o n l y t h e u n i o n of h e a r t s

t h a t s t r e n g t h e n s t h e bond of f r i e n d s h i p :

The more you s t u d y good b o o k s , t h e more i n s i g h t s you g e t i n t o them; t h e more you c u l t i v a t e t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f t h e n o b l e , t h e more d e l i g h t f u l i t becomes. ( s t . 7 8 3 ) .

F r i e n d s h i p i s n o t t h a t which s t o p s a t m u t u a l exchange of s m i l e s ; i t i s r a t h e r t h e l o v e t h a t d e l i g h t s t h e h e a r t . ( s t . 7 8 6 )

Whereas V a l i u v a r d o e s n o t i n s i s t on f r e q u e n t

m e e t i n g s between f r i e n d s , A r i s t o t l e s a y s t h a t an a c t i v e

f r i e n d s h i p , p r e f e r a b l e t o what he c a l l s h a b i t u a l

f r i e n d s h i p , demands t h a t f r i e n d s l i v e t o g e t h e r , exchange

mu tua l f a v o u r s , p l e a s e each o t h e r and p r o f i t f rom e a c h

o t h e r ' s company. F r i e n d s who a r e s e p a r a t e d by g e o g r a p h i c a l

d i s t a n c e , may s t i l l b e h a b i t u a l f r i e n d s t h r o u g h t h e i r good

mu tua l d i s p o s i t i o n b u t l o n g a b s e n c e s w i l l e a s i l y b r e a k a

f r i e n d s h i p - one would s a y " o u t of s i g h t , o u t of mind . "22

With r e g a r d t o t h e f r i e n d s h i p s t o be o u l t i v a t e d by k i n g s

a l s o , t h e r e is a d i f f e r e n c e of o p i n i o n between t h e two

t h i n k e r s . Acco rd ing t o A r i s t o t l e , men i n power d o n o t l o o k

f o r p l e a s a n t f r i e n d s who a r e e q u a l l y good and u s e f u l f o r

n o b l e p u r p o s e s , b u t t h e y l o o k f o r t h e w i t t y t o e n t e r t a i n

them and f o r t h e c l e v e r and a g g r e s s i v e t o e x e c u t e t h e i r

p r o f i t a b l e o r d e r s . 2 3 A r i s t o t l e seems t o have i n mind t h e

age -o ld cus tom of k i n g s k e e p i n g f o o l s and c lowns by t h e i r

s i d e t o e n t e r t a i n them. Bu t V a t i u v a r t a k e s p a i n s t o d r i v e

home t h e i d e a t h a t r u l e r s o u g h t t o c h o o s e w i s e and b o l d men

a s t h e i r companions who s h o u l d be g i v e n t h e r i g h t t o a d v i s e

them and even t h e f r eedom t o c h i d e them when t h e y go wrong.

Who can r u i n t h e man t h a t commands t h e f r i e n d s h i p of t h o s e t h a t c an r ep r imand him? ( s t . 4 4 7 )

The k i n g t h a t h a s no s u p p o r t o f men t h a t c a n c e n s u r e him w i l l p e r i s h even i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n t a g o n i s t s . ( s t . 4 4 8 )

From h i s mas t a r P l h t o ' s and h i s own b i t t e r e x p e r i e n c e s ,

A r i s t o t l e would have come t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t k i n g s do

n o t t a k e k i n d l y t o s u c h h o n e s t and o u t s p o k e n f r i e n d s . T o

him, p r i n c e s of s u p e r i o r v i r t u e a r e a r a r e b r e e d .

A r i s t o t l e a r g u e s t h a t when t h e r e i s a wide d i s p a r i t y

between f r i e n d s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r v i r t u e , w e a l t h o r

s o c i a l s t a n d i n g , f r i e n d s h i p is n o t p o s s i b l e . Gods

e x c e e d i n g m o r t a l men i n v i r t u e c a n n o t be f r i e n d s w i t h t h e

l a t t e r ; k i n g s and t h e common p e o p l e c a n n o t be f r i e n d s

b e c a u s e of d i f f e r e n c e i n s o c i a l s t a t u s and w e a l t h ; t h e w i s e

c a n n o t be f r i e n d s w i t h men of o r d i n a r y v i r t u e . Fo r

A r i s t o t l e , t h e l e a s t e n d u r i n g f r i e n d s h i p i s t h a t be tween

e v i l men a s t h e y p o s s e s s u n s t e a d y c h a r a c t e r s and t h e i r

w ickednes s i s h a t e f u l even t o t h e m s e l v e s . On t h e o t h e r

hand, t h e open r e l a t i o n s h i p between good men makes i t

p o s s i b l e f o r them t o c o r r e c t e a c h o t h e r when t h e y s e e f a u l t

i n e a c h o t h e r ' s c o n d u c t .

Va??uvar i s more conce rned w i t h t h e a v o i d a n c e of

mean company and f a l s e f r i e n d s . The high-minded w i l l f e a r

mean men b e c a u s e " j u s t a s w a t e r a s sumes t h e c h a r a c t e r of

t h e s o i l on which it f l o w s , t h e human mind t a k e s t h e

c h a r a c t e r of t h e company it k e e p s ( s t . 4 5 2 ) . "The f r i e n d s h i p

of e v i l men who look a s i f t h e y would e a t you up t h r o u g h

e x c e s s of l o v e i s s w e e t e r i n i t s d y i n g t h a n i n i t s g rowing"

f s t . 8 1 1 ) . I n f a c t , " s o l i t u d e is b e t t e r t h a n t h e s o c i e t y o f

t h o s e who a r e l i k e t h e u n t r a i n e d h o r s e s t h a t throw down

t h e i r r i d e r s on t h e b a t t l e f i e l d " ( s t . 8 1 4 ) . But t h e most

d a n g e r o u s f r i e n d s h i p is t h a t of men who l o o k l i k e f r i e n d s

b u t a r e enemies a t h e a r t . One s h o u l d f e a r t h e h y p o c r i t i c a l

v i l l a i n s who s m i l e t o t h e f a c e b u t n u r s e h a t r e d w i t h i n

t h e i r h e a r t s . " A weapon may l i e c o n c e a l e d i n t h e hands t h a t

w o r s h i p ; t h e t e a r s t h a t enemies s h e d a r e o f t h e same

n a t u r e " ( s t . 828)

L i s t i n g g o o d w i l l ( e u n o i a ) , conco rd (homonoia) and

b e n e f i c e n c e ( e u e r g e s i a ) a s t h e b a s i c s e n t i m e n t s o f f r i e n d l y

l o v e , A r i s t o t l e s a y s t h a t g o o d w i l l i s o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g of

f r i e n d s h i p b u t n o t f u l l - f l e d g e d f r i e n d s h i p . Time, i n t e n s i t y

and f a m i l i a r i t y can a l o n e t u r n g o o d w i l l i n t o a c t i v e l o v e

f o r o n e ' s f r i e n d . E x p l a i n i n g conco rd a s t h e m u t u a l i t y of

f e e l i n g and t h i n k i n g between i n d i v i d u a l s , he a n a l y z e s t h e

ooncord among c i t i z e n s w i t h i n t h e i r s t a t e . B e n e f a c t o r s , he

a r g u e s , l o v e t h o s e t h e y have b e n e f i t e d more t h a n t h e i r

b e n e f i c i a r i e s l o v e t hem. The r e a s o n s t h a t he g i v e s f o r t h i s

a p p a r e n t p a r a d o x a r e q u i t e i n t e r e s t i n g ;

T h i s is what happens w i t h c r a f t s m e n t o o ; e v e r y man l o v e s h i s own handiwork b e t t e r t h a n h e would b e l oved by it i f i t came a l i v e ; and t h i s happens p e r h a p s mos t of a l l w i t h p o e t s ; f o r t h e y h a v e a n e x c e s s i v e l o v e f o r t h e i r poems, d o t i n g on them a s

i f t h e y were t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h i s i s what t h e p o s i t i o n of b e n e f a c t o r s i s l i k e ; f o r t h a t which t h e y have t r e a t e d w e l l is t h e i r hand iwork , and t h e r e f o r e t hey2hove t h i s more t h a n t h e handiwork d o e s i t s maker .

One t a k e s t i m e t o t e s t t h e f i t n e s s of o t h e r s f o r

f r i e n d s h i p . T h e r e is n o t h i n g wrong i f one is s l o w t o f a l l

i n t o f r i e n d s h i p b e c a u s e once a f r i e n d s h i p is formed t h e r e

is no q u e s t i o n of t e r m i n a t i n g it on f l i m s y g r o u n d s . Bo th

A r i s t o t l e and Va;;uvar, t h e r e f o r e , s p e a k of f i r m and

c o n s t a n t f r i e n d s h i p and a d d r e s s t h e q u e s t i o n of d i s s o l u t i o n

of f r i e n d s h i p . F o r A r i s t o t l e , i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s h i p c o n s i s t s

i n t h e mu tua l s h a r i n g of g o o d s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e known

p r o v e r b t h a t " f r i e n d s ' g o o d s a r e common p r o p e r t y " . 2 5

C o m p l a i n t s n e v e r o c c u r between s u c h f r i e n d s . A good man

s h o u l d have a s y m p a t h e t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s (synaisthanesthai)

of h i s f r i e n d ' s s e n s a t i o n and t h o u g h t . The s y m p a t h e t i c

c o n s c i o u s n e s s may be e n r i c h e d i n t h e b e s t way by c o n v e r s i n g

and l i v i n g t o g e t h e r and by s h a r i n g t h e i r t h o u g h t s and

f e e l i n g s . T h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l communion i s more i m p o r t a n t

t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e .

He n e e d s , t h e r e f o r e , t o be c o n s c i o u s of t h e e x i s t e n c e of h i s f r i e n d a s w e l l , and t h i s w i l l be r e a l i z e d i n t h e i r l i v i n g t o g e t h e r and s h a r i n g t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n and t h o u g h t ; f o r t h i s i s what l i v i n g t o g e t h e r would seem t o mean i n t h e c a s e of man, and n o t , a 2 g i n t h e c a s e of c a t t l e , f e e d i n g i n t h e same p l a c e .

F r i e n d s h i p b a s e d upon u t i l i t y and p l e a s u r e a r e b r o k e n a s

soon a s t h e p a r t n e r s a r e found t o be u s e l e s s o r u n p l e a s a n t .

With r e g a r d t o t h e b r e a k i n g of v i r t u o u s f r i e n d s h i p , one h a s

t o be e x t r e m e l y c o n s i d e r a t e . When he is chosen a s a f r i e n d ,

t h e f r i e n d s h i p may b e d i s s o l v e d o n l y i f h i s w ickednes s is

i n c u r a b l e . I f t h e r e i s a chance t h a t h i s c h a r a c t e r may be

r e fo rmed , t h e n i t is good t o make an a t t e m p t i n t h a t l i n e

b e f o r e t a k i n g any d r a s t i c s t e p .

The Tamil p o e t grows e l o q u e n t o v e r t h e s a l i e n t

f e a t u r e s of i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s h i p : Tha t f r i e n d s h i p is c a l l e d

i n t i m a c y which c a n n o t be i n j u r e d by t h e l i b e r t i e s t a k e n by

t h e l oved o n e . The r i g h t of i n t i m a c y i s p a r t of f r i e n d s h i p ;

t o be p l e a s e d w i t h s u c h a r i g h t is t h e d u t y of t h e w i s e . Of

what a v a i l is l o n g - s t a n d i n g f r i e n d s h i p i f i t d o e s n ' t

app rove of t h e a c t i o n s done t h r o u g h t h e r i g h t of i n t i m a c y ?

I f f r i e n d s , by r i g h t of i n t i m a c y , do a t h i n g w i t h o u t b e i n g a s k e d , t h e warm-hear ted w i l l be p l e a s e d w i t h them on a c c o u n t of i ts d e s i r a b i l i t y . ( s t . 8 0 4 ) .

Those who know t h e v i r t u e of g e n u i n e f r i e n d s h i p w i l l n o t

g i v e up t h e i n t i m a c y of l o n g - s t a n d i n g f r i e n d s even i f t h e

l a t t e r may c a u s e t h e i r r u i n . The wor ld l o v e s t h o s e t h a t

n e v e r f o r s a k e t h e i r f r i e n d s b u t l o v e them w i t h a d e a t h l e s s

a f f e c t i o n . V a l l u v a r p r a i s e s t h e v i r t u o u s t h a t n e v e r a l t e r

i n t h e i r a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e i r o l d f r i e n d s . Bu t when some

f r i e n d s h i p is d i s c o v e r e d t o b e e v i l o r f a l s e , one need n o t

h e s i t a t e t o t e r m i n a t e i t

Abandon s i l e n t l y and l i t t l e by l i t t l e t h e f r i e n d s h i p of t h o s e who make much of what l i t t l e t h e y can do f o r you . ( s t . 818)

When you r f o e s a f f e c t f r i e n d s h i p , wear a s m i l i n g f a c e b u t keep them o f f f rom your h e a r t . ( s t . 830)

Though w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e of f r i e n d s h i p and

i ts t y p e t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s between

t h e v i e w s of A r i s t o t l e and V a i t u v a r , t h e r e i s a g u l f of

d i f f e r e n c e between them where t h e method of e n q u i r y and t h e

manner of p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e c o n c e r n e d . Emphas i s ing t h e v iew

t h a t t h e method of e n q u i r y i n t h e E t h i c s and t h e Politics

has t o be d i f f e r e n t f rom t h a t i n d i s c i p l i n e s s u c h a s

Me taphys i c s and Ma thema t i c s , A r i s t o t l e h i m s e l f s a y s ,

F o r i t i s t h e mark of an e d u c a t e d mind t o e x p e c t t h a t amount of e x a c t n e s s i n e a c h k ind 3 9 i c h t h e n a t u r e of t h e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t a d m i t s .

I n t h e Ethics, t h e method i s n e i t h e r c o m p l e t e l y

d i a l e c t i c a l , b a s e d upon mere o p i n i o n s of o t h e r s , n o r h i g h l y

s c i e n t i f i c , ba sed upon a b s o l u t e p r e m i s e s . Here what he a i m s

a t a r e n o t e s s e n t i a l a t t r i b u t e s and a b s o l u t e t r u t h s a s i n

P h i l o s o p h y o r Ma thema t i c s b u t g e n e r a l o r u n i v e r s a l r u l e s o f

c o n d u c t . He d o e s n o t i n d u l g e i n c a s u i s t r y b u t s t u d i e s

e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s f rom t h e v i e w p o i n t t h a t is u n i v e r s a l l y

v a l i d . As h a s been p o i n t e d o u t by g r e a t Greek s c h o l a r s , t h e

g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s of t e l e o l o g y , i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m and

eudaimonism a r e woven i n t o h i s e n t i r e e t h i c a l s t u d y .

A r i s t o t l e i s p r i m a r i l y concerned wi th s t u d y i n g human n a t u r e

a s it i s . The major aim of t h e E t h i c s i s no t t o p reach or

t o conver t o r t o persuade bu t t o a n a l y z e and t o i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e s u b j e c t of human behav iour . His method i s i n d u c t i v e a s

he proceeds from common human exper ience t o u n i v e r s a l

judgment. I f i n P l a t o t h e r e is more of p r e s c r i p t i o n than

d e s c r i p t i o n , t h e two a r e t o be found i n d i f f e r e n t

p r o p o r t i o n i n A r i s t o t l e .

Va i juvar is a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n g e n e r a l and u n i v e r s a l

r u l e s of conduct and almost always a r r i v e s a t c o n c l u s i o n s

t h a t a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r t o h i s t ime b u t v a l i d and l a s t i n g

f o r a l l t ime . H i s method is t o d e f i n e every v i r t u e

p r e c i s e l y , exp la in i ts m e r i t s e l a b o r a t e l y and t o advocate

i t f o r c e f u l l y . He persuades men t o pursue t h e p a t h of

r i g h t e o u s n e s s by appea l ing t o them e a r n e s t l y , by commanding

them solemnly, by wheedling them i n t o a g r e e i n g , by p l e a d i n g

wi th them e f f e c t i v e l y , by promising them w i t h immediate

rewards, by f r i g h t e n i n g them i n t o submission o r by

t h r e a t e n i n g them wi th d i r e consequences. Relying a s much on

l o g i c a l r eason ing a s on emotional a p p e a l , he p r e s e n t s h i s

i d e a s as t ime- tes ted and approved by g e n e r a t i o n s of wise-

men. The r e a d e r s hear t h e v o i c e of an a f f e c t i o n a t e mother ,

of a wel l -meaning f a t h e r , o f a w i s e s t a t e s m a n , of an

e l o q u e n t o r a t o r o r a commanding lawmaker . T h e r e a r e more

p r e s c r i p t i o n s t h a n d e s c r i p t i o n s i n T i r u k k u ~ a ; b u t t h e y a r e

i n t h e fo rm of moving a p p e a l s o r v e i l e d t h r e a t s . The r e a d e r

i s f i n a l l y l e f t w i t h t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v i r t u e t r i u m p h s

o v e r e v e r y t h i n g and t h a t v i c e is r e p u l s i v e .

A r i s t o t l e ' s s t y l e , a d m i r a b l y l u c i d and c o n c i s e , f i t s

t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r and o b j e c t i v e of t h e E t h i c s . But it is

c o m p l e t e l y d e v o i d of l i t e r a r y p o l i s h , e x c e p t i n g f o r t h e

o c c a s i o n a l u s e of s i m i l e s and p r o v e r b s . P l a t o ' s D i a l o g u e s

have been h a i l e d a s poems though P l a t o h i m s e l f b a n i s h e s

p o e t r y o u t of h i s i d e a l r e p u b l i c . C o n s p i c u o u s l y d i f f e r i n g

f rom h i s men to r , A r i s t o t l e shows t h e l e a s t i n t e r e s t i n

p o e t i c e x p r e s s i o n . T h i s d o e s n o t i n any way d e t r a c t f rom

t h e c l a r i t y he a ims a t t hough on a v e r y l i m i t e d number of

o c c a s i o n s o b s c u r i t y is c a u s e d by t o o g r e a t a n economy of

e x p r e s s r o n . A r i s t o t l e ' s c r i t i c s have drawn o u r a t t e n t i o n t o

c e r t a i n o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s l i k e r e p e t i t i o n s , d i g r e s s i o n s and

e x e r c i s e s i n h a i r s p l i t t i n g . Though t h e r e a d e r w i l l b e

e x t r e m e l y g r a t e f u l t o A r i s t o t l e f o r c l e a r e x p o s i t i o n s of

complex s u b j e c t s , he may a t t i m e s l o n g f o r a e s t h e t i c

p l e a s u r e .

T i r u k k u ~ a ; is a t once a m o r a l t r e a t i s e and a work

o f a r t of t h e h i g h e s t o r d e r . I t employs t h r o u g h o u t a s i n g l e

m e t r e , t h e Ku_ra;vel;ip& wh ich , b e c a u s e of V a t f u v a r ' s

s p e c t a c u l a r s u c c e s s , a p p e a r s t o be p e r f e c t l y s u i t e d t o

gnomic p o e t r y . The f i r s t l i n e of e v e r y c o u p l e t c o n s i s t s of

f o u r f e e t and t h e s econd of t h r e e ; o n l y f e e t of two o r

t h r e e m e t r i c u n i t s (acai) a r e u s e d . T h i s t i g h t s t r u c t u r e

d o e s n ' t e x e r c i s e a b r a k e on V a l l u v a r ' s i m a g i n a t i o n o r

p r e v e n t him from u s i n g p r o f u s e l y common a s w e l l a s r a r e

l i t e r a r y d e v i c e s . As V . V . S . I y e r r i g h t l y o b s e r v e s ,

The a b i l i t y w i t h which t h e p o e t manages t h e c a e s u r a i n t h e s e s h o r t v e r s e s is some th ing m a s t e r l y . I t i s w i t h i n t h e compass of t h e s e s even f e e t t h a t o u r a u t h o r h a s compressed some of t h e p r o f o u n d e s t t h o u g h t s t h a t have e v e r been u t t e r e d by man. And how l i k e a m a s t e r he p l a y s on t h i s t i n y i n s t r u m e n t ! S p a r k l i n g w i t and humour, t h e p o i n t e d s t a t e m e n t , f a n c y , i r o n y , t h e n a i v e q u e s t i o n , t h e p i c t u r e s q u e s i m i l s , t h e r e i s n o t one of t h e s e and o t h e r s of t h e t housand t r i c k s t h a t o u r a u t h o r h a s no employed i n t h i s p e r f e c t m a s t e r - p i e c e of a r t .'$

Because of Va$ ;uvh i ' s p r e d i l e c t i o n f o r c o n c i s e e x p r e s s i o n ,

we come a c r o s s a few o b s c u r e p a s s a g e s t h a t have been

v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d by h i s commen ta to r s . B u t , on t h e - whole , t h e l i t e r a r y e x c e l l e n c e of T i r u k k u f f f a ; r i v a l s t h e

.d

g r a n d e u r of i ts p h i l o s o p h y .

T h i s k i n d of a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y of t h e v i e w s of

A r i s t o t l e and V a l l u v a r on f r i e n d s h i p e n l i g h t e n s u s on one

more v i t a l i s s u e . Some of A r i s t o t l e ' s commen ta to r s have

e x p r e s s e d t h e i r s u r p r i s e a t f i n d i n g two whole books of t h e

Nico~hachean Ethics d e v o t e d t o t h e s u b j e c t of f r i e n d s h i p .

The re a r e t h o s e who have t e n d e d t o t r e a t them a s a

d i g r e s s i o n i n a work t h a t a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n of human

m o r a l i t y . But t h e knowledge t h a t a n o t h e r a n c i e n t

p h i l o s o p h e r l i v i n g i n a d i s t a n t c o r n e r of t h e O r i e n t was

a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l y e x e r c i s e d by p rob l ems r e l a t i n g t o

f r i e n d s h i p and c h o s e t o d e a l w i t h i t i n a s many a s s i x

c h a p t e r s may f o r c e t h e r e a d e r s of t h e Ethics t o have a

r e t h i n k i n g on t h e i r h a s t y c o n c l u s i o n a b o u t t h e two books .

NOTES AND REFERENCES

W.K.C. G u t h r i e , A His tcy o f Philosophy, IV (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 7 5 ) , p . 3 7 7 .

C i c e r o , " L a e l i u s : On F r i e n d s h i p " i n Cicero, t r , Michae l G r a n t (Midd le sex : Pengu in Books, 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 1 8 5 .

I b i d . , p . 191 .

I b i d . , p . 1 8 9

Mon ta igne , The Essays o f Eyguen de h'ontaigne, t r . C h a r l e s C o t t o n (Ch icago : E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a I n c , 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 8 5 .

I b i d . , p . 8 6 .

I b i d . , p . 8 7 .

John C r u i c k s h a n k , e d . French L i t e ra tu re and its Background: The S i x t een th Century (London: OUP, 1 9 6 8 ) ,

Monta igne , T h e E s s a y s o f Eyguem d e M o n t a i g n e , p . 8 3 .

lo F r a n c i s Bacon, "Of F r i e n d s h i p " i n B a c o n ' s E s s a y s , ed S u k a n t a Chaudhur i (New D e l h i : OUP, 1977) , p . 4 7 .

l1 I b i d . , p . 5 1 .

l2 F r a n c i s Bacon, "Of Love" i n B a c o n ' s E s s a y s , p p . 24-5 .

l3 Quo ted i n W i l l D u r a n t , T h e S t o r y o f P h i l o s p h y (New York : Washington Squa re P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . 1 2 4 .

l4 I b i d .

l5 T i r u k k u r a l , s t . 6 0 . A l l t h e s t a n z a s q u o t e d f rom ~ i r u k k u z a ; have been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h p r o s e by me. I am, of c o u r s e , i n d e b t e d t o t h e famous t r a n s l a t i o n s of t h e work by G.U.Pope and V . V . S . A i y a r .

The Rev .G .U .Pope , t r . T h e S a c r e d K u r r a l (New D e l h i : Asian E d u c a t i o n a l S e r v i c e s , 1 9 8 4 ) , F i r s t p u b l i s h e d 1686, V . V . S . A i y a r , t r . T h e K u r a l (Madras : Subramanya S h i v a , 1 9 1 6 ) .

l6 A l b e r t S c h w e i t z e r , I n d i a n T h o u g h t a n d i t s D e v e l o p m e n t (London: Adam and C h a r l e s B l a c k , 1 S 5 7 ) , pp .200 -5 .

l7 Will D u r a n t , T h e S t o r y o f P h i l o s o p h y , p . 7 8 .

l8 I b i d . , p . 7 9 .

l9 A r i s t o t l e , T h e N i c o m a o h e a n E t h i c s : A Commentary b y H . H . J o a o h i m , e d . D.A.Rees ( O x f o r d : The C la rendon P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 1 7 .

20 T h e B r i h a d a r a n y a k a U p a n i s h a d , t r . Swami S i v a n a n d a (U .P: The D i v i n e L i f e S o c i e t y , 1 9 8 5 ) , p . 1 9 8 .

21 S i r David Ross , A r i s t o t l e (London: Methuen & Co, 1 9 4 9 ) , F i r s t P u b l i s h e d 1923, p . 2 3 0 .

2 2 See F r a n c i s H . E t e r o v i c h , A r i s t o t l e - s N i c o m a c h e a n E t h i c s : Commentary and A n a l y s i s (Wash ing ton D . C . : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s of America , 1980) , p . 1 6 7 .

23 F r a n c i s H . E t e r o v i c h , p . 1 7 0 .

24 Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics. tr. Sir David Ross (London: 3UP, 1954), Book 1 x 7

25 Francis H.Eterovich, p . 176.

26 Sir Francis Ross, Book I X s - l O .

27 Francis H .Eterovich, p . 176.

28 V.V.S. Aiyar, pp.xxxvii-viii.