Argument Basics

Getting to

Accept - Reject - Suspend Judgment

Argument Basics

Premises

1) Acceptable

2) Relevant

Conclusion

About Premises

• May be stated or [unstated]

The laws of nature and moral law are one and the same.

[Human beings can understand the laws of nature.]

[Human beings must follow the laws of nature.]

So, the human community must order its life according to the same kind of objective principles by which nature itself is ordered.

-- Adapted from The American Soul, by Jacob Needleman

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

Dependent premises need at least one other premise to provide logical support for a conclusion.

Independent premises provide some support for an argument’s conclusion whether or not any other premises are present (given reasonable assumptions).

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

In every free society, which the U.S. intends to be, there must be opposite parties and violent dissensions.

Generally, one party must prevail over the others.

A free society cannot be preserved if the parties do not commit to remaining united even if they don’t prevail.

So, a durably free America must include both strong dissent and commitment to preserve the union.

Adapted from Thomas Jefferson

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

In every free society, there must be opposite parties and violent dissensions.

A free society cannot be preserved if the parties do not commit to remaining united.

So, a free America can be expected to include both strong dissent and commitment to preserve the union.

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

Since… For the reason that…

For… In view of…

Because… This is implied by…

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

• May need support or explanation

This is usually provided in a supporting or explanatory paragraph or in more detailed discussion.

About Premises

• May be stated or unstated

• May be dependent or independent

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

• May need support or explanation

• May be surrounded by irrelevancies

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated

Religious freedom is the first freedom guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.

It was also the single most important reason why the earliest settlers in the Colonies left the safety and relative comfort of their homes to start new lives here.

The bedrock freedoms of American civilization will always need to be protected and interpreted for the times.

So…

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated

Religious freedom is the first freedom guaranteed in the Bill of Rights.

It was also the single most important reason why the earliest settlers in the Colonies left the safety and relative comfort of their homes to start new lives here.

The bedrock freedoms of American civilization will always need to be protected and interpreted for the times.

So, we must still interpret and defend religious freedom.

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated• May be controversial

Madonna’s productions frequently contain religious themes and symbolism.

Her work has been the topic of serious study by respected scholars of religion.

So, Madonna’s work, even her highly sexual material, must be protected as religious expression by the First Amendment.

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated

• May be controversial

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

Thus… Therefore… This shows that…

So… Accordingly... This implies that…

Hence… Consequently… This proves that…

Ergo… It follows that… This suggests that…

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated

• May be controversial

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

• Must contain only terms found in the premises (or their equivalents)

About Conclusions

• May be stated or unstated

• May be controversial

• May be indicated by lead-in words or phrases

• Must contain only terms found in the premises (or their equivalents)

The presence of new terms in a conclusion is strong evidence of assumptions used as unstated premises.

Arguments and Explanations

Arguments and explanations are often

confused with each other.

Arguments and Explanations

Premises

Conclusion

Arguments and Explanations

How

or

Why

Phenomenon to be

Explained

Arguments and Explanations

Premises

How

or

Why

ConclusionPhenomenon

to be Explained

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

One way of conceptualizing the main difference between deductive and inductive arguments is by the degree of confidence one is supposed to have in the conclusion if the premises are accepted.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Deductive arguments are constructed with the intention of supporting their conclusions perfectly, that is, with premises that, if true, prove or guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

Deductive and Inductive Arguments

Deductive arguments are constructed with the intention of supporting their conclusions perfectly, that is, with premises that, if true, prove or guarantee the truth of the conclusion.

Inductive arguments are constructed with the intention of providing the strongest possible support for the conclusion, even though they are unable to guarantee the truth of the conclusion.