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THE

ORIGINS

TOTALITARIANISM

Hannah rendt

ntroduction

hy

Samantha ower

• • 0 .

, ,.

SCHOCKEN BOOKS NEW YORK



Introcluction copyright© 2004 by Samantha Power

Copyright

© 1948

and renewed

1976

by Hannah Arcndt.

Copyright © 1951 by Hannah Arendt.

Copyright rcnewed © 1979 by Mary McCarthy West.

Copyright © 1966, 1968 by HannahArenclt.

Copyright renewecl © 1994, 1996 by Lotte Kahler.

All rights reserved uncler International and Pan-American Copyright Con-,

ventians. Publishecl in the United States by Schocken Baaks, a division

of

Random Hause, Inc., New York, and simultaneously in Canada by Random

House of Canada Limited, Toronto. Distributed by Pantheon Books, a divi

sion of Random House, Inc., New York.

Originally pttblished in slighdy different form in the United States

by Harcourt

J

Inc., Orlando, in 19 1.

Schocken and colophon are registered trademarks

of

Random House, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Arendt, Hannah.

The origins of totalitarianism / Hannah Arendt; introcluetion by

Samantha Power.

p.em.

Originally published:

Ist

cd. New York: Harcourt, Brace,

[1951].

Includes index.

ISBN 0-8052-4225-2

I Totalitarianism. 2.Imperialism. } Antisemitism.

1 Tide

Jq80 A74

2oo

4

}2 · 53

dc

22

www.schocken.com

Book design y Peter

A

Andersen

Printed in the United Stares of·America

First Edition

6 8 9 7

200}

06 0

749

To Heinrich

lücher



CONTENTS

Introduction by Sam.nth. Power

ix

Preface

to the First

Edition xxv

ANTISEMITISM

Pref .ce 1967) 3

I Antisemitism as

an

Outrage to Common Sense

II

2

The Jews

the

Nation-Stare

and the Birth

of Antisemitism

21

3·

The Jews and Society 74

4- The Dreyfus Affair II

Ir

IMPERIALISM

Preface

1967)

li9

I

The Political Emancipation of

the

Bourgeoisie 167

2

Race-

Thinking

Before Racism

210

3. Race and Bureaucracy 242

4-

Continental Imperialism: The Pan-Movements

87

i. The Declineof the Nation-State and the End of the

Rights

of Man 341

TOTALITARIANISM

Preface

1967)

I A Classless Society

2 The

TotaHtarian

Movement



Contents

3. Totalitarianism in Power 507

4.

Ideology and Terror: A Novel Form

of

Government 593

APPENDIX

"Totalitarianism"

617

"Concluding Remarks"

618

Bibliography

633

Index

viii

INTRODUCTION

SAMANTHA POWER

I. Origins

Hannah Arendt dated her awakening

to

February

27,

'933, the day the

Reichstagburned down. From the moment Adolf Hicler began using the

fire

as apretext to suspend civilliberties and crush dissent, Arendt said, "I feIt

ibl

".

espons

e.

Arendt rook responsibility for observing, for critiquing, and for summon-

ing her generation to judgment and action. Her test for philosophy was

not its "vapors

of

cleverness," but its capacity to improve the human condi-

tion.

2

She spent her career scavenging around in the unsavory crevices

of

humanity, and analyzing the contours of the forbidding elouds

of

geopoli-

tics, and she could have easily chosen despair. But instead she opted to

take responsibility for illuminating that darkness. Hannah Arendt was and

remains a writer for dark times.

Born in '906, Arendt grew up in Königsberg (then part

of

Germany) and

attended the University of Marburg, where she studied theology, ancient

Greek literature, and, under Martin Heidegger, philosophy. She wrote her

Ph.D. dissertation

on St

Augustine's concept

of

love, working at the Uni-

versity

of

Heidelberg with psychiatrist and philosopher Kar Jaspers, who

became her mentor. Wirh the Nazi crackdown in

1933,

Arendt, who was

Jewish, became politicized, collecting evidence

of

the persecution

of

Ger-

man Jews. She was arrested by the Gestapo, and upon her release, she Red to

I Hannah Arendt, " What Remains?

Thc

Language Remains': A Conversation with Gunth er Gaus,"

trans. Joan Stambaugh, in

Essays

1;/

Understanding, lf jo-1954,

ed. Jerome Kohn

(Ncw

York: Harcourt

Braee,

1994 ,

p. 5.

1.

Hannah Arendt,

en Dark Times (New

York: Harcourt, Bmce, World, 19158 ,

p.

74, where

Arendt

eites Irnrnanuel

Kant's

test for philosophical essays.



IMPERIALISM

The

nation that statelessness

is

primarily a Jewish problem

6

was apretext

used by governments who tried to settle the problem by ignoring

it

None

of

the statesmen was aware that Hitlees solution

of

the Jewish problem, first

to reduce the Germa n Jews to a nonrecognized minority in Germany, then to

drive them

as

stateless people across the borders, and finally

to

gather them

back from everywhere in order to ship them

to

extermination camps, was an

eloquent demonstration to the rest

of the world how real1y to liquidate

all problems concerning minorities and stateless. After the

war it

turned

out

that the Jewish question, which was considered the onIy insoluble one,

was indeed

solved-namely,

by means

of

a colonized and then conquered

territory-but

this solved neither the problem of the minorities nor the

stateless.

On

the contrary, like virtually all other events

of

the twentieth cen

tury, the solution

of

the Jewish question merely produced a new category

of

refugees, the Arabs, thereby increasing the number of the stateless and right

less by another 7 ° 0 0 0 0 to

800 000

people. And what happened in Palestine

within the smallest territory and in terms

of

hundreds

of

thousands was tben

repeated in India on a large seale involving many millions of people. Since

the Peace Treaties

of

1919 and 1920 the refugees and the stateless have

attached themselves like a curse to

all

the newly established states on earth

which were created in the image of the nation-state.

For these new states this curse bears the germs

of

a deadly sickness. For

the nation-state cannot exist once its principle

of

equality before the law

has

broken down. With out this legal equality, which originally was destined to

replace the older Iaws and orders

of

the feudal society, the nation dissolves

into an anarchie mass

of

over- and lUlderprivileged individuals. Laws that

are not equal for a revert to rights and privileges, something con tradictory

to the very nature

of

nation-states.

The

clearer the

proof of

their inability to

treat stateless people as legal persons and

-the greater the extension

of

arbi

trary rule by police decree, the more difficult

it

is for states

to

resist the temp

tation

to

deprive

a

citizens

of

legal status and rule them with

an

omnipotent

police.

46. This was by no means only a notion of Nazi Germany, though only a Nazi amhor dared to express

ie: Ir s tme that a refugee question will cominue to exist evcn wbcn there is 110 longer a Jewish question;

bm since Jews form such a high perccmagc of the refugees, the refugee <Iuestion will be much sim

plitled

(Kabermann, Das internationale Flüchtlingsproblem,

in Zeitschrifi für Politik Bd. 29

Heft},1939)·

The Decline

0/

he Nation State

and

the End

0/

he Rightr of

Man

The Perplexities

of he

Rights

of

an

The

declaration .of the Rights

of

Man at the end

of

the eighteenth century

was a turning p oint in history. It meant nothing more

nor

less than that from

. thell

on Man, and not

God s

command

or

the customs

of

history, should

be the source

of Law. Independent of the privileges which history had

bestowed upon certain strata of society cr certain nations, the declaration

indicated man's emancipation from all tutelage and announced that he had

noW

come

of

age.

Beyond this, there was another implicati.on of which the framers of the

declaration were onl y half awal'e.

The

proclamation

of

human rights was also

meant

to

be a much-needed protection in the new era where individuals were

00

langer secure in the estates

to

which they were

born

cr sure of their

equaHty before

Gad as

Christians. In other wards, in the new secularized and

emancipated sodety, men were no longer sure

of

these soeial and human

fights which until then had been outside the politieal order and guaranteed not

by government and constitution, but by soda1, spiritual, and religious forces.

Therefore thro ughout the nineteenth century, the consensus

of

opinion was

that human rights had to be invoked whenever individuaIs needed protection

against the new sovereignty

of

the state and the new arbitrariness

of

society.

Since the Rights of Man were proclaimed to be inalienable,') irreducible

to and undeducible [rom other rights or laws, no authority was invoked for

theif establishment; Man hirnself was their source

as

weIl as their ultimate

goal.

No

special law, moreaver, was deemed necessary

to

protect them

because alliaws were supposed to rest upan them. Man appeared as the onIy

sovereign in matters

of

law

as

the people was proclaimed the only sovereign

in matters of government. The people's sovereignty (different from that of

the prince) was not proclaimed by the grace

of God but

in the name

of

Man,

so that

it

seemed only natural that

-the

inalienable rights

of

man would find

their guarantee and become an inalienable part

of

the right

of

the people to

sovereign self-government.

In other wards, man had hardly appeared

as

a completely emancipated,

cornpletely isolated being who carried his dignity within himself withaut

reference

to

some targer encompassing order, when he disappeared again

into a member of a people. From the beginning the paradox involved in

3

6

9



IMPERIALISM

the declaration

of

inalienable human rights was that

t

reckoned with

an

abstract human bein g who seemed to exist nowhere, for even savages lived

in some kind of a social order. If a tribai

or

other backward community

did no t enjoy human rights, it was obviously because as a whole it had not yet

reached that stage of civilization, thc stage of popular and national SOVer_

eignty, but was oppressed by foreign or native despots.

The

whole question

of

human rights, therefore, was quickly and inextricably blended with the

question of national emancipation; onIy the emancipated sovereignty

of

the

peopIe,

of

one s own people, seemed to be able to insure them. As mankind

sinee the French Revolution, was coneeived in the image

of

a family

of

nations, it gradually became self-evident that the people, and not the indi

vidual, was the image

of

man.

The

full impliearion

of

this identification

of

the rights

of

man with

the

rights of peoples in the European nation-state system eame to light onIy

when a growing number of people and peoples suddenly appeared whos

e

elementary rights were

as

little safeguarded by the ordina ry functioning

of

nation-states in thc middle of Europe as they would have been in the heart

of

Africa. The Rights

of

Man, after a11 had been defined as inalienable

because they were supposed to be independent

of

all governments; hut

it

turned ou t that the moment human beings lacked their own government and

had to fall back upon their minimum rights, no authority was left to proteet

them and no institution was willing to guarantee them.

Or

when) as

in

the

ease of the minorities, an international bo dy arrogated to itself a nongovern

mental authority, its failure was apparent even before its measures were fully

realized; not onIy were the governments more

or

less open ly opposed

to

this

encroachment on their sovereignty, but the concerned nationaHties them

selves did not recognize a nonnational guarantee, mistrusted everything

which was not dear-c ut support

of

their national (as opposed

to

their mere

linguistic, religious, and ethnic ) rights, and preferred either, like the Ger

mans

or

Hungarians, to turn

to

the protection of the national mother coun

try, or, like the Jews, to some kind

of

interterrito rial solidarity.47

47. Pathetic

i1lsta1lces

of this exelusive confidence

in

national rights were the consent, before the second

World War,

of

nearly

PC{

cent

of

thc GCrnlill\ minority in the halian Tyrol to leave thcir homes and

resettle

i1l

Germany, the voluntary repatriation

of

a German island in Slovenia

whkh

llad beeil there

sincc thc fourteenth century, or, immcdiatcly after the

dose of

the war, thc unanimous rejectioll

by

Jcw

ish refugccs in an Iralian

DP

camp

of

an offer

of

mass naturalization

by

the Italiangovernment. In the

O

The Decline o

ehe

Nation State and the End

o

he Rights

0/

Man

The

stateless people were

as

convinced as the minorities that lass

of

national rights was identieal with 10ss of human rights, that the former inevi

tably entailed the latter.

The

more they were excluded from right in any

form, the more they tended to look for areintegration into anational, into

their own national eommunity. The Russian refugees were oniy the first to

insist on their nationality and to defend themselves furiously against

at··

tempts to lump them together with ather stateless people. Sinee them, not a

single group of refugees or Displaced Persons has failed to develop a fieree,

violent group consciousness and to clamor for rights as and only

-

Poles

or

Jews

or

Germans, etc.

Even worse was that all socieries fonned for the protection of the Rights

of

Man, all attempts

to

arrive at a new bill

of

human rights were sponsored

by marginal figures by a few international jurists without politieal experi

ence

or

professional phiIanthropists supparted by the uncertain sentiments of

professional idealists. Tbe groups they fonned, the declarations they issued,

showed an uncanny similarity in language and composition to that

of

soci

eties for the prevention of eruelty to animals. No statesman, no politieal fig

ure of any importance could possibly take them seriously; and none of the

liberal

or

radical parties in Europe thou ght it necessary to incorporate into

their program a new declaration

of

human rig :lts. Neither befare nor after

the second World War have the victims themselves ever invoked these fun

damental rights, which were so evidently denied them,

in

their many at

tempts to find a way out of tbe barbed-wire labyrinth into which events had

driven them. On the contrary, the victims shared the disdain and indifference

of

tbe powers that be for any attempt

of

the marginal societies to enforce

human rights in any elementary or general sense.

The failure

of

all responsible persons to meet the ealamity

of

an ever

growing body of people forced to live outside the scope of all tangible law

with the proclamation of a new bill of rights was certainly not due to

ill

will.

N ever before had the Rights

of

Man, solemnly proclaimed by the French and

the American revolutions as the new fundament for civilized societies, been a

practical politieal issue.

During

the nineteenth century, these rights had been,

face of the experience

of

European peoples between the two wars,

it

would be a serious miSt3ke

O

inter

pret this behavior simply

as

anotherexample of fanutie nationalist sentiment; these people no longer feit

sure

of thdr

e1ementary fights

if

these werc

not

protected by a govcrnment to

whkh

they belonged by

birth. See Eugene M. Kulisher, vp

eiL

JJ



JMPERIALISM

invoked in a rather perfunctory way,

[

defend individuals against the

increasing power of the state and to mitigate the new sodal insecurity caused

by the ihdustrial revolution.

Then

the meaning

of

human rights acquired a

new connotation: they became the standard slogan of the protecrors of the

underprivileged, kind of additionallaw, a right of exception necessary fo

r

those who had nothin g better to fall back upan.

The

reason why the concept

of

human rights was treated as a sort

of

stepchild by nineteenth-century political thought and

why

no liberal

or

radi

cal party in the twentieth century, even when an urgent need for enforcement

of

human rights arose, saw

fit

to include them in its program seems obvious:

dvil rights that is the varying rights of citizens in different

countries-

were supposed to embody and spell out in the form

of

tangible laws the

eternal Rights

of

Man, which by themselves were supposed to

bc

indepen

dent of dtizenship and nationality. All human beings were citizens of some

kind of political community; if the laws

of

their country did not live up

to the demands

of

the Rights

of

Man, they were expected to change them,

by legislation in democratic countries

or

through revolutionary action in

despotisms.

The

Rights

of

Man, supposedly inalienable, proved to be

unenforceable-

even in countries whose constitutions were based upon

them whenever

people appeared who were no langer citizens

of

any sovereign state. Ta this

fact, disturbing enough in itself, one must add the confusion created

by

the many rccent attempts to frame a new bill of human rights, which have

demonstrated that no one seems able to define wirh any assurance what these

general human rights,

as

distinguished from the rights

of

citizens, really are.

Although everyone seems to agree that the plight of these people consists

precisely in their loss of the Rights

of

Man, no üne seems to know which

rights they lost when they lost these human rights.

The

first

10ss

which the rightless suffered was the loss of their hornes and

this meant the lass

of

the entire social texture into whieh they were

born

and

in which they established for themselves a distinct place in the world. This

calamity is far from unprecedented; in the lang memory of history, forced

migrations

of

individuals

or

whole groups

of

people for potitieal

or

economic

reasons loo k like everyda y Occurrences.

What

is unprecedented is not the lass

of

a home but the impossibility

of

finding a new one. Suddenly, there was no

place on earth where rnigrants could go without the severest restrictions, no

JJ

The

Decline

of

he Nation State and

the

End

1 the

Rights

0

Man

country where they would be assimilated, no territory where they could

found a new community of their own. This, moreover, had next to nothing

to

do with any material problem of overpopulatioo; it was a problem

not

of

space but of political organization. Nobo dy h ad beeo awal e that mankind,

for so long a time considered under the image of a family of nations, had

reached the stage where whoever was thrown

out of

ooe

of

these tightly

organized closed communities found himself thrown

out

of the family of

. I

th

4

natJons a tage er.

The

second loss which the rightless suffered was the lass

of

governrnent

protection, and this did not imply just the lassof legal status in their owo, but

in all countries. Treaties of reciprodry and international agreements have

woven a web around the earth that makes it possihle for the citizen

of

every

country to take his legal status with hirn no matter where he goes (so that, for

instance, a German citizen under the Nazi regime might not be ahle ra enter

a mixed marriage abroad beeause of the Nuremb erg laws). Yet, whoever

is

no longer caught in itfinds himself out of legality altogether (thus

duringthe

last war stateless people were invariably in a worse position than enemy

aliens who were still indirectly protected by their governments thro ugh inter

national agreements).

By itse1f the loss

of

government protection is more unprecedented

than the loss of

ahome.

Civilized countries did offer the rig ht of asylum to

those who, for politieal reasons, had been persecuted by their governments,

and this practiee, thoug h never officially incorpo rated inra any constitution,

has functioned welt enough thr ougho ut the nineteenth and even the twenti

eth centuries. The trouble arOse when it appeared t hat the new categories of

persecuted were far too IlUmerous

to

be handled

by

an unofficial practiee

destined for exceptional cases. Moreover, the majority could hardly qualify

for the right of asylum, which implicitly presupposed political or religious

convictions whieh were not outlawed in the country of refuge. The new

refugees were persecuted not because

of

what they had done

or

thought, but

because

of

what they unchangeably

were born

into the

wrong

kind

of

race

48. The few chances for reintegration open

[Q

the new migrants were mostly hased on their nationality:

Spanish refugees, for instance, were wekomed

t

a cerrain extent in M c x i ~ o The

Vnite<

States,

thc early twenticS, adoptcd a quota system according to which each nationahty already r e p r e ~ e n t e d n

the country reccived, so to speak, the fight 10 ieceive a number of former countr ymen proportlOnate to

its numerical part in thc total population.

3JJ



IMPERIALISM

or the wrong kind of class

or

drafted y the wrong kind

of

government (as in

the case of the Spanish Republican Army).49

The

more the number of rightless people increased, the greater became

the temptation to pay less attention to the deeds

of

the persecuting o v ~

ernrnents than to the status

of

the persecuted. And the first glaring factWas

that these people, though persecuted under seme political pretext were

. , no

longer, as the persecuted had been throughout history, a liabiIity and an

image of shame for the persecutors; that they were not considered and

hardly pretend ed to be active enernies (the few thousand Soviet citizens who

voluntarily left Soviet Russia after the second WorldWar and found asylum

in democratic countries did more d amage to the prestige

of

the Soviet Union

than miIlions of refugees in the twenties who belonged to the wrong dass),

but timt they were and appeared to be nothing but human beings wlIose very

innocence-from every point of view, and especial1y that

of

the persecuting

govermnent-was their greatest misfortune. Innocence, in the senseof

COm_

plete lack of responsibility, was the ma rk

of

their rightlessness as it Was the

seal of their

10ss

of political status.

Only in appearanee therefore do the needs for a reinforeement of human

rights touch upon the fate

of

the authent ie political refugee. Political refugees,

of

necessity few in number, still enjoy the right to asylum in many countries,

and this right acts, in an informal

way

as a genuine substitute for narionallaw.

One

of

the surpri sing aspects

of

our experience with stateless people who

benefit legal1y from committin g a crime has been the fact that t seems

to

be

easier to deprive a completely innocent person

of

legality than s omeone who

has committed an offense. AnatoIe France s famous quip, If I am accused of

stealing the towers of Notre Dame, I can only

flee

the coumry," has assurned

a horrible reality. Jurists are so used to thinking of law in terms of punish

ment, which indeed always deprives us

of

certain rights, that they may find it

even

mOre

diffieult than the layman to reeognize that the deprivation

of

Iegality,

i.e.,

of

al

fights, no l onger has a connecdo n with specific crimes.

49·

How

dangcrous ir can be to be innocent from the poim of view of the persecuting governmem

hecame very

dear

when, during the last war, the American government offered asylum to all those Ger_

man refugecs who wcrc threatcned by the extradition paragraph in the German-French Armistice. The

condition was, of course, that thc applicant

cDuld

provc that he had done something against the Nazi

regime. The proportion of refugees from Germany who were able to fulfill this condidon was very

smaH and they, strangcly enough, were not tbe peap e who werc most in danger.

JJ

The Decline 1 the Nation-State and the Endo he Rigllts 1 Man

This situation illustrates the many perplexities inherent in the conceptof

human rights. No matter

how

they have once been defined (life, liberty, and

the pursuit of happiness, aeeording to the American formula,

or

as equality

before the law, liberty, proteetion of property, and national sovereignty,

according to the French); no matter how one may atternpt to improve an

ambiguous formulation like the pursuit

of

happiness,

or

an antiquated one

Iike

unqualified right to property; the real situationof those whom the twen

deth century has driven outside the pale

of

the law shows that these are rights

of

citizens whose 10ss does

not

entail absolute rightlessness.

The

soldier

during the war is deprived of his right to life, the criminal of his right to

freedorn, all citizens during an emergency

of

their right to the pursuit

of

happiness, but nobody_would ever claim that in any

of

these instances a 1055

of human rights has taken place. These rights, on the other hand, can be

granted (though hardly enjoyed) even under conditions of fundamental

rightlessness.

The calamityof the rightless

is

not that they are deprived

of

life, liberty,

and the pursuit

of

happiness,

or of

equality before the law'and freedorn

of

opinion-formulas which were designed to solve problems within given

communities-but

that they no longer belong to any communhy whatso

ever.

Their

plight is

not

that they are not equal before the law,

but

that no law

exists for them; not that they are oppressed

but

that nobody wants even to

oppress them.

Only

in the last stage of a ra ther lengtllY process

is

their right

to live threatened; only if they remain perfectly "superfluous," if nobody

can be found to "cl aim" -them, may their lives be in danger. Even the Nazis

started their exterminationof Jews by first depriving thcm of an legal status

(the status of second-class citizenship) and cutting thernoff from the world

of the living by herding them into ghettos and concentration camps; and

before they set the gas

c h m b ~ r s

into motion they had carefully tested the

ground and found out to their satisfaction that no count ry would claim these

people.

The

point is that a condition of compiete rightlessness was created

before the right to live was challenged.

The same is true even to an ironicalextentwith regard to the right of free

dom which is sometimes considered to be the very essenceof human rights.

There is

no question that those outside the pale

of

the law rnay have more

freedorn

of

movement than a lawfully imprisoned criminal

or

that they enjoy

more freedorn of opinion in the internment camps of dernocratic countries



IMPERIALISM

than they would in any ordinary despotism, not to mention in a totalitari

.

ountry. But neither physical safety-being fcd by SOme state or private

welfare

agency-nor

freedom

of

opinion changes in the least their

funda_

m ~ n t l situation of rightlessness. The prolongation of their Üves is due to

charity and not

to

right, for no law exists which could force the nations to

feed them; their freedom

of

movement,

if

they have it at all, gives them no

right to residence which even the jailed criminal enjoys as a matter of course'

and their freedorn of opinion is a fool'5 freedorn, for no thing they th ink

ters anyhow.

These last points are crucial. The fundamental deprivation of human

rights S manifested first and above all in thc deprivation of a place in the

world which makes opinions significant and actions effective. Sornething

rnuch more fundamental than freedorn and justice, which are rights of citi

zens, is at stake when belonging to the cornrnunity into which one is born is

no langer a matter

of

course and not belonging no longer a matter

of

choice,

or

when one

is

placed in a situation where, unless he commits a crime,

his

treatment by others does not depend on what he does or does not do. This

extremity, and nothing else,

is

the situation

of

people deprived

of

human

rights. They are deprived, not of tbe right to freedorn, but

of

the right

to action; not

of

the right to think whatever they please,

but of

the right

[0

opinion. Privileges in some cases, injustices in most, blessings and doorn are

meted out to them according to accident and without any relation whatso

ever to what they do, did, or may do.

We became aware

of

the existence

of

a right to have rights (and that

means to live in a framework where Olle isjudged by o ne's actions and opin

ions) and a right to belong to some kind of organized community, only when

millions

of

people emerged who had lost and could not regain these rights

because

of

the new global political situation. The trouble is that this calamity

arose not from any lack of civilization, backwardness, or mere tyranny, but,

on the contrary, that it could not be repaired, because there was no longer any

uncivilized spot on earth, because whether we like it

or not

we have

reaHy

50. Even

uncler

the conclitions of tolalitarian terror, concentration camps sornetimes

have

been the only

place where certain remnuntsof freedorn of thought und discussion still existed. See David Roussct, Lu

JOUfS

de

Notre Mon

Paris, 1947 pa.ssim

for

freedorn of discussion in Buchenwald, und Amon Ciliga,

.The Russian

Emgma

Landon, 1940,

p.

200, about isles of libcrty, the r e e d o n ~ of mind tim rcigneJ

n

Same

of

the

Soviet places of detention.

JJ

Tlle Decline

of he

Nation-State and the

nd of

he Rigltts 0/

Man

started to live

in

One World. Only with a completely organized humanity

could thc loss of horne and political status become identical with expulsion

from humanity altogether.

Before this, what we

must

caU

a human right today would have been

thought of as a general characteristic of the human condirion which na

tyrant could take

away.

Its loss entails the lass

of

thc relevance

of

speech

(and man, since Aristotle, has been defined as a being commanding thc

power of speech and thought), and the loss of all human relationship (and

man, again since Aristotle, has been thought

of

as the political animal, that

is one who by definition lives in a community), the loss, in other words,

of

same of thc most essential characteristics of human life. Thi s was to a certain

extent the plight

of

slaves, whom Aristotle therefore did not count among

human beings. Slavery's fundamental offense against human rights was

not that it wok liberty away (which can happen in many other situations),

but that it e x c l u d ~ d a certain category

of

people even from the possibiHty

of fighting for freedom-a fight possible under tyranny, and even ~ l l l d e r

the desperate conditions of modern terror (but not under any conditions of

concentration-camp life). Slavery's crime against humanity did not begin

when one peorle defeated and enslaved its enemies (though

of

course this

was bad enough), but when slavery becarne an institution in which sorne men

were «born free and others slave, when it was fergotten that it was man who

had deprived his fellow-rnen

of

freedern, and when the sanction for the

crirne was attribut ed

to

nature. Yet in the light of recent events

it

is possible

to say that even slaves still be10nged to some sort

of

human community; their

labor was needed, used, and exploited, and this kept them within the pale

of

humanity.

To

be a slave was after all

to

have a distinctive character, a place in

society-more

than the abstract nakedness

of

being human and nothing but

human. Not the loss

of

specific rights, then, hut the 1055

of

a community

will

ing and able

to

guarantee any rights whatsoever, has been the calarnity which

has befallen ever-increasing nurnbers

of

people. Man, it turns out, can lose

aB

so-called Rights

of

Man without losing his essential quality as man) his

human dignity. Only the loss of a polity itsel f expels hirn from humanity.

The

right that corresponds to this 10ss and that was never even mentioned

among thc human rights cannot be expressed in the categories of the eigh

teenth century because they presume t hat rights spring irnmediately from the

nature of man-whereby it makes relatively little difference whether this

JJJ

I



IMPERIALISM

nature is visualized in terms

of

the naturallaw

or

in terms

of

a being created

in the image of Ged, whether it concerns natural rights or divine Corn.

mands.

'The

decisive facter is that these rights and the human dignity they

bestow should remain valid and real even

if

only a single human bein

existed

on

earth; they are independent

of

human plurality and should remai:

valid even if a human being is expelled from the human community.

When

the Rights

of

Man were proclaimed for the first time, they

Were

regarded as being independent of history and the privileges which history had

accorded certain strata

of

society.

The

new independence constituted

the

newly discovered dignity

of

man. F om the beginning, this new dignity

Was

of

a rather ambiguous nature. Historical rights were replaced by natural

rights, (lnature took the place of history, and it was tacitly assumed that

nature was less alien than hist ory to the essence

of

man.

The

very language

of

the Declaration

of

Independence

as weIl

as

of

the Diclaratioft

des Droitr

de

rHomme- inaIienabIe,

given with birth, self-evident truths -implies

the belief in a kind

of

human nature which would be subject to the

same

laws

of

growth as that

of

the individual and from which rights and laws

could be deduced. Today we are perhaps better qualified to judge exactly

what this human t<nature amounts

to;

in any event it has shown us poten

tialities that were neither recognized

nor

even suspected by Western philoso

phy

and religion, which for mor e than three thousand years have defined and

redefined this nature . Bur

it is

not onIy the, as it were, human aspect of

nature that has become questionable to

uso

Ever since man learned to master

it to such an extent that the destruction of all organic

liEe on

earth with man

made instruments has become conceivable and technicaUy possible, he has

been alienated from nature.

Ever

since a deeper knowledge of natural pro

cesses instilled serious douhts about the existence of natural Iaws

at

all na-

ture itself has assumed a sinister aspect.

How

should one be able to deduce

laws and rights from a universe which apparently knows neither the one nor

the other category?

Man

of

the twentieth century has become

just

as emancipated from nature

as eighteenth-century man was from history. History and nature have be

come equally alien to us, namely, in the sense that the essence of man can no

langer

be

comprehended in terms

of

either category.

On

the other hand,

humanity, which for the eighteenth century, in Kantian terminology, was no

The Decline

o

he

Nation-State

and the

End o

he

Rz. ghts 0/

Man

more than a regulative idea, has today become an inescapable fact.

This

new

situation, in which- humanity has in effect assumed the role formerly as

cribed to nature or history, would mean in this context that the right to

have fights,

or

the right

of

every individual to belong to humanity, should be

guarameed by hu manity itself.

r

s by no means certain whether this is possi

ble. For, contrary

to

the best-intentioned humanitarian attempts to obtain

new declarations

of

human rights from international organizations) it should

be understood that this idea transcends the presem sphere of international

law which still operates in terms

of

reciprocal agreements and treaties be

tween sovereign states; and, for the time being, a sphere that

is

above the

nations does not exist. Furthermore, this dilemma would by no means be

eliminated by the establishment of a world government. Such a world gov··

ernment

is

indeed within the realm

of

possibility, but one may suspect that in

reality it might differ considerabIy from the version p romoted b y idealistic

minded organizations.

The

crimes against human rights, which have become

a specialty

of

totalitarian regimes, can always be justified by the pretext that

right is equivalent to being good or useful for the whole in distinction to its

parts.

(Hiders

motto that

Right is

what

is

good for the German people is

only the vulgarized form

of

a conception

of

law which can be found every

where and which

in

practice will remain ineffectual only so long as oider tra

ditions that are still effective in the constitutions prevent this.) A conception

of law which identifies what is right with the notion of what is good for-for

the individual, or the family,

or

the people,

or

the largest number-becomes

inevitable once' the absolute and tr anscendent measurements

of

religion 01' the

law of nature have lost their authority. And this predicament is by

no

means

solved if the unit to which the good for applies is as large as rnankind itself.

For it is quite conceivable, and even within the realm

of

practical political

possibilities, that one fine day a highIy organized and mechanized humanity

will

conclude quite

democratically-namely

by majority dedsion-that for

humanity

as

a whole it would be better to liquidate certain parts thereof.

Here, in the problems

of

factual reality, we are confronted with one

of

the

oidest perpiexities of political philosophy, which could remain undetected

only so lon g as a stable Christian theology provided the framework for all

political and philosophical problems, bm which long ago caused Plato to say:

Not

man but a god must be the measure

of

all things.

379



IMPERIAL15M

These facts and reflections offer what seems

an

ironical, bitter,

anel

belated

confirmation of the famous arguments with which Edmund Burke opposed

the French Revolution's Declaration of the Rights of Man.

They

appeal' to

buttress his assertion that human rights were

an

abstraction, that

t

Was

much wiser to rely on an entailed inheritance of rights which one transmits

to

one s

children like li e itself, and to claim one's rights

to

be the rights of an

Englishman rather than the inalienable rightsof man.

p

According t o Burke

the rights which we enjoy spring [rom within the nation, so that

n i ~

ther naturallaw,

nor

divine command, nor any concept of mankind such as

Robespierre's human race, the sovereign of the earth , are needed

as

a

source

of law.

The pragmatic soundness of Burke'

5

concept seems to

be

beyond doubt

in

the light

of

our manifold experiences.

Not

onIy did 105S of national riglus

in

all instanc.es entail the loss of human rights; the restorationof human rights,

as the recent example of the State of Israel proves, has been achieved so [ar

only through the restoration

or

the establishment

of

national fights. The

conception of human fights, based upon the assumed existence of a human

being as such, broke down

at

the very moment when those who pl Ofessed to

believe in it were for the first time confl'Onted with people who ha d indeed lost

all other qualities and specific

relationships-except

that they were still

human. The world found nothing sacred in the abstract nakedness of heing

human. And in view

of

objective political conditions, it

is

hard to say how

the

concepts of man upon which human rights arebased-thathe is created in the

image of God (in the American formula), 01' that he is the represenrative of

mankind, or that he harbors within himself the sacred demands

of

naturallaw

(in the Freneh formula)-eould have heJped to find a solution to the problem.

The survivors of the extermination camps, the inmatesof concentration

and internment camps, and even the comparatively happy stateless people

could see without Burke's arguments that the abstract nakedness of being

nothing but human was their greatest danger. Because

of

t

they were re

garded as savages and, afraid that t hey might end

by

being considered beasts,

51· Edmund Burkc,

Riflections

0 1 d/C RevolutiOl1

1 1

Fr<l/Icc, 1790, editcd by E. ]. Payne, Everyman's

Library.

p

Robespierrc,

Specc u, $,

1917. Speech

of

April '793.

3

8

0

The Decline of

he

Nation State and the Endo ehe Riglus of Man

they insisted on their nationality) the last signof their fo rmer citizenship, as

their only remaining and recognized tie with humanity.

Their

distrust of

natural, their preference for nation al, fights comes precisely from their real

ization tImt natural rights are granted even to savages. Burke had already

feared that natural inalienable rights would confirm only the rightof the

naked savage, .n and therefore reduce civilized nations to the statusof sav

agery. Because only savages have nothing more

to

fall back upon than the

minimum fact

of

their human origin, people ding to their natio.nality 311 thc

more desperately when they have lost the rights and proteetion that such

nationality

_once

gave them.

Only

their past with its (jentailed inheritance

seems to attest to the fact that they still belong to thc civilized world.

If a human being loses his political status, he should, according to the

implications of the inborn aud inalienable rightsof man, come under exacrly

thc situation for which the declarations

of

such general rights provided.

Actually thc opposite is the case.

t

seems that a man who is nothing

but

a

man has lost the very qualities which make it possible for other people tO

treat hirn as a fellow-man.

This is

one

of

the reasons why it is far more diffi

cult to destroy the legal personality

of

a criminal, that

is of

a man who has

taken upon himself the responsibility for an act whose consequences now

determine his fate) than

of

a man who has been disallowed all common

human responsibilities.

Burke s arguments therefore gain an added significanceif we look only at

the general human condition of those who have been forced out

of

all politi

cal communities. Regardlessof treatment, independentof liberties or oppres

sion, justice or injustice, they have lost all those partsof the world and an

those aspects of human existence which are the result of

our

common labor,

the outcome of the human artifice. If the tragedy of savage tribes is that they

inhabit an unchanged nature which they cannot master, yet upon whose

abundanee

or

frugality they depend for their livelihood, that they live and

die withollt leaving any trace, without having contributed anything to a

common world, then these rightless people are indeed thrown back into a

peculiar state

of

nature. Certainly they are not barbarians; some

of

them,

indeed, belong to the most educated strata of their respective countries;

B.

Introdllction by Payne to Burke,op. ci .



IMPERIAUSM

nevertheless, in a world that has almost Hquidated savagery they a

, ppear

as

the first signs

of

a possible regression from civilization.

The

more highly developed a civilizatiotl, the more a.ccomplished the

world it has produced, the more at horne men feel within the human artifice_

more they will resent everything they have not produced, eve rything that

IS merely and mysteriously given them. The human being who has lost h is

place in a community, his political status in

the

struggle of his time, and

the

legal personality which makes his actions and part

of

his destin y a consistent

whole,

is

left with those qualities which usually can beco me articulate onIy

in

the sphere of private life and must remain unqualified, mere existence in

an

matters

of

public cancern. This mere existence, that is, all that which is y s ~

~ r i o u s l y given us by birth and which includes the shape

of

Our

bodies and

the talents of

our

rninds, can be adequately dealt

wirh

ooly by

t h ~

unpre

dietable hazards of friendship and sympathy,

Or

by the great and inealculable

grace

of

love, which says with Augustine, Volo ut sis

[I

want you to be],"

without beiog able to give

any

particular reason for such supreme and

u n s u r ~

passable affirmation.

Sinee the Creeks, we have known that highly developed political

Iife

breeds

a

deep-rooted suspicion of this private sphere, a deep r s n t m ~ n t

against the disturb ing miracle contained in the fact that each

of

us

S

made

as

he is-single, unique, unchangeable. This whole sphere

of

the me rely given,

relegated

to

private life

in

civilized society,

is

a permanent threat

to

the pub

He sphere, hecause the pubBe sphere

is

as consistently based

on

the law of

equality as the private sphere is based

on

the law of universal difference and

differentiation. Equality, in contrast to all that

is

involved in me re existence

is not given us, bm is thc result

of

human organization insofar as it is

guided

by the principle

of

justice. We are not

born equal;

we becomc equal as mem

bers ora group on the strength

of

Dur decision to guarantee ourselves mutu

ally equal fights.

Our political life rests

on

the assumption that we can produce equality

through organization, because man can act in and change and build a com

mon worId, together with his equaIs and onIy with his equals. The dark

background

of

mere givenness, the background formed by Dur unchange

able and unique na ture, breaks into the poJitical scene as the aUen which in its

all tao obvious difference reminds us

of

the imitations

of

human activity

which are identical with the limitations

of

human equality. The reason why

The Dec ine 0/ he Nation-State and the nd 0/ he Rights ofMalt

highly developed political communities) such as the ancient city-states or

modern nation-states, so often insist

on

ethnic homogeneity S that they hope

to

eliminate

as

far

as

possible those natural and always present differences

alld

differentiations which by themselves at·ouse dumb hatred , mistrust, and

discrimination because,they indicate all

toD

clearly those spheres where men

cannot act and change at will, i.e., the limitations of the human artifice. The

"alien" is a frightening symbol of the fact

of

difference as such, of individu

ality as such, and indicates those realms in which man cannot change and

cannot act and in which, therefore , he has a distinct tendenc y to destroy.

If

a

N gro in a white community is considered a Negro and no thing else,

he

loses

along wirh his right to' equaHty that freedom

of

action which

S

specifical1y

human; an his deeds are now explained

as

"necessary" consequences of some

"Neg ro" qualitiesj he has become some specimen of an animal species, called

man. Much the same thing happens to those who have lost all distinctive

political qualities and -have become human beings and nothing else. No

doubt, whereve r public life and its law of equality are completel y victorious,

wherever a civilization succeeds in eliminating

01

reducing to a minimum the

dark background

of

difference, it will end in compiete petrifaction and be

punished, so to speak, for having forgotten that man is only the master, not

'the creator

of

the world.

The great danger ansing [rom the existence of people forced to live out

side the common world -is that they are thrown back, in the midst of civiliza

don, on their natural givenness,

on

tbeir mere differentiation. They lack that

tremendous equalizing of differences which comes from being citizens of

some commonwealth and yet, since tbey are no longer allowed to partake

in the human artifice, they begin to belong to the human race in much the

same way

as

animals belong to a specific animal species.

The

paradox

involved in tbe 10ss of human rights is that such loss coincides with the

instant when a person becomes a human be ing in general-without a profes

sion, without

a

citizenship, without an opinion, without a deed by which

to

identify and specify

himself-and

different in general, representing nothing

but his own absolutely unique individuality which, deprived of expression

within and action upon a common world, loses all significance.

The danger

in

the existence of such people is twofold: first and more obvi

ously, their ever-increasing numbers threaten

our

political life,·

our

human

artifice the world which is the result

of

aur common and co-ordinated effort



JMPERIALISM

in much the same, perhaps even more terrifying, way as the wild elements

of

nature onee threatened the existence of man-made cities and countrysides.

Deadly danger to any civilization

is

110 Jonger likely

to

corne from without.

Nature has been rnastered and

na

barbarians threaten to destr oy what they

cannot understand, as tbe MongoIians threatened Eu rope for centuries. Even

the emergence

of

totalitarian governments

is

a phenomenon within, not

U t ~

side,

our

civilization.

The

danger

is

that

aglobai

universally interrelated

civilization may produce barbarians from its own midst by forcing millions

of

people into conditions whieh, despite all appearances, are the conditions

of savages.

4

54· This modern expulsion from humanity has much morc radieal consequences man the andent and

medieval custom of out awry. Oudawry, certainly the most fearful fate which primitive law could

inflkt, p acing the life of the outlawed person at thc mercy of anyone

he

met, disappeared with the

cstablishment of

an

cffectivcsystem of

law

enforcememand was finally replaced by extradition treaties

hetwcen

the

nations. Ithad

hecn

primarily a substitute for a

police force,

designed tO

compel

criminals 10

surrender.

The early

Middle Ages seern

to

have hcen

quite conscious of

the

danger involved in civil death.

Excornmunication in the

late Roman

Empire

meant

ecdesiastlcal

de,uh

hut left a person

who

had lost his

membership in

the

church

fu freedorn

in all O her respects. Ecclesiastic.11 und dvil death

hecame

i e n t i ~

cal only in (he Merovingian era, and there excommunication in general practice (was]

ljmiled

10 tem-

porary withdrawal or suspension of the fights of memhership which

miglu

be

regained." See

the

artkles Outlawry and Excommunicatioll in the Encyclopedia of Soeia Seieilces. Also the

article

Friedlosigkeit in thc Sehweiter Lexiko/l

< > < > <$>

I

II <$> <$> <$>

TOTALITARIANISM

Normal men do not

know

that everythi ng is

possible.

DavidRousset



TOTALITARIANISM

them.

14

The reason why the totalitarian regimes can get so far toward real

izing a fictitious, t opsy-turvy world is that the outside nontotalitarian world

.

which always comprises a great part of the population of the totalitarian

country itself) induIges also in wishfuI thinking and shirks reality in the face

of real insanity just as much as the masses do in the face of the normal world.

This common-sense disinclination to believe the monstrous is constantly

strengthened by the totalitarian ruler himself, who makes sure that no reli

ahle statistics, no controllable facts and figures are ever published, so that

there are onIy subjective, uncontrollable, and unreliablc reports about the

places of ,he Iiving dead.

Because of this policy, the results of the totalitarian experiment are only

partiaHy known. Although we have enough reports from concentration

camps to

assess the possibiIities

of

total domination and to eatch a',glimpse

into the ahyss of the possible, we do not know the extent of character

transformation under a totalitarian regime. We know even less how many of

the normal people around us would be willing to accept the totalitarian way

of life--that is, to pay the price of a considerably shorte r life for the assured

fulfillment of all their career dreams. It is easy to realize the extent

to

which

totalitarian propaganda and even some totalitarian institutions answer the

needs

of

the new homeless masses, but

t

is almost impossible to know how

many of them, if they are further exposed to a constant threat of unemploy

ment, will gladly acquiesee to a ((population poliey that consists

of

regular

elimination of surplus people, and how many, onee they have fully grasped

their growing ineapacity to bear the burdens of modern life, will gladly con

form to a system that, together with spontaneity, eliminates r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ~

In other words, while we know the operation and the specifie function of

the totaHtarian secret police, we do not know how weil or to what an extent

the secret of this secret sodety corresponds

to

the secret desires and the

secret compIicities of the masses in Our time.

12

4

Thc Nazis were weil aware

of

he

protcetiv€: wall

of incredulity

Wllich surrouilded

thcir cnrcrprisc.

A secret

rcpOrt eo

Rosenberg about

thc

massacrc

of 5,000

Jews

in 1943

stares cxplicidy: lmaginc only

that these occurrcnces would becomc known

10

the othcr side und exploited by thern. Most likely such

propaganda would have no effec only because people who hear and read about it simply would not be

ready to believe it

Nati

Conspiracy. I,

1001 .

Totalitarianis11l in

Power

Total Domination

The

concentration and extermination camps of totalitarian regimes serve as

the lahoratories in which the fundamental belief of totalitarianism that

everything is possihle is heing verified. Compared with this, a other experi

ments are secondary in

importance-including

those in the field of medicine

whose horro rs are reeorded in detail in the trials against the physicians of the

Third Reich-although it is characteristic that these laboratories were used

for experiments of every kind.

Total domination, which strives

to

organize the infinite plurality and dif

ferentiation of human beings as if alt of humanity were just one individual,

is possilile only if each

anel

every person can be reduced to a never-changing

identity of reactions, so that each

of

these hundles

of

reactions can be

exchanged at random for any other. The problem is to fabricate something

that does not exist, namely, a kind of human spedes resembling other animal

species whose onIy

('freedorn would consist in preser ving the spedes.,,12

5

Totalitarian domination attempts to achieve this goal hetb through ideo

logical indoctrination of the elite formations and through absolute terror

in tbe camps; and the atrocities for which the elite formations are ruth

lessly used become, as it were, the practical application of the ideological

indoctrination-the testing ground

in

which the latter must prove

itself

while the appalling spectacle of the camps themselves

is

supposed to furnish

the utheoretical verification of the ideology.

The camps are meant not onIy to exterminate people and degrade human

bcings, but also serve the ghastly experiment

of

eliminating, under scientifi

cally controlled conditions, spontaneity itself as an expression of human be

havior and of transforming the human personaHty into a mere thing, into

something that even animals are not; for Pavlov's dog, which, as we know,

was trained to eat not when it was hungry but when a bell rang, was a per

verted animal.

Under normal circumstances this can never be accomplished, because

spontaneity can never be entirely eliminated insofar as it is connected not

1 ~ 5 In

ehe TisclJgespriiche

Hitler mentionsseveral·times that

he

[strives]

for

a conditioll

in which each

individual knows that e

Jivcs aod

dies

for

the preservarion of

his

specics (p. 349)'

See

also

p. 347; "A

fly

lays

mil ions of

eggs, aU

of which

perish.

But (he flies

remain,

565



TOTALITARIANISM

only with human freedom but with life itself, in the sense

of

simply keeping

aIive. It is only in the c o n c e n t r t i o ~ l camps that such an experiment is at a11

. possible, a nd therefore they are not only "la

mciEte la

plus totalitaire encore

realisie

(David Rousset) but the guiding social ideal of total domination in

general. Just as thc stahility of the totalitarian regime depends on the isola_

tion of the fictitious world of the movement from the outside world, so

th

e

experiment of total domination in the

c o n c e ~ t r t i o n

camps depends on seal

ing off the latter against the world

of all

others, the worId of the living

in

general, even against the outside world

of

a country under totalitarian rule.

TI;1is

isolation explains the peculiar unreaHty and lack of credibility that

characterize a11 reports from the concentration camps and constitute one

of

the main difficulties for the true understanding of totalitarian domination)

which stands or falls with the existence of these concentration and extermi_

nation camps; for, unlikely as it may sound, these camps are the true central

institution of totalitarian organizational power.

There are numerous reports by survivors.

u6

The more authentie they are,

the less they attempt to communicate things that evade human understand_

ing and human experience-sufferings, that is, that transform men into

"uncomplaining animals.,,

l

7

None of these reports inspires those passions of

outrage and sympathy through which men have always been mobilized for

justice. On the contrary, anyone speaking or writing about concentration

camps is still regarded as suspect; and if the speaker has resolutely returned

to the world of the living, he himself is often assailed by doubts with regard

to his Own truthfulness, as though he had mistaken a nightmare for reality.U8

126. The best reports on Nazi conCentration camps are David Rousset, Le.r JOllrs Je Notre

Mort,

Paris,

1947; Eugen Kogon,

op. cie.;

Bruno Bettelheim, "On Dachau and Buchenwald" (from May, 193

8

,

10

April, 1939), in No{i Corupirocy, VII,

824

ff. For Soviet concentrationcamps, see the excellcnt collection

of reports by

Polish

survivors published under

the

tit\e T/u Dark

SiJe

of

lu:

Moo

n

; also David J Damn,

op.

cie., though

his

reports are sometimes

less

convincing because they come from "prominent" pcrson_

alities wno are intem on drawing

up

manifestos

and

indielments,

12

7,

Thc Dark

.$ide

of

he

Moon;

the imroduction also stresses this peculiar lack

of

communication;

"They record but do not communicate."

128. See

especially Bruno Bettelheim, op. ci . "It seemed as

if

I nad become convinced that

these

horrible

and degl'ading experiences somehow did not happen to 'm e' as subject but to

llle as

an object. This

expcricnce

was

corroboratcd by

thc

statements

of

other prisoncrs, , ..

It

was as if

I

watched things

happening in which I only vague\y participated., . , 'This cannot he ttue, such things jU5t do not hap

pen , .. Tlte prisoners lIad tO cOllvince themselves that Ihis was real, was really happening and not just

a nighnnare. They

were

never wholly successful."

566

I

I

Tocalitarianism in Power

This doubt

of

people concerning themselves and the reality

of

their own

experience onIy reveals what the Nazis always knew: that men determined

to

commit cdmes will find it expedient

to o ~ g n i z e

them on the vastest,

most improbable scale. Not onIy because this renders

a11

punishments pro··

vided by the legal system inadequate and absurd; but because the very

immensity of the crimes guarantees that the murderers who proclaim their

innocence witb all manner

of

lies will be more readily believed than the vic

tims who tell the ttuth. The Nazis did not even consider it necessary to keep

this discovery

to

themselves. Hitler circulated millions

of

copies

of

his book

in which he stated that to be successful, a He must be

enormous which

did

not prevent people from believing hirn as, sirnilarly, the Nazis' prodama

tions, repeated ad nauseam that the Jews would be exterminated like bed

bugs i.,., with poison gas) prevented anybody from not believing them.

There is a great temptation to explain away the intrinsically incredible by

means of liberal rationalizations. In each one of us there lurks such a liberal,

wheedling us with the voice

of

cammon sense.

The

road to totalitarian dom

ination leads through many intermediate stages for which

we

can find

nurnerous analogies and precedents.

The

extraordinarily bloody terror dur

ing the initial stage of totalitarian rule serves indeed the exclusive purpose

of

dcfeating the opponent and rendering

aU

further opposition impossible; but

total terro r is launched only afte r this initial stage has been overcome and the

regime

110

longer has anything to [ear from the opposition. In this context it

has been frequently remarked that in such a case the means have become the

end,

but

this is after

all

only an admission, in paradoxical disguise, that the

category "the end justifies the means" no longer applies, that terror has lost

its "purpose," that it is no langer the means to frighten people. Nor does the

explanation suffice that the revolution,

as

in the case of the French Revolu

tion, was devouring its own children, for the terror continues even after

everybody who might be described as a child of the revolution in olle capacity

or another the Russian factiolls, the power centers

of

party, the army, the

See also Rousset, op. eit., p.

213.

"

. . .

Those who haven't seen it with their own eyes can't believe

it.

Did you yourself, before you came here, take the rumors about the gas chambers seriously?

"No, Isald,

" .. YOll see? \Vell, they're alllike you. The lotof them

in

Paris, London, New York, even

ar

Birke-

llau, right outside the crematoriums , , , still illcreduJous, five minUles before thcy were sent down

lnto

the cellar of the crematorium . . .



TOTALITARIANISM

bureaucracy has lang since been devoured. Many things that nawadays

have became the specialty of totalitarian government are onIy too welt known

from the study of history. There have almost always been wars of

g g r e s

sion; the massacre of hostile populations after a vict ory went unchecked until

the Romans rnitigated t by introducing the

parcere suhjectis;

through cen_

turies the extermination of native peoples went hand in hand with the colo

nization of the Americas, AustraHa, and Africa; slavery is one of the oidest

institutions of mankind and all empires of antiquity were based on thc labor

of

state-owned slaves who erected their puhlic buHdings.

Not

even concen_

tration camps are an invention of totalitarian movements. They emerge for

the first time duri ng the Boer War, at the beginning of the twentieth century,

and continued to be used in South Africa as weIl as India for "undesirable

elements"; here, too, we first find the term "protective custody"

whir:b

was

later adopted by the Third Reich. These camps correspond in many r ~ s p e c t s

to the concentration camps at the beginning of totalitarian rule; they were

used for "suspects" whose offenses could not be proved and who could not

be sentenced by ordinary process

of

law. All this clearly points to totalitarian

methods of domination; a these are elements they utilize, develop, and crys

tallize on the basis of the nihilistic principle that <leverything is permitted,"

which they inherited and already take for granted. But wherever

t ~ e s e

new

forms of dornination assume their authentically totalitarian structure they

transcend this principle, which is still tied to the utilitarian motives and self

interest

of

the ruiers, and try their hand in arealm that up to now has been

completely unknown to us: the realm where "everything is possible." And)

characteristically enough , this is precisely the realm that cannot be limited by

ehher utilitarian motives 01' self-interest, regardless of the latter's content.

What runs counter to common sense is not the nihilistic principle that

"everything is permitted," which was already contained in the nilleteenth

century utilitarian conception of common sense. What common sense and

"normal people" refuse to believe is that everything is possible. 2

9

We attempt

to understand elements in present

or

recollected experience that simply sur

pass our powers of understanding. Wc attempt to classify as criminal a

thing which, as we

all

feel, no such category was ever intended to cover.

What meaning has the concept of murder when we are confronted with

129.

The

first to und

erstand this

was

Rousset

in his [Jllivers COllutUratirmnuire 1947.

568

Totalitarianism in Power

the mass production of corpses? We attempt to understand the behavior of

concentration'-camp inmates and SS-men psychologically, when the very

thing that rnust be realized

is

that the psyche

can

be destroyed even without

the dcstruction of the physical man; that, indeed, psyche, character, and indi

viduality seem under certain circumstances to express themselves only through

the rapidity or slowness with which they disintegrate. 3

The end result in any

case is inanimate men, i.e. men who can no longer be psychological1y under

stood, whose return to the psychologically or otherwise intelligibly human

world closely resembles the resurrection

of

Lazarus. All statements

of

com

mon sense, whether of a psychological or sociological nature, serve onIy to

encourage those who think it "superficial"

to

"dweIl on horrors."l)

If it is true that the concentration camps are the most consequential insti

tution of totalitarian ruIe, "dwelling on horrors" would seem to be indispen

sable for the understanding of totalirarianism. But the recollection can no

more do this than can the uncommunicative eyewitness report. In both these

genres there is an inherent tendency to run away from the experience;

instinctively or rationally, both types of writer are so much aware of the ter

rihle ahyss that separates the world of the living from that of the living dead

t ~ t they cannot supply anything more than aserie s of remembered occur

rences that must seem just as incredible to those who relate them as to their

audience. Only the fearful imagination of those who have been aroused by

such reports but have not actually been smitten in their own flesh, of those

who are consequently

f ~ e e

from the bestial, desperate terror which, when

confronted by real, present horror, inexorably paralyzes everything that

is

not mere reaction, can afford to keep thinking about horrors. Such though s

are useful only for the perception of political contexts and the mobilization

of political passions. A change of personality

of

any sort whatever can no

more be induced by thinking about horrors than by thc real experience of

horror. The reduction of a man to a bundle of reactions separates hirn as radi

cally as mental disease from everything within hirn that is personality

or

character. When, like Lazarus, he rises from the dead, he finds his person

ality or character unchanged, just

as

he had left it.

Just as the horror,

or

the dwe1ling on it, cannot affect a change

of

charac-

IJO. Rousset,op. eil p. 587.

} I .

See

Gcorges Bataille

in

Crid lue, Jalluary, 1948

p. 72.

56

9



TOTALlTARIANISM

ter in hirn, cannot make men better or worse, thus it cannot become the basis

of a political community

01'

party in a n arrower sense.

The

attempts to huild

up a European elite with a program of intra-European understan ding based

on the common European experience of the concentration camps have

foundered in much the same manner

as

the attempts following thc first \Vorld

War to draw political cünclusions from the international experience of the

front generation.

In

hoth cases

t

turned

out

that the experiences themselves

can communicate no more than nihilistic banalities.

J2

Political consequences

such as postwar pacifism, for example, derived from the general fear

of

war,

not from the experiences in war. Instead of producing a pacifism devoid of

reality, the insight into the structure of modern wars, guided and mobilized

by fear, might have led to the realization that the only standard for a neces_

sary war is the fight against conditions under which people no lüng er wish to

live-and

our

experiences with the tormenting hell

of

the totalitarian camps

have enlightened us on1y too wen about the possibility of such cünditions.'33

Thus

the feal' of concentration camps and the resulting insight into the

nature of

tota1

domination rnight serve to invalidate all obsolete political dif

ferentiations [rom right

to

left and to introduce beside and above them the

politically most important yardstick for judging events in

our

time, namely:

whether they serve totalitarian domination

01'

not.

In any event, the fearful imagination has the great advantage to dissolve

the sophistic-dialectiea1 interpretations of politics which are aIl based on the

superstition t hat something good might result [rom evil. Such. dialectical acro

batics had

at

least -a semblance of justification so long as the würst that man

could inflict upon man was murder. But, as we know today, murd er is only a

limited evil.

The

murderer who kills a

man-a

man who has to die

anyway

still moves within the realm of life and death faroiliar to us; hoth have indeed

a necessary connection on which the dialectic is founded, even if

t

is not

always conscious

of

it.

The

murderer leaves a corpse behind and does not

pretend ruat his victim has never existed; if he wipes

out

any traces, they are

(P,

Rousset's book

contains many such

insiglns ioto

human nature,

based

chiefly

Oll the observation

that after a while the mentil ity of the inmates is sCilrccJy distinguishable [rom that of the camp guards,

I3J .

In order to avoid misundersrandings t may he

appropriiHe

10 add

rhill

with the invention of

the

hydrogen bomb thc wilole war question has undergone another decisive change, A discussion

of

this

queslion

is of

course beyond the theme

of

this book.

Totalitarianism

in ower

those of his own identity, and not the memory and

grief

of the persons who

loved his victim; he .destroys a Iife, but he does not destroy the fact of exis

tence itself.

The

Nazis, with the precision peculiar to them, used to register the ir opera

tions in tbe concentration camps unde r the heading und er cover

of

the night

(Nacht und Nehel). The

radicalism

of

measures

to

treat people

as if

they had

never existed and to make them disappear in the literal sense of the ward is fre

quently not apparent

at

first glance, because

both

the German and the Russian

system are not uniform but consist

of

a senes

of

categories in wruch people

are'

treated very differently. In the case

of

Gel'many, these different categories

used

to

exist in the same camp, but without coming irrto contaet with each

other; frequently, the isolation between the categories was even stricter than

the isolation from the outside world. Thus, out of racial considerations,

Scal1-

dinavian natiollals during rue war were quite differently treated by tbe Ger

mans than the members of otber peoples, although the former were ourspoken

enemieso f the Nazis.

The

latter in turn were divided into thosewh ose j'exter

minadon was immedia telyon the agenda,

as

in the

cas'e

of the Jews;

or

could

be expected

in

the predictable future,

as

in the case

of

the Poles, Russians, and

Ukrainians; and into those who were not yet covered by instructions abollt

such an over-all j'final solution, as in the ease

of

the French and Belgians. In

Russia,

on

the other hand, we must distinguish three more or less independent

systems. First, there are the authentie forced-Iabor groups that live in relative

freedom and are sentenced for limited periods. Secondly, there are the concen

tration camps in which the human material is ruthlessly exploited and the mor

tality rate is extremely high, but which are essentially organized for labor

purposes. And, thirdly, there are the annihilation camps in which thc inmates

are systematieally wiped out through starvation and neglect.

The real horror of the concentration and extermination camps lies in the

fact that the inrnates, even

if

they happen to keep alive, are more effectively

cut off from the world of the living than if they had died, because terror

enforces oblivion. Here, mur der is as impersonal as the sql.lashing

of

agnat.

Someone may die

as

the result

of

systematie tortur e

Of

starvation,

or

because

the camp is overcrowded and superfluous human material must be liqui

dated. Conversely, t may happen that duc

to

a shortage

of

new human ship

ments the danger arises rhat the camps become depüpulated and that the



TOTALITARIANISM

order is now given to reduce the death rate at any price.

l34

David Rous ?et

called his report on the period in a German eoncentration camp Les ours

de

Natre Mori

" and it

is

indeed as

if

there were a possibility to give perma

nence to the process of dying itself and to enforce a eondition in which both

death and life are obstructed equally effectively.

It is

the appearanee

of

some radical evil, previollsly unknown to us, that

puts an end to the notion of developments and transformations of qualities.

Here, there are neither poHtical nor historical nor simply moral standards

but, at the most, the realization that something seems to be involved in mod

ern polirics that actually should never be involved

in

poHties as we used

to understand it, namely

aB

or nothing-aB, and that is an undetermined

infinity

of

forms

of

human Iiving-together,

or

nothing, for a victOl Y

of

the

concemration-camp system would mean the s<:tme inexorable doorn for hu

man beings as the use of the hydrogen bomb would mean the doöm of

the human race.

The re are no paralleis to the life in the eoncentrati on camps. Its ho rror can

never be fully embraced by the imagination for the very reason that it stands

outside

of

life and death.

It

can never be fuHy reported for the very reason

that the survivor returns to the world

of

the Hving) which makes t impossi

ble for

hirn

to believe fully in his own past experiences. It

is as

though he had

a story to tell of another planet, for the status of the inmates in the world of

the living, where nobody is supposed to know if they are alive or dead) is

such that it is as though they had never been born.

h e ~ e f o r e

all paralleIs cre

ate confusion and distract attention from what is essential. Forced labor in

prisons and penal eolonies) banishment) slavery, all seem for a moment

to

offer helpful comparisons, but on eloser examination lead nowhere.

Forced labor as a pllnishment is.Iimited

as

to time and intensity.

The

con

viet retains his rights over his body; he is not absolutely tortured and he is not

absolutely dominated. Banishment banishes only from one part of the world

to another part of the world, also inhabited by human beings; it does not

exclude from the human world altogether. Throughout history slavery has

134· This happened in Germany coward the end

of

1941, whcreupon Himmle served

notke to

i camp

commandi1ms ta reduce the dearh rate at

all

costs." For t hi1d mrned out that of the 136,000 new

arrivals, 70,000 wcre already dead on reaching thc camp

or

died immedii1tely thereaCter. See Na{' COll-

spiracy IV, Annex r r ~ L a t e r rcports from Soviet Russii1n camps unanimously confirm timt after 1949-

that is,.when Stalin was still alive-the dealh rate in the concentratiOll camps, which prevjous y Imd


been an institution within a social order; slaves were not, like concentration

camp inmates, withdrawn from the sight and hence thc protection of their

fellow-men; as instruments of labor they had adefinite priee and as property

adefinite value.

The

eoncentration-camp inmate has no priee, because he can

aiways be replaced; nobody knows to whom he belongs, because he is never

seen. From the point of view of normal society he is absolutely superfluous,

although in times

of

aeute labor shortage, as in Russia and in Germany dur

ing the war, he is used for work.

The

concentration camp

as

an institution was not established for the sake'

of

any possible labor yield; the only permanent economie function

of

the

camps has been the financing of their own supervisory apparatus; thus from

the economic point of view tbe concentration camps exist mostly for their

own sake. Any work that has been performed could have been done much

better and more cheaply under different conditions.'J'i Especially u s s i a ~

whose concentration camps are mostly described as forced-labor camps be

cause Soviet bureaucracy has chosen to dignify mem with this name, reveals

most clearly rhat forced labor is not the primary issuc; forced labor is the

normal condition of

all

Russian workers, who have no freedorn of move

ment and can be arbitrarily drafted for work to any place at any time. Thc

incredibility

of

the horrors

is

close1y

bound up with their economic useless

ness.

The

Nazis carried this uselessness to me point of open anti-utility when

in the midst

of

the war, despite the shortage of building material and rolling

stock, they set up enormous, costly extermination factories and transported

reached up 10 (io per cent

of

the inmates, was systematkally lowered, presumably duc

tO

a general and

acme bbor shortage in the Soviet Union. This improvement in living conditions should not bc confuscd

with the crisis of the regime

OIfter

Stalin's death which, characteristically enough, first made itself felt in

the concentradon camps. Cf. Wilhe1m Starlinger, Gre/l{eJl

der Saujetmadll

Würzburg, 1955.

135. See Kogon, ap. cit. p. 58: "A large part

of

the work exacted the concentration camps was useless,

either it was superfluous or it was so miserably planned that ithad

co

be done over two

or

thfee limes."

Also Bettelheim,

ap. cil.

pp.

831--831: New

prisoners particularly were forced

to

perform nonsensi

cal rasks They felt debased and preferred even harder work when jt produccd somcthing use

fu .

Even Dallin, who has huilt his whole hook on the thesis that the purposc of

RU$sian

camps is 10

ptovidc cheap labor, is forccd to admit the ine{ficiency

of

camp labor,

ap.

eil.

p. lo) .-The

CUfrent

theories abollt the Russian camp system as an economic measure for providing a cheap labor supply

would stand clearly refuted if recent rep0rTs on mass amnesties and the abolition of concentration

camps should prove 10 bc true. For r he camps lad served an importan t cconomic purpose, the regimll

cerlainly could not havc afforded their rapid liquidation withollt grave consequences for [he whole

economic system.

TOTALITARIANISM

Totalitar anism in Power



millions of people back and forth.'" In the eyes of a stricdy utilitarian world

the obvious contradiction between these acts and military expediency gave

the whole e"nterprise an air o mad unreality.

This

atmosphere of madness and unreality, created by an apparent lack of

purpase, is the real iran curtain which hides

a

farms

of

concentration camps

from the eyes of the world. Seen from outside, they and the things that hap

pen in them can

be

described only in images drawn from a life after death,

that is, a life removed from earthly purposes. Concentration camps can very

aptly be divided into three types corresponding to three basic Western con

ceptions of a IiEe after death: Hades, Purgatory, and Hell.

To

Hades corre_

spond those relatively mild forms, once popular even in nontotalitarian

countries, for getting undesirable elements of alI sorts-refugees, stateless

persons, the asocial, and the

unemployed--out

of the way; as DP camps,

which are nothing othe r than camps for persons who have become s u p ~ r f l u -

ous and bothersome, they have survived the war. Purgatory is represented

by

the Soviet Union 's labor camps, where neglect is combined with chaotic

forced labor. Hell in the most literal sense was embodied by those types of

camp perfected

by

the Nazis, in which the whole of life was thorough ly and

systematically organized with a view

to

the greatest possible torment.

All three types have one thing in common: the human masses sealed

off

in

them are treated as if they no Ion ger existed, as if what happened to them

were no longer of any interest to anybody,

as

if they were already dead and

some evil spirit gone mad were amusing himself by stopping them for a

while between life and death before admitting them to eternal peace.

It is not so much the barbed wire as the skillfully manufactured un reality

of those whom it fences in that provokes such enormous cruelties and ulti

mately makes extermination loo k Iike a perfecdy normal measure. Every

thing that was done in the camps is known to us from the world

of

perverse,

maHgnant fantasies. The difficult thing to understand is that, like such fan

tasies, these gruesome crimes took place in a phantom world, which, how

ever, has materialized,

as

it were, into a world which

is

complete witb all

sensual data

of

reality

but

lacks that structure

?f

consequence and responsi-

'3

6

. Apart from the millions of people whom the Natis fransported 10 the extermination camps, they o n ~

stantly anempted new colonization plans-transported Germans from Germany or the occupied terri

tories to the East for colonization purposes. This was

of

course a serious handicap for militaryactions

and economic exploitation. For the Ilumcrous discussions on these subjccts and the constant conßict

bility without which reality remains for us a mass of incomprehensible data.

The result is that a place has been established where men ean be tortured and

slaughtered, and yet neither the tormentors nor the tormented, and least of

all the outsider, can be aware that what is happening is anything more man a

')7

eruel game

01'

an absurd dream.

The films which the Allies circulated in Germany and elsewhere after the

war showed clearly that this atmosphere of insanity and unreality is not dis

pdled

by

pure reportage.

To

the unprejudiced observer these pictures are

just about as convincing as snapshots

of

mysterious substances taken at spir

itualist seances.

138

Common sense reacted to the horrors of Buchenwald and

Auschwitz with plausible argument: ' IWhat crime must these people have

committed that such things were done to them "; or, in Germany and Aus

tria, in the midst of starvation, overpopulation, and general hatred: Too bad

that they've stopped gassing the Jews"; and everywhere with the skeptical

shrug that greets ineffectual propaganda.

f the propaganda of truth fails

to

convince the average person because it

is too monstrous, it s positively dangerous to those who know from their own

irnaginings what they themselves are capable

of

doing and who are therefore

perfecdy willing to believe in the reality of what they have seen. Suddenly it

becomes evident that things which for thousands

of

years the human imagi

nation had banished to arealm beyond human competence can be manufac

tured right here on earth, that Hell and Purgatory, and even a shadow of

their perpetual duration, can be established

by

the most modern methods of

destruction and therapy. To these people (and they are more numerous in

any large city than we like to admit) the totalitarian hell proves only that the

power of man

is

greater than they ever dared to think, and that man can real

ize hellish fantasies without making the sky fall

or

the earth open.

between the Nazi civilian hierarchy in t he Eastern occupied territories und the 55 hicrarchy see espe

cially Vol. XXIX

of Trial o

h Major War

Criminais,

Nuremberg, 1947·

137

Bettelheim, cp_ dr., notes that die guards in the camps embraccd an attitude toward thc atmosphere

of

unreaHty similar 10 timt

of

the prison ers themse1ves.

'38. r is of some imponance

to

realize that a picturesof concentration camps are misleading insofar as

they show the camps in their last stages, at the moment the Allied troops matched in. There were

110

death camps in Germany proper, and at that point all extermination equipmem had already been i s ~

mantlcd. On thc other hand, what provoked the outrage

of

the Allies most and wha t gives the films their

special horror-namely, the sight of thc human skeletons --was not at all typical for the Gerrnan con

centration camps; extermination was handled systematically y gas, not by starvarion. The condition

of

the camps was a result

of

die war evems during the final months: Himmler had ordered tlle evacuation

TOTALITARIANISM




These analogies, repeated in many reports from the world of the dying,

seem to express more than adesperate attempt at saying what is outside the

realm of hu·man speech. Nothing perhaps distinguishes modern rnasses as

radically from those

of

previous centuries as the

l ~ s s of

faith in a Last ]udg

ment: the worst have lost theil' fear and the best have lost their hope. Unable

as yet to live without fear and hope, these masses are attracted by every effort

which seems to promise a man-made fabrication of the Paradise they had

longed for and of the Hell they had feared. Just as the popularized features of

Marx's classless society

~ a v e

a queer resemblance

to

the Messianic Age, so

the reality of concentration camps resembles nothing

so

much as medievaI

pietures

of

Hell.

Thc one thing that cannot be reproduced is what made the traditional con

ceptions of Hell tolerable to man: the Last Judgmen t, the idea

of

an

b ~ o l u t e

standard of justice combined with the infinite possibility of grace. Fo r in the

human estimation there is no crime and no sin commensurable wirh the ever

lasting torments

of

Hell. Hence the discomfiture of common sense, which

asks: What crime must these people have committed in order to suffer

so inhumanly? Henee also the absolute innocence of the victims: no man

ever deserved this. Hence finally the grotesque haphazardness with which

concentration-camp victims were chosen in the perfected terror state: such

"punishment" can, with equal justice and injustice, be inflicted on anyone.

In comparison wirh the insane end-result----concentration-camp

society

the process bywhich men are prepared for this end, and the methods by which

individuals are adapted to these conditions, are transparent and logical.

The insane mass manufacture

of

corpses is preceded by the historically and

politically intelligible preparation of living corpses. The impetus and, what

is more important, the silent eonsent to such unprecedented conditions

are the products

of

those events which

in

aperiod of political disintegration

suddenly and unexpectedly made hundreds of thousands of human beings

homeless, stateless, outlawed, and unwanted, while millions of human be

ings were made economically superfluous and socially burdensorne

by

un

employment. This in turn could onIy happen because the Rights of Man,

of aJl

extermio.ation camps in the East, the German camps were consequently vasdy overcrowdcd,

und

he was no longer in a position O assure the food supply in Germany.

139. Timt ife in a concentration camp was simp y a dragged-out processof dying is stressed by Rousset,

op. eil. passim.

ß

whieh had never been philosophieally established but rnerely forrnu

lated, which had never.been politically secured but merely proc1aimed, have,

in their traditional form, lost all validity.

The first essential step on the road

to

total d o m i ~ a t i o n is to kill the juridi

cal person in man. This was done, on the one hand, by putting certain cate

gories

of

people outside the proteetion

of

the law and forcing at the same

tiine, through the instrument of denationalization, the nontotalitarian world

into recognition of lawlessness; it was done, on the ot her, by placing the con

centration camp outside the normal penal system, and by selecting its

inmates outside the normal judicial procedure in whieh adefinite crime

entails a predictable penalty. Thus criminaIs, who for other reasons are an

essential element in concentration-camp society, are ordinarily sent

to

a

camp onIy on completion of their prison sentence. Under all circumstances

totaHtarian domination sees to it that the categories gathered in the

camps

Jews, carriers

of

diseases, representative's

of

dying classes-have already

lost their capacity for both normal or crlminal action. Propagandistically this

means that the "protective custody" is handled as a "preventive police mea

sure,,,qo that

is,

a measure that deprives people

of

the ability to aet.

e v i a ~

tions from this rule in Russia must be attributed

to

the catastrophic shortage

of

prisons and

tO

adesire, so far unreaHzed,

to

transform the whole penal

1,1'

system into a system of concentration camps.

The indusion of criminals is necessary in order tO make plausible the pro

pagandistic claim of the movement that the institution exists for asocial ele

ments.I. l Criminals do not properly belong in the concentration camps, if

only because it is harder to kill the juridical person in a man who is guilty of

some crime than

in

a totally innocent person.

If

they constitute a permanent

category among the inmates,

it is

a concession

of

the totalitarian state to the

'40' Maunz, op. eit. p. )0, insists timt criminals should never bc sent to the camps for the time of their

regulilr scntenccs.

14 . The shortage of prison spilce in Russia has been such that in the year 1925-1926, only 36 per cent of

all court sentences could be carried out. Sec Da lin,

op.

ci t., p. 158 Cf

14

2

. "Gestapo and SS have a ways attached great importance

to

mixing Ihe categories of inmatcs in the

camps. In no camp have [he inmates bc onged exc1usivcly tO one c t e g o r y ~ (Kogon, op. eit., p. 19)'

In Russia, l

has

illso been customary from the beginning to mix politica prisoners and criminals.

Ouring the first ten years of Soviel power, the Left political groups cnjoyed certain privileges;

on y

with

the ful devc opmcnt of the totalitadan character of the regime "after the end of the twenties, the politi

cals

were even officially treated

as

inferior to the eommon criminals" (Dallin,

op.

cu., p. 177 ff. .

yy

TOTALITARIANISM




prejudices

of

society, which can in this way most readily be accustomed.to

the existence of the camps. In order, on the othe r hand, to keep the camp sys

tem itself ili.tact, t s essential as long as there is a penal system in the country

that criminals should be sent to the camps only on completion of their sen

teace, that is when they are actually entitled to their freedom. Under no cir

cumstances must the concentration camp hecome a calculable punishment

for definite offenses.

The amalgamation of criminals with all other categories has moreover the

advantage

of

making it shockingly evident to all othe r arrivals that they have

landed on the lowest level

of

society. It soon turns out, to be sure, that they

have every reason to envy the lowest thief and murderer; but meanwhile the

lowest level is a good beginning. Moreover it is an effective means of camou

flage: this happens on ly to criminals and not hing worse is h p p e n i n ~ than

what deservedly happens to criminals.

The

criminals everywhere constitute the aristocracy of the camps. (In

Germany, during the war, they were replaced in the leadership by the Com

munists, because not even a minimum of rational work could be performed

under the chaotic conditions created by a criminal administration. This was

merely a temporary transformation of concentration camps into forced

Iabor camps, a thoroughly atypical phenomenon

of

limited duration.

143

)

What places the criminals in the leadership is not so much the affinity hetween

supervisory personnel and criminal

elements-in

the Soviet Union appar

ently the supervisors are not, like the 5S, a special elite trained ta commit

crimes1

44

_

as

the fact that only criminals have been sent to the camp in con

nection with some definite activity. They at least know why they are in a con

centration camp and therefore have kept a remnant of their juridical person.

For the politicals this is only subjectively true; their actions, insofar as they

were actions and not mere opinions or someone else 's vague suspicions

J

or accidental membership

in

a politically disapproved group, are as a rule

143 Rousset's book suffers from his overestimation of thc influence of tllc German Communists, who

dominated the intcrnal administrmion

of

Buchcnwald duri ng thc war.

'4.1.

See for instance the tcslimony of Mrs. Buber-Neumann (former wife of ehe German Communist

Hcinz Ncumann), wlto survived Soviet and German concentration camps:

The

Russians never

evinccd thc sadistic streak of the Nazis

OUt

Russian guards werc dcccm mcn and not sadists, but

thcy faithfuUy fu filled the requircmentsof the inhuman system" U,ulcr

111 0

Dictators).

·not covered by the normal legal system of the country and not juridically

defined.

4

Tc the amalgam of politicals and criminals with which concentration

camps in Russia and Germany started out, was added at an early date a third

element which was soon

to

constitute the majority of all concentration-camp

imnates. This largest group has consisted ever since of people who had done

nothing whatsoever that, either in their own consciousness or the conscious··

ness of their tormenters, had any rational connection with their arrest. In

Germany, after

1938,

this element was represented by masses

of

Jews,

in

Russia by any groups which, for any reason having nothing to da with their

actions, had incurred the disfavor of the authorities. These groups, innocent

in every sense, are the most suitable for thorough experimentati on in disfran

chisement and destruction of the juridical person, and therefore they are

hoth qualitatively and quantitatively the most essential category of the camp

population. This principle was most fully realized in the gas chambers which,

if only because of their enormous capacity, could not be intended for indi

vidual cases but onIy for people in general. In this connection, the following

dialogue sums up the situation

of

the individual: «For what purpose, may I

ask, do the gas chambers exist? - For what purpose were you born?,,

146

lt

is

this third group

of

the totally innocent who in every case fare the worst

in the camps. Criminals and politicals are assimilated to this category; thus

deprived of the protective distinction that comes of their having done some

thing, they are utterly exposed to the arbitrary. The ultimate goal, partly

achieved in the Soviet Union and clearly indicated in the last phases of Nazi

terror, is to have the whole camp population composed of this category of

innocent people.

Conrrasting with the compiete haphazardness with which the inmates are

selected are the categories, meaningless in themselves but useful from the

standpoint of orgaruzation, into which they are usually divided on their

arrival. In the German camps there were criminals, politicals, asocial ele

ments, religiolls offenders, and

J

ws, all distinguished

by

insignia.

When

the

145. Bruno Bcttdlleim, "Behavior

in

Extreme Situations,"

in oumalofAlmormalalld Sodal PsychoJogy,

VoL XXXVllI, No. 4, 1943, describes the self-estcem of thc criminals and the political prisoners as com

pared with those who have not done anything. The latter "were least ahle to withsland the initial shock,"

the first to disintcgrate. Bettelhcim blames this on their middle-dass origin.

146. Roussct, op. eit., p. 7l;

TOTALITARIANISM Totalitarianism

in Power



French set up concentration camps after the Spanish Civil War, they imme.di

ately introduced the typical totalitarian amalgamof politicals

whh

criminals

and the innocent (in this ease the stateless), and despite their inexperienee

proved remarkably inventive in creating meaningless eategoriesof inmates.'47

Originally devised in order to prevent any growth of solidarity among the

inmates, this technique prüved particularIy valuable because no one eould

know whether his own category was better or würse than someone else's. In

Germany this eternaHy shifting though pedanticaHy organized edifice was

given an appearanee of solidity by the fact that under any and all circum

stances the

J

ws were the lowest category.

The

gruesome and grotesque part

of it was that the inmates identified themselves with these categories, as

though they represemed a last authentie remnant of their juridical person.

Even

if we disregard all other cireumstances, it is no wonder that a CDmmu

nist of

1933

should have come out of the camps more Communistic than

he went in, a Jew more Jewish, and, in France, the wife of a Foreign

Legionary more eonvincedof the value of the Foreign Legion; it would seem

as though these categories promised some last shred of predictable treat

ment, as though they embodied some last and hence most fundamental

juridical identity.

While the classification

of

inmates

by

categories is onIy a tactical, organi

zational measure, the arbitrary selection of victims indicates the essential

principle of the institution.

If

me concentration camps had been dependent

on

the existence of political adversaries, they would scarcely have survived

the first years of the totalitarian regimes.

One

oniy has to take a look at the

number

of

inmates at Buchenwald in the years after 1936 in

order

to under

stand how absolutely necessary the elementof the innocent was for the con

tinued existence

of

the camps.

The

camps would have died

out

if in making

its arrests the Gestapo had considered onIy the principle of opposition,,,14

8

and toward the end of 1937 Buchenwald, wirh Iess than 1 000 inmates, was

elose to dying

out

until the November pogroms brought more than

20 000

new arrivals.

149

In

Germany, this element

of

the innocent was furnished in

vast numbers

by

the Jews after 1938; in Russia, it consistedof random groups

of

the population which for some reason entirely unconneeted with their

'47. For conditions inFrench concemration camps, see Arthur Koestler,

Scum

of dw Earrh., 1941.

148. Kogon, op. eit., p.6.

149· See Na i Conspiracy,

IV,

800 ff

58

actions had fallen into disgrace.

150

But

if

in

Germany

the really totalitarian

type of concentration camp with its enormous majorityof completely in

nocent inmates was not established until 1938, in Russia it goes back to

the early' thirties, since up to 1930 the majority

of

the coneentration-camp

population still consistedof criminals, counterrevolutionaries and p o l i t i c a l s ) ~

(meaning, in this case, members of deviationist factions). Since then there

have been so many innocent people in the camps that it is difficult to classify

them-persons who had some sort of contact with a foreign country] Russians

of Polish origin (particularly in the years

1936

to 1938), peasants whose

villages for some economic reason were liquidated, deported

nationalities,

demobilized soldiersof the Red

Army

who happened to belong to regiments

that stayed too long abroad

as

occupation forces cr had become prisoners

of

war in Germany, etc. But the existence of a politieal opposition is for a

concentration-camp system only apretext, and the purpose of the system is

not achieved even when, under the most monstrous terror, the population

becomes more or less voluntarily co-ordinated,

Le.,

relinquishes its politica1

rights. The aim of an arbitrary system is to destroy the

dvil

fights of the

whole population, who ultimately become just as outlawed in their own coun

try as the stateless and homeless.The destructionof a man's rights, the killing

of

the juridical person in hirn,

is

aprerequis ite for dominating hirn entirely.

And this appliesnot onIy to special categories such as criminals, political oppo

nents, Jews, homosexuals, on whom the early experiments were made, but to

every inhabitant of a totalitarian state. Free consent is as much an obstaele to

total domination as free opposition.l')t

The

arbitrary arrest which chooses

among innocent people destroys the validityof free consent, just as torture

as distinguished from death--d.estroys the possibilityof opposition.

'50. Beck

and

Godin, op. eit., state explicitly tllat opponents constituted only a relatively small propor

tion of the [Russian] prison population Cp 87), and that there was no connection whatever between a

man's imprisonment and anyoffense (p.

95).

'51. Bruno Betteloeim, On Dachau and B\lchenwald, woen discussing

[he

fact that most prisoners

made their peace with the values of the Gestapo,' emphasizes that

chis

was not the result of propa

ganda . . .

ehe

Gestapo insisted that

it

would prevent them

from

expressing toeir feelings anyway

(pp.

834-

8

n .

Himmler explicitly prohibited propaganda of

any klnd in the camps.

Education consists of

disci-

pline, never of any kind of instruction on an ideological basis. On Organization and Obligation of

the SS and the Police, in

Naliona/-po/ilisclur

Lehrgang der Wehrmacht, T937. Quoted from a{i CO/l

spiracy,

IV, 616 ff.

TOTALITARIANISM

otalitarianism

in

Power



Any, even the most tyrannical, restriction of this arbitrary persecution to

certain opinions

of

a religious or political nature, to certain modes

of

intel

lectual or r o t i social behavior, to certain freshly invented crimes, would

render the camps superfluous, because in the long run no attitude and no

opinion can withstand the threat

of

so much horror; and above

a11

it would

make for a new system of justice, which, given any stability at all, could not

fail to produce a new juridical person in man, that would elude the totali

tarian domination. The so-called

WVolkrnutren of

thc Nazis, constantly fluc

tuating (because what

is

useful today can be injurious tomorrow) and the

eternally shifting party Hne of the Soviet Union which, being retroactive,

alm ost daily makes new groups

of

people available for the concentration

camps, are the only guarantee for the continued existence

of

the concentra

don camps, and hence for the continued total disfranchisement of mil:;

The

next decisive step in the preparation

of

living corpses is the murder

of

the moral person

in

man. This

1S

done in the main by making marty rdom, for

the first time in history, impossible: I'How many people here still believe that

a protest has even historie importance? This skepticism

is

the real master

piece of the 5S. Their great accomplishment. They have corrupted

a11

human

solidarity. Here the night has fallen on the future. When no witnesses are left,

there can be no testimony. To demonstrate when death can no longe r be post

poned

is

an attempt to give death a meaning, to act beyond one s own death.

In order to be successful, a gesture must have social meaning. Ther e are hun

dreds

of

thousands

of us

here, allliving in absolute solitude.

That S

why

we

are subdued no matter what happens.

ul52

The camps and the murder of political adversaries are ooly part of orga

nized oblivion that not only embraces carriers

of

public opinion such

as

the

spoken and the written ward, but e:x-tends even to the families and friends of

the victim. Grief and remerhbrance are forbidden. In the Soviet Union a

woman will sue for divorce immediately after her husband 's arrest in order

to save me lives of her children; if her husband chances to come back, she

will indignantly turn hirn out

of

the house.

ln

The

Western world has hith

erto, even in its darkest periods, granted the slajn enemy the right to be

remembered as a self-evident acknowledgment

of

the fact that we are all men

151. Rousset, 0p.

eil.,

p

464.

153.

See the report of Sergei Ma akhov in Dallin, op.

eit., pp. 2 [f

582

(and only men). r is only because even Achi1les set out for Hector's funeral,

only because the most despotie governments honored the slain enemy, only

because the Romans allowed thc Christians to write their martyrologies,

onIy because the Church kept its hereties alive in the memory of men, that a11

was not lost and never could be lost. The concentration camps, by making

death itself anonymous (making it impossible to find out whether a prisoner

is

dead

or alive) robbed death of its meaning as the end of a

fulfilled

life. In a

sense they took away the individual's own death, proving that henceforth

nothing belonged to hirn and he belonged to no one. His death merely set a

seal on the fact that he had never really existed.

This attack on the moral person might still have been opposed by man's

conscience whieh teIls him that it is better

1'0

die a

victiIU

than to live as a

bureaucrat of murder. Totalitarian terror achieved its most terrible triumph

when

it

succeeded

in

cutting the moral person off from the individualist

escape and in making the decisions of conscience absolutely questionable

and equivocaL When a man is faced with the alternative of betraying and

thus murdering his friends or

of

sending his wife and children, for whom he

is in every sense responsible, to their deaths; when even suicide would mean

the immediate murder of his own family how is he to decide? The alterna

tive

is

no longer between good and evil, but between murder and murder.

Who could salve the moral dilemma of the Greek momer who was allowed

by the Nazis to choose which of her three children should be kil1ed?';4

Through the creation

of

conditions under wh ich conscience ceases to be

adequate and to do good becomes utterly impossible, the consciously organ

ized complicity of all men in the crimes of totalitarian regimes is extended to

the victims and thus made really total. The 55 implicated concentration

camp inmates--criminals, politicals, Jews in their crimes by making them

responsible for a large part of the administration, thus confronting them with

the hopeless dilemma whether to send their friends to their deaths, or

to

help

murder other men who happened to be strangers, and forcing them, in

event,

to

behave like murderers.

}

The

point

is

not only that hatred

is

diverted from those who are guilty (the capos were more hated than the 5S),

154. See AlberI Camus

in T1'IiteA

Yenr, '947·

15'i. Rousset's book, op.

cit.,

consists largely of discussions oE Ihis dilemma by prisoners.

TOTALITARIANISM

Totalitarianism

in

Power



but that the distinguishing line between persecutor and persecmed, between

the m u r e ~ e r and his victim, is constantly blurred.

1j6

Onee ·the moral person has been killed, the one thing that still prevehts

men from being made into living corpses is the differentiation of the indi

vidual, his unique identity. In a sterile form such individuality can be pre

served through a persistent stoici5m, and

it

i5 certain that many men under

totalitarian rule have taken and are each day still taking refuge in this

absolute isolation of a personality without rights or consdence. The re is 110

doubt that this part

of

the human person, precisely because it depends

so

essentially on nature and on forces that cannat be comrolled by the will, is

the hardest to destroy (and when destroyed

1S

most easily repaired).lj7

The methods of dealing with this uniqueness

of

the human person are

numerous and we shall not attempt to list them. They begin with tl-:'.' mon

strous conditions

in

the transports to the camps, when hundreds of human

beings are packed into a cattle-car stark naked, glued to each other, and

shumed back and forth over the coumryside for days on end; they continue

upon arrival at the camp, the well-organized shock of the first hours, the

shaving of the head, the grotesque camp clothing; and they end in the utterly

unimaginable tortures so gauged as not to kill the body, at any event not

quickly.

The

aim

of

all

these methods, in any case,

is

to manipulate the human

body-with its infinite possibilities

of suffering-in

such a way as to make

it

destroy the human perso'} as inexorably as do certain mental diseases of

organic origin.

It

is

hete that the utter lunacy of the emire process becomes most appar

ent. Torture, to be sure) is an essential feature o f the whole totalitarian police

and judiciary apparatus; it is used every day to make people talk. This type of

torture, since it pursues a definite, rational aim) has certain limitations: either

the prisoner talks within a certain time, or he is killed. To this rationally con

ducted torture another, irrational, sadistic type was added in the first Nazi

concentration camps and in the cellars of the Gestapo. Carried on for the

156.

Bettelheim,

op. eie.

descrihes

the

process

by which the

guards

as weil as the

prisoners

became

con

ditioned

to [he life

in

the camp and were

afraid

of

returning to

the

outer world.

Rousset, thcrefore,

is

right

when he

insists

that

the truth

is

that victim

and

cxecutioner

are alike

ignobJe; the Jesson of thc

camps is

the brotherhood of ahjection Cp. j88).

1 )7.

Bettelheim, op. eil. describes

how

the

main

concern of the

new

prisoners seemed

to

be to remain

intact

as

a personality while the problem of the

old

prisoners

was

how 10

live as weil as

possible within

thecamp.

most part by the SA,

it

pursued no aims and was not systematic, but de

pendecl on the initiative of largely abnormal elements. The mortality was so

high that onIy a few concentration-camp inmates of

1933

survived these

first years. This type of torture seemed to be not so much a calculated politi

cal

institution as a concession

of

the regime to its criminal and abnormai

e1e··

ments, who were thus rewarded for services rendered. Behind the blind

bestiality of the SA, there often lay a deep hatred and resentment against all

those who were socially, intellectually, or physically better off than them-

. selves, and who now,

as

if

in fulfillment

of

their wildest dreams, were

in

their

power. This resentment, which never died out entirely in the camps, strikes

us as a last remnant of humanly understandable feeling.'i

8

The real horror began, however, when the 5S took over the administra

tion of the camps. The old spontaneolls bestiality gave way to an absolutely

cold

anel

systematic destruction of human bodies, calculated

to

destroy

human dignity; death was avoided or postponed indefinitely. The camps

were no langer amusement parks for beasts

in

human form, that is, for men

who reaHy belonged

in

mental institutions and prisons; the reverse became

true: they were turned into drill grounds, on which perfectly normal men

were trained to be full-fledged members of the SS. Ij9

The

killing

of

man's individuality,

of

the uniqueness shaped in equal parts

Ij8. Rousset, op. eit. p. 390, reports

an

55-man haranguing a professor

as folIows:

You used to

be

a

professor. Weil, you're no professor

now.

You're no bigshot any more. You're nothingbut a little rum

now.

Just

as

lüde asyou

can

be. I'm the big

fellow

now.

159. Kogon, ap. cit. p.

6,

speaks of the possibility that the camps

will

be maintained

as

training and

experimental grounds

for

the $5. He also

gives

a good report on the differencc between the early camps

administered

hy

the

SA and

the later ones under the 55. None of these

first camps had

more

than

a

thousand inmates Ufe

in them

beggared all description. The aecounts

of the few

old prisoners

who

survived those years agree that there

was

scarcely

allY form

of sadistic perversion that

was

not practiced

by the

$A

men. But they were an acts

of individual bestiality, there

was still

no fully

organi7.ed cold sys

lern,

embradng

masses of men.

This

was the

accomplishment

of the

55

(p.

7).

This

new mechanized system ease<.

the

feeling of

responsibility

as much as was

humanly

possible.

When,

for

instance,

the

order

came

to kill

every day several hundred Russian pIlsoners,

the

slaughter

was

performed by shooting through a hole without seeing

the

victim.

(See

Ernest Feder, Es sai sur

la

Psychologiede la Terreur,

in Synthius Brussels, J946.)

On

the

other hand, perversion

was

artific:ially

produeed

in othel wise

normal

men.

Rousset repotts

the following from

a 55 guard: Usually

keep

on

lütting

IlJUill

ejaculate.

have

a

wifc

and

three children

in

Brcslau.

uscd

to

be

perfecdy normal. That's

what

they've made of

me.

Now

when

they give

me

a

pass

out of here, don't

go

home.l don't dare look

my

wife

in

the face

{p.

27J).-The documents from the Bider era contain numerous testimonials for

the average normality of

tllOse

entrusted

with

carrying out Hitler's program of extermination. A good

coUecdon is found in

Leon

PoHakov's

The Weapon of Antisemitism, published

by

UNESCO

in Thi

585

TOTALITARIANISM

Totalital ianism in Power



by nature, will, and destiny, which has become so self-evidentapremise fo

r

a11 human relations that even identical twins inspire a certain uneasiness,

crc_

ates a horror that vastly overshadows the outrage

of

the juridical-political

person and the despair of the moral person. It is this

horror

that gives rise to

the nihilistic generalizations whiCh maintain plausihly enough that essen_

tially all men alike are beasts.

160

Actually the experience

of

the concentration

camps does show that human beings can be transformed into specimens of

the human animal, and that man's ~ ' n a t u r e is onIy human insofar as it

opens up to man the possibility

of

becoming something highly unnatural,

that is, a man.

After murder of the moral person and annihilationof the juridical person,

the destruction

of

the individuality

is

almost always successful. Conceivably

some laws of mass psychology may be found to explain why mHlions of

human beings allowed themselves to be marched unresistingly into the gas

chambers, although these laws would explain nothing else

but

the destruc

tion of individuality.It is more significant that those indivi dually condemned

to death very seldom attempted to take oneof their executioners with them,

that there were scarcely any serious revolts) and t hat even in the momentof

liberation there were very few spontaneous massacres of 55 men. For to

destroy individuality

is

to destroy spontaneity, man's power to begin some

thing new

out of

his own resources, something that cannot be explained on

the basis of reactions to environment and events.

161

Nothing then remains

but ghastly marionettes with human faces, which all behave like the

dog

in

Third Reich. London, 19i5. Most of the men the units used for these purposes were not vo umeersbut

had been drafted from the ordinary police for these special assignments. But even trained 55-men found

this kind of duty worse than front-Hne nghting.

In

11is report of a

mass

exeeution by the S5, an eye

witncss gives high praise

to

this troop which had been so "idealistic" that

ie

was ahle to bear "the entire

extermination without the help of liquor."

That one wanted

to

eliminate all personal motives and passions during the "exterminations"

and

henee keep the eruelties to a minimum is revealed by the fact timt a group of doctors and engineers

entrosted with handling

the

gas installations were making constam improvements that were not only

designed

to

raise the productive capacity of he corpse factories but

also [

accelerateand

ease

the agony

of death.

160. Tllis

is

very prominent in Rousset's work, "The sodal conditions

of

life

in

the camps

lave

trans

formed the great

mass

of inmates, beth the Germans

and

the deportces, regardless of their previous

sodal position

<lnd educ<ltion

. . . nto a degencrate

rabble,

entirdy submissive to

the

primitive

reflexes

of

the anima instinct" {p. 18J}.

161.

In this context also belangs the astonishing rarity of suicides in the camps. Suicide occurred far

more oflen before arrest and deportation than in the camp ilself, which is of course partly explaincd

by

586

[

Pavlov's experiments, which all react with perfect reliahility even when

going to th eir own death, and which

da

nothing

but

react.

This is

the real tri

umph of the system: "111e triumphof the 55 demands that the tortured vic

tim allow hirnself to be led

to

the noose without protesting, t hat he renounce

and abandon himself to the point of ceasing to affirm his identity. And it

is

not for nothing. Ir is not gratuitously,

out

of sheer sadism, that the SS men

desire his defeat.They know th at the system which succeeds in destroying its

victim before he mounts the scaffold is incomparably the best for keeping

a whole people in slavery.

In

submission.

Nothing

is more terrible than these

processions of human beings going like dummies to their death.

The

man

who

sees this says to himself:

'For

them to be thus reduced, what power must

be concealed in the hands of the masters: and he turns away,

ful1

of bitter

ness but defeated."162

f

we take totalitarian aspirations seriously and refuse t o be misled

by

the

common-sense assertion that they are utopian and unrealizable, it develops

that the societyof the dying established in the campsis the only forni of soci

ety in which it

is

possible to dominate man entirely.

Those

who aspire

to

total

domination must liquidate all spontaneity, such as the mere existenceof indi

viduality will always engender, and track it down in its most private forms,

regardless

of

how unpolitical and harmless these

may

seern. Pavlov's clog,

the human specimen reduced to the most elementary reactions, the bundle

of reactions that can always be liquidated and replaced

by

other bundles of

reactions that behave in exactly the same way, is the model "citizen" of a

totalitarian state; and such a citizen can be produced on ly imperfectly outside

of

the camps.

The uselessness

of

the camps, their cynically admitted anti-utility,is onIy

apparent.

In

reality they are more essential to the preservationof the regime's

power than any of its other institutions. Without o n c e n t r t i o n camps, with

out the undefined fear they inspire and the very well-defined training they

offer in totalitarian domination, which can nowhere else be fully tested with

tbc fact that every attempt

was

made to prevent suicides which are, after a11 spontaneousacts. From the

statistical material for Buehenwald (Na{l Corupiracy

IV,

800 ff. it is evident mat scarcely more [han

one·half per cent of the deaths could be traced to suicide,

timt

frequently there were only two suicides

per year, although

in the

same year the total number of deaths reached

},)I6.

The feports [rom Russian

camps mention the same phenomcnon, ce for instance, Starlinger. op. eil. p. J7.

162, Rousset,op.

eil.

p.

'i25·

TOTALITARIANISM

Totalicarianism in Power



all of its most radical possibilities, a totalitarian state can neither inspire its

nuclear troops with fanaticism

nor

maintain a whole people in compiete apa

thy. The clominating and the dominated wou d on y too quick y sink hack

into the old bourgeois routine"; after early

' e x c e s s e s ,

they would succumb

to everyday life with its human laws; in short, they would develop in the

direction which a11 observers counseled by common sense were so pron e to

predict.

The

tragic faIlacy of a11 these prophecies, originating in a w orld that

was still safe, was to suppose that there was such a thing as one human nature

established for all time, to identify this human nature with history, and thus

to declare that the idea of total domination was not only inhuman but also

unrealistic. Meanwhile we have learned that the power of man

is

so great that

he really can be what he wishes to be.

t

is in the very nature of totalitarian regimes to demand unlimited power.

Such power can only be secured if literally all men, without a single excep

tion, are reliably dominated in every aspect of their life. In the realm of for

eign affairs new neutral territories must constantly be subjugated, while at

horne ever-new human groups must be mastered in expanding concentration

camps, or, when circumstances require, liquidated to make room for others.

The question of opposition is unimportant borh in foreign and domestic

affairs. Any neutrality, indeed any spontaneously given friendship, is from the

standpoint of totalitarian domination just as dangerous as open hostility, pre

cisely because spontaneity

as

such, with its incalculability, is the greatest of aB

obstacles to total do mination over man.

The

Communists

of

non-Communist

countries, who fled or were cal1ed to Moscow, learned by bitter experience

that they constituted a rnenace to the Soviet Union. Convinced Communists

are in this sense, which alone has any reality today, just as ridiculous and just

as menacing to the regime in ~ u s s i a as, for example, the convinced Nazis of

the Röhm faction were to the Nazis.

What

makes conviction and opinion of any sort so ridiculous and danger

ous und er totaIitarian conditions is that totalitarian regimes take the greatest

pride in having no need

of

them,

or

cf

any human help

of

any kind. Men,

insofar as they are more than anima] reaction and fulfillment of functions,

are entirely superfluaus to totalitarian regimes. Totalitarianism strives not

toward despotie rule over men,

but

toward a system

in

which men are super

fluous. Total power can be achieved and safeguarded only in a world of con

ditioned reflexes, of marionettes without the slightest trace of spontaneity.

588

Precisely because man's resources are so great, he can be

fuHy

dominated

onIy when he becomes a specimen of the animal-species man.

Therefore character is a threat and even the most unjust legal rules are

an obstacle; but individuality, anything indeed that distinguishes one man

from another,

is

intolerable. As

lang

as all men have not been made equal1y

superfluous and this has been accomplished only in concentration camps-

the ideal of totalitarian domination has not been achieved. Totalitarian states

strlve constantly, though never with compIete success, to establish the super

ftuity

of man by

tbe arbitrary selection

of

various groups for concentra

tion camps) by constant purges of the ruling apparatus, by mass liquidations.

Common sense protests desperately that the masseS are submissive and that

a11

this gigantic apparatus of terror is therefore superfluous; if they were

capable of telling the truth, the totalitarian rulers would reply:

The

appara

tus seems superfluous to you only because it serves to make men superfluous.

The totalitarian attempt

to

make men superfluous reflects the experience of

modern masses of their superfluity on an overcrowded earth.

The

world of

the dying, in which men are taught they are superfluous through a way of life

in which punishment

is

meted

out

without connection with crime, in which

exploitation is practiced withollt profit, and where work is performed with

out product, is a place where sense1essness is daily produced anew. Yet,

within the framework

of

the totalitarian ideology) nothing could be more

sensible and logical; if the inmates are vermin, it is logical that they should be

killed by poison gas; if they are degenerate, they should not be allowed to

contaminate the population; if they have "slave-like souls" (Himmler), no

one should waste his time trying to re-educate them. Seen through the eyes

of the ideology, the trouble with the camps is almost that they make too

much sense, that the execution of the doctrine

is

tao consistent.

While the totalitarian regimes are thus resolutely and cynically emptying

the world of the only thing that makes sense to the utilitarian expectations of

common sense, they impose upon

t

at the same time a kind

of

supersense

which the ideologies actually always meant when they pretended to have

found the key

tO

history

or

the solution

to

the riddles of the universe. Over

and above the senselessness o totalitarian society is enthroned the ridiculous

supersense .of its ideological superstition. Ideologies are harrnless, uncritical,

and arbitrary opinions onIy as long

as

they are not believed in seriously.

TOT LIT RI NJSM

Totalitarianism in ower



Onee their claim

to

total validity

is

taken literally they become the nuclei of

logical systems in which, as in the systems of paranoiaes, everything foll

ows

comprehensibly and even compulsoriIy onee the first premise is aceepted.

The insanity of such systems lies .not only in their first premise but in the

very logicality with which they are constructed. The curious logicality of all

isms, their simple-minded trust

in

the salvation value of stubborn devotion

withom regard for spedn.c, varying factors, already harbors the first germs

of totalitarian contempt for reaHty and factuality.

Cornmon sense trained in utilitarian thinking

is

helpless against this ideo

logical supersense, since totalitarian regimes establish a functioning world

of

no-sense. The ideological contempt for factuality still contained the proud

assumption of human mastery over the world; it is, after all, contempt for

reality which makes possible changing the world, the erection

of

qle human

artifice. What destroys the element of pride in the totalitarian contempt for

reaHty (and thereby distinguishes t radically from revolutionary theories

and attitudes)

is the

supersense which gives the conrempt for reality its co-

gency, logicality, and consistency. What makes a truly totalitarian device

out of the Bolshevik claim that the present Russian system is superior to

all

others

is

thc fact that the totalitarian ruler draws from this claim the logically

impeccable conclusion that without this system people never could have buHt

such a wonderful thing as, le t us say, a subway; from this, he again draws the

logical conclusion that anyone who knows of the existence of the Paris sub

way is a suspect because he may cause people to doubt that on e can do things

only

in

the Bolshevik way. This leads to the

final

conclusion that

in

order to

remain a loyal Bolshevik, you have to destroy the Paris subway. Nothing

rnatters h ut consistency.

.With these new structures,

buHt

on the strengrh of superscnse and driven

by the motor of logicality, we are indeed at the end of the bourgeois era

of

profits and power, as weil as at the end of imperialism and expansion. The

aggressiveness of totalitarianism springs not from lust for power, and if it

feverishly seeks to expand, it does so neither for expansion's sake

nor

for

profit, but only for ideological reasons: to make the world consistent, to

prove that

it5

respective supersense has been right.

It is chiefly for the sake of this supersense, for the sake of compiete consis

tency, that it is necessary for totalitarianism to destroy every trace

of

what

we eommonly eall human dignity. For respeet far human digni ty implies the

recognition of my fellow-men or our fellow-nations as subjects)

as

builders

of worlds o r cobuHders of a common world. No ideology which aims at the

explanation of all historical events of the past and at mapping out the course

of a events

of

the future can bear the unpredictability which springs from

the fact that men are creative, that they can bring forward something so

new that nobody ever foresaw

it

What

totaIitarian ideologies therefore aim at is not the transformation

of

the outside world or the revolutionizing transmutation of sodety, but the

transformation

of

human nature itself.

The

concentration camps are the

laboratories where changes in human nature are tested, and their shameful

ness therefore is not just the business of their inmates and those who run

them according to strictly scientific standards; it is the concern of a men.

Suffering,

of

which there has been always too much on ear th,

is

not the issue,

nor is the number of victims. Human nature as such is at stake, and even

though it seems that these experiments succeed not in changing man but only

in destroying hirn, by creating a society in which the nihilistic banality

of

homo homini

lupus is

consistently realized, one should bear in mind the neces

sary limitations

to

an experiment which requires global control in order to

show conclusive results.

Until

now the totalitarianbelief that everything

is

possible seems to have

proved only that everything can be destroyed. Yet, in their effort to prove

that everything

is

possible, totalitarian regimes have discovered without

knowing it that there are crimes which men can neither punish nor forgive.

When the impossible was made possible it became the unpunishable, unfor

givable absolute evil which could no Ionger be understood and explained by

the evil motives of self-inrerest, greed, covetousness, resentment, lust for

power, and cowardice; and which therefore anger could not revenge, love

could not end ure, friendship could not forgive. Just as the victims in the

death factories or the holes of oblivion are no longer human in the eyes of

their executioners, so this newest 5pecies of criminals is beyond the pale even

of

solidarity in human sinfulness.

It is inherent in our entire philosophical tradition that we cannot conceive

of a radical evil, and this

is

true both for Christian theology, which con

ceded even to the Devil himself a celestial origin, as weIl as for Kant, the

only philosopher who, in the word

radical Böse}

he coined for

it

at least

roust have sU5pected the existence of this evil even though he immediately

9l

TOTALITARIANISM



rationalized it in the coneept of a perverted ill will that eould be explained

by comprehensible motives. Therefore, we actually have nothing to

fall

back

on in order to u ~ l d e r s t n d a phenomenon that nevertheless eonfronts us with

its overpowering reality and breaks down

all

standards we know. There is

only one thing that seems to be discernible: we may say that radical eviJ has

emerged in connection with a system

in

which all men have become equally

superfluDus. The manipulators of this system believe in their own superflu_

ousness

as

much as

in

that

of

all others, and the totalitarian murderers are all

the more dangerous because they do not care if they themselves are alive Or

dead, if they ever lived or never were born. The danger of thc corpse facto_

ries and holes of oblivion is that today, with populations and homelessness

everywhere on the increase, masses

of

people are continuously rendered

superfluous if we continue to think of our world in utilitarian

t e i ~ s

Politi

cal, sodal, and economic events everywhere are in a silent conspiracy with

totalitarian instruments devised for making men superfluous. The implied

ternptation is weIl understood by the utilitarian common sense of the masses

who in most countries are tao desperate to retain much fear

of

death. The

Nazis and the Bolsheviks can be sure that their factories of annihilation

which demonstrate the swiftest solution to the problem of overpopulation,of

economically superfluous and sodally rootless human masses, are

as

much

of

an attraction as a warning. Totalitarian solutions may weIl sUl Vive the

fall of totalitarian regimes in the form of strong tcmptations which will come

up whenever it seems impossible to alleviate political, sodal, or economic

misery in a manner worthy of man.

4

IDEOLOGY AND TERROR:

A

NOVEL FORM OF GOVERNMENT

In the preceding chapters we emphasized repeatedly that thc means of total

domination are not only more drastic but that totalitarianism differs essen

tially from other farms of political oppression known to us such as despot

ism, tyranny, and dictatorship. Wherever it rose to power,

it

developed

entirely new political institutions and destroyed all sodal, legal, and political

traditions of the country. No matter what the specifically national tradition

or the particular spiritual source of its ideology, totalitarian government

always t r a n s f o r m ~ d classes into masses, supplanted the party system, not by

one-party dictatorships, but by a mass movement, shifted the center of

power from the army to the police, and established a foreign poliey openly

directed toward world domination. Present totalitarian governments have

developed from one-party systems; whenever these became truly totali

tarian, they started to operate according to a system of values

so

radically

different from all others that none

of

our traditionallegal, moral, or com

mon sense utilitarian categories could any longer help us to come to terms

with, or judge, or predict their course of action.

If it is true that the elements

of

totalitarianism can be found

by

retracing

the history and analyzing the political implications of what we usually call

the crisis

of our century, then the conclusion is unavoidable that this crisis is

no mere threat from the outside, no mere result of some aggressive foreign

policy

of

either Germany

or

Russia, and that it would no· more disappear

with the death

of

Stalin than it disappeared w ith the fall

of

Nazi Germany.1t

may even be that the trae predicaments of our time

will

assume their authen

tie

form-though not necessarily the cruelest-only when totalitarianism

has become a thing

of

the past.

t

is in the line of such reflections to raise the question whether totalitarian

arendt the origins of totalitarianism

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