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Arabic (Islamic) Vocabulary

‘abd—slave; servant, one who serves, as in ‘Abdallah, servant of God.

‘Abdallah—servant of God; acknowledging God as Creator, Guide, and Judge.

Abbasid—Dynasty of caliphal rulers of the Muslim world; capital Baghdad (790-1258 CE)

Adhan—call to prayer uttered by the mu’adhdhin

‘Adl—Social justice (Q 4:58)

Ahadith (sing., hadith)—news, reports. Documented traditions of the teachings and actions of the Prophet Muhamma, which were not in the Quran but which were recorded for posterity by his close companions and the members of his family.

Ahl al-Bayt [beit]—People of the Household; household of the Prophet; immediate family of the Prophet Muhammad; those Muslilms loyal to Muhammad’s immediate family, specifically Ali, his wife Fatimah, and their two sons Hasan and Husayn; Shi’ites, defining themselves apart from, and over against, dominant Sunni Muslems (Q 33:33).

Ahl al-hadith—hadith people; a school of thought which first appeared during the Ummayad period, which would not permit jurists to use ijtihad (independent reasoning), but insisted that all legislation be basd upon valid ahadith

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Ahl al-Kitab—People of the Book; members of prior scriptural religions who have legal standing in Islamic religious law but at a secondary status; Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians and others who have a book that was revealed by God before the final book, the Qur’an (Q 3:65). Since the Prophet and most of the early Muslims were illiterate, and had very few—if any—books, it has been suggested that this term should more accurately be translated “followers of an earlier revelation”; those who acknowledge God as creator, guide and judge of humankind

Ahmadiyya—A movement following the religious reformer Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Qadian (d. 1908) who are considered apostates by many Muslims because they ascribe to him prophetic status.

Akbar—Greater, one of God’s traits as in Allahu akhbar.

Akikah—ceremony at home or at the mosque to welcome the birth of newborn child.

Al-huruf al-muqatta’ah—the mysterious separated letters that appear at the beginning of 29 surahs.

Al-insan al-kimil—Universal or Perfect Man

Al-jafr (Hebrew: kabbalah; gematria)--traditional esoteric Islamic science based upon the mathematical symbolism of the letters of the Arabic alphabet.

Allahu akhbar—God is greater (there is none greater than He; a phrase that reminds Muslims of the transcendence and supremacy of God.

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Allah—God; the first and foremost of the ninety-nine Divine Names.

Alam al-mithal—the world of pure images; a realm of the human psyche which is the source of the visionary experience of Muslim mystics and the seat of the creative imagination.

Alim (p. ulama)—One learned in religious knowledge (‘ilm); the guardians of the legal and religious traditions of Islam.

Al-Isra Wal Miraj—the Night Journey and the Ascension, observed on the 27th day of Rajah, the 7th month of the Islamic calendar. It commemorates the night when Muhammad is believed to have made a miraculous journey from Mecca to the Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, where he then traveled to the heavens where God commanded him to initiate prayers five times each day.

Al-Khid’r—the mysterious guide of Moses in the Surah of the Cave

Al-Rahim—The Merciful; one of the names of God.

Al-Rahman—The Compassionate; one of the names of God.

Amir--commander

Ansar—The Helpers, namely the Medinan residents who joined with Muhammad and his Meccan followers in establishing the umma (Q 9:100); gave the first Muslims a home when they were forced to leave Mecca in 622, and assisted them in the project of establishing the first Muslim community.

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‘Aqida—A credal statement of belief

Ashab al-nuzul—the occasion of revelation of the Qur’an. These are historical events associated with specific sections of qur’anic revelation.

‘Ashura—the tenth of themonth of Muharram, most likely corresponding with the 10th of the Jewish month of Tishri and Yom Kippur. Once mandatory, it became a voluntary fast day. The day is especially sacred to the Shi’a because Imam Husayn was martyred on that day at Karbala’.

‘asibiyyah—tribal solidarity

Asma ullahi ‘l-husna (Al-Asma; al-Husna)—The Most Beautiful Names of God, considered to number 99 in the canonical list but up to 300 for others; the Divine Names (Q 7:180).

As-salamu ‘alaykum—The Peace (salam) of God be upon you; the most frequent and important Muslim greeting.

‘Awra [Hebrew: ‘ervah]—literally genitals; the portions of the body that should be covered (from navel to knees for males, and all but the face, hands, and feet according to the strictest interpretation for females).

Aws (or Banu Aws)—a major clan living in Yathrib/Medina when Muhammad emigrated there in 622. The Aws were engaged in a blood feud with a neighboring clan, the Khazraj.

Ayah (pl. ayat)—sign, parable, symbol [Hebrew: ot], of God (a sign pointing to God); a verse of the Qur’an (Q 16:101).

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Ayat Allah (Ayatolla)—literally, sign of God, but in Twelver Shi’ism, the title of a very high position in the religious hierarchy of scholars.

Al-Azhar—located in Cairo, the most prestigious center of Sunni learning in Islam and one of the oldest surviving universities in the world.

Badawah—nomadic; hence Bedouin,

Badr—the location of the first great battle and success of the early Muslims against their Meccan enemy in 624 CE (Q 3:123)

Banat Allah—daughters of Allah; refers to three pre-Islamic goddesses Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat

Baraka [Hebrew: Berachah]—blessing; spiritual power; benefit; grace; conferred by God on the believer (Q 7:96)

Barzakh—a term conveying the passage from the physical world to the spiritual realm after death.

Basmalah (bismala)--technical name for the invocation: bismillah (or bismillahi) ar-rahman ar-rahim, In the Name of God, Full of Compassion, Ever Compassionate.

Batin—the hidden dimension of existence and of scripture, which cannot be perceived by the senses or by rational thought, but which is discerned in the contemplative, intuitive disciplines of mysticism.

Bid’a—innovation; deviation from Islamic tradition that is often understood as heresy in Islamic law and doctrine (Q 46:9)

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Bilqi’s—the Queen of Sheba

Caliph (Khalifa)

Chador—Persian for a long, traditional garment covering most of a woman’s skin and figure.

Dahr—time, fate

Dar-al-Harb—the Abode of War; territories not under Islamic control; the world beyond the boundaries of the recognized Muslim world.

Dar al-Islam—the House (Abode) of Islam; lands under Muslim rule; territories under Muslim political control; the recognized Muslim world.

Dar as-salam--the abode of peace; equivalent of dar al-Islam.

Da’wa—call to Islam, proselytizing of Muslims; prayer; calling out to God (Q 13:14, 30:25)

Dhikr (zikr)—reminder, remembrance of God, especially by means of chanting the Names of God as a mantra to induce alternative states of consciousness; mentioning to, or remembering God; the distinctive Sufi form of meditative spiritual practice or devotion(Q 13:28)

Dhimmi—a protected subject in the Islamic empire who belonged to the religions tolerated by the Quran; a person whose status is defined by the dhimmi (protection, obligation), meaning a member of the “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitab) who has legal status in Islam protected by the state, but at a

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lower status from Muslims, including Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs. Dhimmis were allowed full religious liberty and were able to organize their community according to their own customal law, but were required to recognize Islamic sovereignty and pay a poll tax in return for military protection called a jizyah (Q 9:10).

Din—religion; way of life; moral law; reckoning; the last and perfect religion given to the last Prophet of God for humankind, namely Islam; any religion that addresses the Divine (Q 109:6).

Du’a—invocation calling upon God in prayer; spontaneous or unofficial prayer, not part of and to be distinguished from the formal prayer service (five daily prayers) called salat (Q 3:38).

Dunya—the material world; (excessive) concern with material, worldly goods.

Faqih (pl. fuqaha)—a jurist; an expert in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence, or law).

Fard—obligatory duty, as in the five daily prayers (Q 33:38).

Fatah—opening; victory

Al-Fatiha (Hebrew: Petichah)—the opening; the first chapter of the Qur’an that is also used as a prayer in many contexts.

Fatimid—great caliphal dynasty that ruled much of the Muslim world from its capital in Fostat (Cairo) (910-1171 CE).

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Fatwah (pl. fatawa)—(Jewish parallel: pesak din); a formal legal opinion or decision of an Islamic authority or religious scholar (a jurisconsult called a mufti) on a matter of Islamic law.

Fiqh—understanding of the law; Islamic jurisprudence; the study and application of the body of sacred Muslim law; knowledge acquired by studying the book of revelation and the book of nature; Islamic schools of jurisprudence.

Fitnah—temptation, trial; specifically the term is used to describe the civil wars that rent the Muslim community apart during the time of the rashidun, and the early Umayyad period.

Furqan—Criterion or proof (related to Hebrew-Aramaic Purqan; a name for the Qur’an (Q 2:53, 3:4).

Futuwwah—a corporate group of young urban men, formed after the twelfth century, with special ceremonies of initiation, rituals and sworn support to a leader that were strongly influenced by Sufi ideals and practices.

Gharaniq—the three goddesses Al-Lat, Al-Uzza, and Manat, Daughters of Allah, who were compared to beautiful cranes (gharaniq).

Ghazi—warrior, raider, man of war.

Ghazu—acquisition raid, essential to the Bedouin economy.

Ghusl—a full ritual bath that removes major ritual impurity (hadath) (Q 5:6).

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Hadarah—settled life (as opposed to badawah—nomadic, Bedouin life).

Hadath—pollution or ritual impurity, divided into two types: minor (ashar) and major (akbar), each of which is removed through a different act of purification.

Hadith (pl. Ahadith)—news; report; event; maxim or saying; documented tradition containing the statements, teachings and actions (sayings and deeds) made by Prophet Muhammad which were not in the Koran; eyewitness accounts of his actions as well as his endorsement and approval of other people’s actions, transmitted or recorded by his Companions or members of Muhammad’s family for posterity; paragraph of information communicating the sunna of the Prophet Muhammad; refers to the genre of traditional literature containing these reports; they collectively define his Sunnah, or exemplary conduct.

Hajj (Hebrew: chag)—pilgrimage to Mecca; the canonical pilgrimage incumbent on Muslims once in a lifetime, to visit Mecca and its surrounding places for five days during the last month of the hijri calendar (Dhu al-Hijja) and to perform specific acts of worship there. Pilgrimage at other times is called ‘Umra. A male pilgrim is called hajj or hajji. A female pilgrim is called a hajja. These are terms of honor (Q 16:116).

Hakam (Hebrew: chacham)—arbitrator; Muhammad’s political role in Medina.

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Halal (Hebrew: kosher/mutar)—permissible; lawful; what is permitted by divine decree, regarding food or actions.

Hanif (pl. hunafa’)—originally a pre-Islamic monotheist; a person who follows the hanifiyyah, the pure religion of Abraham, before the split into rival sexts; qur’anic term referring to a pure or generic monotheist such as Ibrahim=Abraham (Q 3:67), who is said to be neither Jew nor Christian, but hanif; quranic term for individuals devoted to the worship of one God and who are seen as models of piety.

Hamas—zeal; fanaticism; acronym for the Islamic Resistance Movement (Al-harika al-muqawama al-islamiya).

Haram (Hebrew: assur)—sacred; impermissible; what is forbidden by divine decree; sanctuary; forbidden; sacred area such as Mecca, Medina, or Jerusalem (Temple Mount); especially the sanctuary surrounding the Kabah where all violence was prohibited (Q 29:67).

Hasab—ancestral honor; the particular virtues of a tribe that tribesmen had inherited from their forefathers.

Hijab—curtain, veil, covering; partition; barrier; in post-qur’anic literature often refers to the covering of a woman’s hair and sometimes also the cheeks and neck; a covering for something precious or sacred.

Hijaz—barrier; referring to the western Red Sea coastline of the Arabian Peninsula extending into the interior to an uplifted

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ridge running parallel to the coast; the region in which is found the holy cities of Mecca and Median.

Hijrah (hijra) (Hebrew: Hagirah)—migration; emigration of the first Muslim community; the date of Muhammad’s and his Companions’separation or flight from his city of birth, Mecca, and his relocation in Yathrib (Medina); the benchmark for the Muslim lunar calendar (hijri) comparable in the Western calendar as July, 622 CE.

Hilal—the crescent moon marking the beginning of months in the Islamic calendar; a symbol of Islam (Q 2:189).

Hilm—a traditional Arab virtue which became central to Islam: forbearance, patience, mercy, tranquility.

Hizbullah—the Party of God.

Hudud (sing. Hadd)—limits; traditionally derived penalties or punishments for theft, adultery, fornication, bearing false witness, etc. (Q 2:229).

‘Ibada (Hebrew: ‘avodah)—worship (Q 18:110).

Iblis—devil.

‘Id (Hebrew: ‘ed)—festival; the two canonical Islamic festivals are ‘id al-adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, associated with the Hajj, and ‘id al-fitr, the Feast of Breaking the Ramadan Fast (Q 5:114).

‘Id al-adha—the Fast of Sacrifice, occurs 2 to 3 months after Ramadan and commemorates Abraham’s obedience to God

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when God told him to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and Isaac’s submission to the sacrifice. The holiday is marked by slaughtering animals to feed the poor.

‘Id al-fitr—the Feast of the Breaking of the Fast, celebrated at the end of Ramadan to mark the completion of the fasting. It lasts for 3 days, during which family members gather to feast and exchange presents. Special alms for the poor, zakat al-fitr, are required by Islamic law.

Ihram—special clothing for Hajj; special state of ritual purity signaled by wearing special clothing when engaging in the Hajj.

Ihsa—the Quranic science dealing with the enumeration of its verses.

Ihsan—a desired perfection to comply fully with divine commands; the state of mind of one who strives to be in full compliance with these commands.

I’jaz al-Qur’an—miraculous nature of the Qur’an; inimitability of the Qur’an; refers to the notion of inerrancy of the Qur’an. Hence the hesitancy of calling any translation from the original Arabic the Qur’an, or even translating for purposes of non-Arabic speaking Muslims’ understanding (which are considered when they exist, scriptural aids or paraphrases).

Ijimah—the consensus of the Muslim community that gives legitimacy to a legal decision.

Ijtihad—independent legal reasoning, engaged in by a person called a mujtahid, a jurist to apply the Shariah to contemporary

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circumstances. During the fourteenth century Sunni Muslims declared that the gates of ijtihad were closed, and that scholars must rely on the legal decisions of past authorities instead of upon their own reasoned insights.

‘Illiyyin—Paradise.

‘Ilm (pl. ‘ulum)—knowledge of what is right and how a Muslim should behave; specifically knowledge of God that is collected and systematized; science (Q 7:52).

Imam—leader of the Muslim community, as in one who leads the canonical five daily prayers, and delivers a sermon at the noon service on Friday (Q 2:124). The term is used by the Shi’a to refer to the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and her husband ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, who have been invested with divine guidance, whom the Shi’a consider to be the true rulers of the Muslim community; the one designated to lead the Muslim community for his generation (among Shi’ites); an imam may also be a simple religious leader.

Imami (Hebrew: emunah)—faith (Q 3:193); one who has faith is a mu’min (Hebrew: ma’amin) (Q 16:97).

Iman—belief in God as creator, guide and judge of humankind; belief in God and in Muhammad as His last Prophet.

Lote tree—boundary of human knowledge

Irfan—the Muslim mystical tradition.

Irtidad (see ridda)—apostasy.

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Islam (Hebrew: hashlamah)—surrender to the will of God; submission; the name eventually applied to the religion of the Qur’an; the last religion of God delivered to the last Prophet through the revelation of the Qur’an (Q 3:19).

Ismallyyya—a major branch of the Shi’a Islam It emerged as a group following the death of Imam Jafar al-Sadiq in 765 CE. It takes its name from the 6th imam, Isma’il, Jafar’s son. They achieved prominence during the tenth century with the establishment of the Fatimid Ismaili dynasty, base in North Africa and Egypt, which ruled for two centuries. Following the break-up of the Fatimid dynasty, the Ismailis became divided again over succession. This led to two further branches, the Nizari and Mustali Ismailis (Mustaliyya). The Nizari Ismailis at present give allegiance to the Aga Khan as their spiritual leader and imam. The Mustali Ismailis were based in Yemen for a time and eventually moved their centre to India. Their imam is believed to be in a state of concealment (Satr). Ismailism has developed over time a tradition of intellectual and esoteric interpretation of faith and its role in personal and public life. Often because of this emphasis, its views have been regarded as unorthodox and have been criticized by more traditionally minded scholars.

Isnad—the list of people who passed a hadith down through the generations. The more reliable the isnad, the more authentic the hadith.

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‘Isra—the miraculous night journey of Muhammad in which he is said to have flown from Mecca to Jerusalem on a Pegasus (horse with wings) and then ascended to heaven from the rock now covered by the Dome of the Rock on the Haram (Temple Mount) and back again to Mecca (Q 17:1.

Istighna’—Time of Ignorance; applied to the pre-Islamic period in Arabia; haughty self-reliance, aggressive independence; self-sufficiency.

Ithna Ashariyya—the branch of Shiism that follows the line of twelve imams regarding them as the rightful successors of the Prophet and the first imam, Ali ibn Abi Talib. It is also known as Twelver Imami Shiism. In 874 CE the Ithna Asharis believe the twelfth imam Muhammad al-Mahdi disappeared, and will return at the end of time as the divinely guided leader (Mahdi). After this event, known as Ghayba (occultation),the community continued to be guided by representative scholars, who acted as deputies. The Twelver Shia interpretation of Islam emphasizes foundational beliefs known as usul al-din, the fundamentals of faith, and furu al-din, religious practices. The role of the intellect becomes significant in the interpretation of the faith and enables the scholars and jurists of the tradition to provide guidance for individuals in matters of practice. The devotional spirit of Ithna Ashari Shiism towards the imams and their families is expressed by visiting their shrines, which are found in cities in Iraq and Iran such as Karbala, Najaf, Mashhad, Samarra and Kazimayn. Another important tradition is the

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commemoration of the martyrdom of Imam Husay;n ibn Ali during the first ten days of the month of Muharram.

Jahannum—a qur’anic term for hell (Q 3:12, 4:93), paralleling a common English term gehenna, which derives from the Hebrew, geh hinom (Joshua 15:8, 2 Chronicles 28:3).

Jahillyya (adj. jahili)—Age or Time of Ignorance; the period in Arabia before the revelation of the Qur’an; pre-Islamic Arabia; primary meaning in Muslim sources is violent and explosive irascibility, arrogance, tribal chauvinism (Q 5:50, 48:26). It indicates the absence of faith in God and a society deprived of divine revelation and guidance, bound by its tribal worldview. Today Muslim fundamentalists often apply it to any society, even a nominally Muslim society, which has, in their view, turned its back upon God and refused to submit to God’s sovereignty.

Jahim—an obscure word, usually translated as raging fire; Hell.

Jami—Friday Mosque; main mosque for the Friday congregational prayers.

Janaza—funeral bier; funeral service.

Al-Janna (Hebrew: gan/ginnah)—the Garden; a qur’anic term for Paradise, the hereafter for the righteous (Q 2:35, 7:42).

Jihad—struggle; effort; endeavor; striving; especially in terms of engaging in the righteous path; struggle for the collective good or public welfare of the ummah; the primary meaning of the term as used in the Qur’an refers to an internal effort to reform

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bad habits in the Islamic community or within the individual Muslim; as armed warfare or political struggle it is sometimes defined as Holy War; divinely authorized war in the service of religion (Q: 2:218, 25:45-52, 60:1).

Jilbab—a garment; cloak; covering.

Jinn (sing. jinni)—genies; unseen beings; usually one of the sprites who haunted the Arabian desert, inspired poets, and led people astray; a type of creature created by God from fire that is invisible, powerful and often, though not always, evil or mischievous; ambivalent spirits that inhabit an intermediate world between the known or material world and the unknown or spiritual world; the counterpart of the English genie; also a stranger, a person hitherto unseen (Q 55:14-15).

Jizyah—the poll tax, which the dhimmis were required to pay in return for military protection.

Jumma—the noon prayer, lasting 30 to 60 minutes. On Friday it is congregational and is recited in a central mosque designated for that purpose.

Juz (pl. ajza’)—thirtieth part of the Koran, one often read each day during Ramadan so as to allow the participant to read the whole Koran during the holy month.

Ka’bah—cube; the granite cube-shaped shrine dedicated by Muhammad to Allah in the Haram, the Mosque in the holy city of Mecca that contains a black stone and is the focus of

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pilgrimage for Muslims; considered the most sacred place in the Islamic world.

Kafir (pl. kafirun) (Hebrew: kofer)—infidel; ingrate; unbeliever; more accurately refers to somebody who ungratefully and aggressively rejects Allah and refuses to acknowledge his dependence on the Creator (Q 50:2).

Kahin (Hebrew: Kohen)—soothsayer; diviner in pre-Islamic Arabia (Q 52:29).

Kalam—speech; discourse; a discussion, based on Islamic assumptions, of theological questions; theological reflection leading to the study and discussion of faith aimed at expressing the content matter of the faith in a coherent and rational manner; ‘ilm al-kalam, the knowledge of Discourse, dialectical or systematic theology, the term is often used to describe the tradition of Muslim scholastic theology; over time kalam became a discipline taught at institutions of learning.

Karim—Generous hero; the bedouin ideal

Khanqah—a building where such Sufi activities as dhikr take place; where Sufi masters live and instruct their disciples.

Khalifa—caliph; deputy; the successor of Muhammad; later, the title of the leader of the dynastic Muslim empires (Q38:26).

Khariji (pl. khawarij)—Kharijites, those who left; a strict and radical sect in early Islamic history. Early Muslim group that chose to leave the Muslim community. This was done because they disagreed on doctrinal grounds with the new caliph, Ali ibn

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Abi Talib, over how to resolve the crisis generated by Muawiyya’s attempt to seize authority over the Muslim community. They expressed their opposition through militant means while developing their own framework of theological and political interpretation. Though the major group passed out of existence, a small sub-group called the Ibadi (Ibadiyya) still survives, found mainly in Oman, Zanzibar and parts of Algeria. The present ruling family in Oman is believed to be ruled by an imam elected according to the tradition, after consultation among leading scholars.

Khatam al-anbiya—seal of the prophets; a qur’anic reference to Muhammad (Q 33:40), who was the last of God’s prophets according to Islam.

Khaybar—the Jewish town in Arabia that was captured by Muhammad in 628 CE.

Khatib—preacher of Friday congregational prayer sermon.

Khazraj—clan with blood feud against the Banu Aws in Yathrib/Medina at the time of Muhammad’s arrival.

Khitan--circumcision

Khutha—sermon preached in the weekly Friday congregational prayers by the preacher who is called khatib.

Kiswa—richly brocaded cloth covering the Ka’ba.

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Kitab—Scripture; the Book; the Meta-Book of all Divine Revelation (umm al-kitab); the Qur’an as the final form of that Book and therefore the most authoritative (Q 2:2, 10:1).

Kufr—ingratitude; insolence.

Kunya—honorary title assumed by a man after the birth of his first son (e.g. Abu Bakr, the father of Bakr).

Layla—night; a woman’s name.

Layla ul-qadr—Night of destiny (or, power); the night when Muhammad received the first revelation from God. It is celebrated for the last 10 days of Ramadan, as its exact time historically is not known.

Madhhab (pl. madhahib)—chosen way; school of law, usually referring to one of the four legitimate, surviving schools of jursiprudence: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’I, and Hanbali.

Madrasah (pl. madrasis)(Hebrew: beit midrash)—religious school; a college of Muslim higher education, where ulama study such disciplines as fiqh or kalam.

Mahdi—guide; messianic figure who will appear at the end of days and usher in a new order; particularly important among the Shi’a.

Mahr (Hebrew: mohar)—wealth, usually in the form of gold jewelry, that the groom is required to give to his wife by the time of marriage.

Ma’rifa—mystical knowledge or understanding.

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Masjid—a place for prostration; later, mosque.

Al-Masjid al-Aqsa—the Distant Mosque, referring to the third most sacred mosque in Islam in Jerusalem (Q 7:29).

Al-Masjid al-Haram—the Sacred (or holy) Mosque, referring to the primary mosque of Islam in Mecca (Q 2:149-150).

Maslahah—the public welfare of the community; the public interest; the common good.

Matn—the actual text or content of a hadith that follows the isnad (the list of people who passed it down through the generations).

Mawali (sing. Mawla)—clients; the name given to the early non-Arab converts to Islam, who had become nominal clients of one of the tribes when they became Muslims; the term describes both the adopted and the adopting member of an Arab tribe; a non-Arab convert to Islam in early Islamic history; patron; master (Q 47:121).

Mawlana—title or term of endearment applied to some religious masters such as Mawlana Jalal al-Din al-Rumi.

Mawlid—birthday, especially of a saintly person, with special festivities.

Mawlid al-Nabi—Birthday Festival of the Prophet.

Mih’nah—inquisition; persecution of those not willing to believe that the Qur’an was created (833-847 CE/28-232 AH)

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during the Caliphate of al-Mamun (d.833 CE/AH 218) who supported the Mut’tazilite theory that the Qur’an was created.

Mihrab—niche; usually decorated recess in the wall of a mosque indicating the direction of prayer toward Mecca. It is often decorated with Arabic calligraphy. Its curved shape helps reflect the voice of the imam, the prayer leader, back toward the congregation (Q 38:21).

Minbar—the raised pulpit in a mosque from which the sermon (khutba) is given.

Al-Mi’raj—ascension; the ascent of the Prophet Muhammad on his Night Journey (al-isra) from the rock in Jerusalem to heaven and to the Lote Tree of the Limit in 619 CE, after his journey from Mecca.

Mirbad—a place for drying dates.

Misbaha (see subha)—prayer beads

Muazzin (muezzin)—one calls the faithful to prayer.

Mu’adhdhin—muezzin the one who calls the community to prayer. He calls the Adhan and the Iqamah. The Adhan is aired on the public address system (loudspeakers) alerting people to the time of prayer; the Iqamah alerts mosque worshippers that congregational prayer is about to begin.

Mubeen—clear; the Koran claims for itself that it is Mubeen, clear, meaning understandable or at least comprehensible.

Mufti—Juriconsult who gives a learned opinion called fatwa.

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Muhajirun (sing. muhajir)—immigrants; especially those who followed Muhammad from Mecca to Medina on the Hijra in 522 (Q 9:100)

Muhammad—the Last Prophet of God, directed to deliver the Final Book (itself a portion of the Meta-Book or umm al-kitab) in Arabic to Arabs, but with a message encompassing all humankind and all eras of history.

Muhrim—one who is in the state of ritual purity called ihram.

Mujtahid—a person who engages in independent legal reasoning called ijtihad; a jurist who has earned the right to exercise ijtihad, usually in the Shii world.

Mulla—Persian form of the Arabic word, mawla, meaning master of religious sciences; a religious authority

Mu’min (Hebrew: ma’amin)—the believer; one who has faith (iman); one who professes belief in God, the Prophets and Judgement Day; a member of the ahl al-kitab; those who faithfully live up to the Muslim ideal (Q 16:97).

Munafiq (pl. munafiqun)—waverer; hypocrite; the term applied to an uncommitted Muslim who followed Ibn Ubbay (‘Abdullah ibn Ubayy was a chief of the Khazraj clan in Medina, who led the opposition to Muhammad).

Murtadd—apostate.

Muruwah—the chivalric code of the Bedouin, comprising loyalty to the tribe, courage, bravery in battle, reticence in

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misfortune, persistence in revenge, endurance, generosity, hospitality to the guest, protection of the weak, defiance toward the strong, fidelity in keeping promises and reverence for the tribal ancestors.

Musallah—large prayer room in a mosque.

Mushaf (pl. masahif)—Codex; volume; especially of the Qur’an.

Mushrik—one engages in shirk (association of anything with God; idolatry) (Q 2:221).

Muslim—a person who has surrendered his or her entire being to God; one who has made the act of islam; member of the ummah, or worldwide community of Muslims; an adherent of the religion of Islam (Q 2:127-128).

Mutakallim (p. mutakallimun)—one who practices systematic philosophy (kalam); a Sunni theologian.

Mu’tazilla—the rationalist school of Islamic philosophy; school of Muslim thought that flourished in the ninth century at the court of the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun. Applying rationalist methods of discourse derived from Greek philosophy to questions of Muslim doctrine and Quranic interpretation, the Mutazila argued for the idea of the absolute unity of God, the justice of God, the temporality of creation, free will, and the createdness of the Qur’an. Al-Mamun supported their views and sought to impose them on other scholars. His policy was resisted and failed in its purpose, being reversed by his successor. The Mutazila produced some outstanding scholars,

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whose intellectual influence continued long after the movement’s demise.

Muwahhid (pl. Muwahhidun)—Almohad Unitarian, meaning one who believes in divine unity (tawhid); a member of the 12th century fundamentalist North African movement called al-muwahhida (Almohad in Western texts) that conquered Spain from more liberal Muslims and imposed draconian rules on Muslims and non-Muslims alike.

Nabi (Hebrew: navi)—a prophet; one whose prophethood consists of receiving a direct message from God Almighty directed to the people with whom the prophet identifies, most often as a warner of impending calamities or reminder of duties neglected.

Nadhir—a messenger who brings a warning to his people.

Najasa—polluting matter that can rend a person ritually impure (such as wine, urine, blood, and the saliva and other fluids of pigs and dogs).

Najran—a city near the border of today’s Saudi Arabia and Yemen; home to a well-established Christian community at the time of Muhammed.

Najs—impure; unclean (Q 9:28).

Al-Nar (Hebrew: ner)—the Fire of hell; a qur’anic term for hell (Q 2;24).

Nasr—help, including military support.

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Nikah—marriage (Q 24:60).

Niqab—veil that covers the entire face.

Niyya (Hebrew: kavvanah)--intention, especially as spiritual preparation for a ritual act. Without proper formal niyya, the ritual is considered invalid.

Noble Qur’an—the name by which the Qur’an is best known, reflecting both its message and source, since one of the Divine Names—as also one of the traits of the Prophet Muhammad—is noble.

Al-nur al-Muhammad—the light of Muhammad, believed by the Shi’a to be a special essence of prophecy that is passed down to those descendants of Muhammad through the line of ‘Ali to the Shi’I imams.

People of the Book—ahl al-kitab; dhimmi

Pir (Persian) (Arabic: Shaykh)—a Sufi master; a spiritual guide to disciples along the Sufi mystical path.

Al-qada ‘wal-qadar—the divine decree and predestination.

Qadi—a religious judge appointed by the ruler who administers the Shariah and whose judgments are binding.

Qari (Hebrew: qore’)—reciter of Qur’an; one who knows the complex rules of Qur’an recitation and who has memorized the text of the Qur’an; may be male or female (Q 96:1-3).

Qiblah—the direction or orientation which the prayer leader and other Muslims face during ritual prayer or salat. In the very

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early days the qiblah was Jerusalem; later Muhammad changed it to Mecca (Q 2:144-145). In the USA Muslims face northeast toward Mecca.

Qiyas—legal hermeneutic parallel to that of the Jewish heqesh by which legal decisions and arguments are made on the basis of analogy.

Qubba—a domed structure, typically over the burial site of a holy person. The Arabic name for the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is qubbat al-sakhra.

Qur’an—recitation; the scripture that was revealed to Muhammad by God; the final revelation of God to humankind, given to the last Prophet, Muhammad ibn ‘Abdallah, as the complete message encompassing and perfecting the Books given to earlier prophets, including Moses and Jesus; i.e. the 114 Chapters (Surahs) that comprise the Book known as the Noble Qur’an and also as A Book of Signs (Q 12:3).

Quraysh—the ruling tribe in Mecca at the time of Muhammad (Q 106:1).

Rahim—the One ever compassionate.

Rahman—the One full of compassion.

Rak’ah—prostrations (beginning with the declaration “God is most great”); the prayer cycle of postures that includes one standing, one bowing, two kneeling and prostrating motions separated by a sitting back on the heels, and the recitation of fixed prayers. At the end of the prayer, the taslim, or peace

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greeting is repeated twice: “Peace be upon all of you and the mercy and the blessings of God.”

Ramadan—the ninth month of the Islamic calendar when Muslims abstain from food, drink, smoking and sexual activity from sunrise to sunset. Ramadan is a time for reflection and spiritual discipline, to express gratitude for God’s guidance and to atone for past sins. It is recommended that each Muslim read the entire Qur’an during this month (one juz, or thirtieth part, each day).

Rashidun—the four rightly guided caliphs. The first four caliphs were the companions and the immediate successors of the Prophet Muhammad: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Rasul—a messenger or prophet whose divine message comes from God Almighty in the form of a scripture to be heard, then recorded for future repetition, as a perpetual guide to correct conduct in this world, and preparation for Judgement in the next, to a specific people (Q 14:4); almost synonymous with nabi (prophet); also, first four caliphs.

Ra’y—opinion; the personal opinion or deduction of a legal decider or Qur’an interpreter.

Riba (Hebrew: ribit)—interest; any gain from lending goods or money (Q 3:130, 30:39).

Ridda—apostasy; especially in relation to Islam; also called irtadd.

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Ruh—spirit; in the Qur’an, the divine spirit of revelation.

Sadaqa (Hebrew: tzedakah)—charity, given freely and at any time. Sadaqa is not the same as zakat, which as required giving, is more closely associated with the Jewish practice of tzedakah (which is a mitzvah, a commandment).

Sahih—sound, especially in reference to hadith; the name of certain authoritative collections of Hadith such as sahih bukari, the sound hadith(s) of Al-Bukhari.

Sajda. Sujud—prostrations. One of the most central acts in the cycle of motions the Muslim worshiper engages in formal prayer (salat) (Q 2:125).

Sakinah (Hebrew: shekhina)—special divinely sent tranquility that may descend on God’s servants; the spirit of peace and serenity (Q 48:4).

Salaf—pious ancestors; early Muslim community.

Salafiyya—puritanical form of revivalist Islam based on assumptions of how the generation of Muhammad and his followers lived out their religious lives.

Salam—peace; specifically, the peace conferred by God on those who accept Him, worship Him, and obey Him as creator, guide, and judge, both of humankind and of all sentient as well as non-sentient beings; often used by Muslims as a greeting.

Salat—formal prayer; the daily act of worship; the ritual worship performed five times by Muslims addressed to God at

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specific times: daybreak (with 2 rak’ah, noon (jumma with 4 raka’ah), mid-afternoon, sunset (with 3 raka’ah) and evening either in a mosque or wherever an individual may be. The prayers take 5-10 minutes (Q 2:43-45).

Salihat—the works of justice prescribed by the Qur’an.

Saraya—a wife with slave status, but whose children are free.

Sawm, Siyam (Hebrew: tzom)—fasting (Q 2:183-185).

Sa’y—a ritual during the Hajj that is said to commemorate the running of Hagar between two points near Meca in search of water for her child Isma’il.

Sayyid—chief of a clan or tribe.

Shahada/Shahadatayn—the witness; affirmation, the Muslim declaration of faith: “I bear witness (or proclaim) that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his (last) prophet (his greatest servant, his complete messenger)”; a formal statement that bears witness to God’s unity and Muhammad’s prophethood. Making this statement with true intent before proper witnesses is the first formal and necessary step to conversion to Islam, becoming Muslim, and being a member of the ummah.

Shahid (pl. Shuhada)—witness; martyr; one killed in battle; one who witnesses the truth of Islam by becoming a martyr, dying while fighting for the common good (maslahah) of the Muslim community (ummah) (Q 4:41,69).

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Shari’ah (Hebrew: halakhah)—the Path or way to the watering hole; the lifeline of a nomadic tribe; the collective name for Islamic code of law; applied to the body of Muslim law, the body of Islamic sacred law derived from the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the ahadith; a Muslim guide to correct and good living that encompasses religious and liturgical but also ethical, juridical and daily activities (Q 12:78).

Shaytan (Hebrew: Satan)—Satan; a tempter who could be a human being or one of the jinn, who leads people astray and inspires facile, empty desires (Q 4:60, 5:90).

Sh’a—party; faction.

Shi’at ‘Ali—the party supporting Ali. Those who believed Muhammad had chosen ‘Ali to become his successor (khalifa) after his death.

Shii Muslims (Shi’ites)—they belong to the Shiah i-Ali, the Partisans of Ali; they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s closest male relative, should have ruled in place of the Rashidun, and revere a number of imams who are the direct male descendants of Ali and his wife Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter. They believe that succession to Muhammad was designated by divine revelation and prophetic authority; linking themselves to the Prophet Muhammad’s immediate family (ahl al-bayt), they prefer ‘Ali over any other Muslim leader; they oppose the Righteous Caliphs and instead obey the Imams, beginning with ‘Ali and his two sons, Hasan and Husayn. Their difference from the Sunni majority is asserted to be purely

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political. Shia Islam split in three main divisions: the Zaydis, the Ismailis (whose head is the Aga Khan), and the Ithna Ashari.

Shirk (Hebrew: shittuf)—Association; associating other beings with God (Q 31:13); polytheism; idolatry; putting other deities or purely human values on the same level as Allah. It is considered by Muslims to be an act of blasphemy. The cardinal Muslim sin. One who engages in shirk is a mushrik (Q 2:21).

Shura—consultation (Q 42:38); council.

Sira—biographies of the Prophet.

Subha, misbaha—prayer beads in a loop of 11, 33, or 99 to aid in the recitation of the 99 most beautiful names of God.

Sufi—a Muslim mystic.

Sufism—the mystical tradition of Sunni Islam.

Sultan—ruler, including governor of a region or military commander.

Sunnah—a path; a way of life or of behaving; custom; the habits and religious practice of the Prophet Muhammad, which were recorded for posterity by his companions and family and are regarded as the ideal Islamic norm [the exemplary conduct of the Prophet Muhammad, conveyed in reports of his deeds, dicta (sayings) and endorsements (the Hadith)] (Q 17:77); They have thus been enshrined in Islamic law, so that Muslims can approximate closely to the archetypal figure of the Prophet, in his perfect surrender (islam) to God; thus, the body of Islamic

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social and legal custom; the pattern of God in ordering the Creation and function of the material world; the necessary companion and complement to the Qur’an for many Muslims.

Sunnat—a popular term commonly used for circumcision and the genital mutilation of females.

Sunnis—those Muslims who believe that succession after Muhammad was to be decided by the community of believers and not by divine authority or prophetic appointment; they accept the history of the first hijri century and the authority it conferred on the Righteous Caliphs; they acknowledge ‘Ali as the Fourth Caliph but not as the First Imam. Their successors are the Umayyad, then the ‘Abassid Caliphs. Common name for the Muslim majority officially called Ahl al-Sunna wal-Jama’a (The People of the [Prophetic] Custom and the Community.

Sunni Islam—the term used to describe the Muslim majority, who revere the four Rashidun and validate the existing political Islamic order.

Suq—market; trade fair.

Surah—a chapter; specifically one of the 114 Chapters that together comprise the Noble Qur’an (Q 24:1).

Tafsir—explanation; commentary; Koranic commentary and explication of its meaning, mostly confined to verses with an evident and common-sense message.

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Tahara (Hebrew: Taharah)—purification; includes a number of ritual purification rituals and is a common synonym for circumcision.

Takbir—a term to describe the saying, Allahu Akbar, God is most great.

Takfir—charging or accusing someone of being an unbeliever (kafir).

Tajdid—revival; renewal.

Tajwid—the act of reciting the Qur’an melodiously according to strict rules to ensure proper pronunciation and meaning.

Talaq—divorce (Q 65:1).

Talbiya—the act of uttering the pious formula, Labbayk allahumma labbayk…, I am here, O God, I am here…” It was recited as part of the Hajj ritual in the pre-Islamic period and is uttered repeatedly during the Pilgrimage to this day.

Taqarrush—acquisition; gaining; perhaps origin of the Quraysh, the dominant mercantile tribe in Mecca of which Muhammad was a member.

Taqiyya—the practicing of religious dissimulation in the face of danger, such as practicing outwardly one form of Islam but secretly believing and practicing a different form.

Taqlid—imitation; accepting a legal or theological position on blind faith without engaging in independent, critical reasoning.

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Taqwa’—mindfulness; an attitude of sensitivity to and consciousness of God.

Tariqah—the way; one of the methods of spiritual discipline, brotherhoods, orders or schools who follow the Sufi way, and have their own special dikr and revered leaders.

Tartil—slow, clear recitation of the Qur’an according to strict rules to ensure proper pronunciation and meaning.

Tasawwuf—the Sufi way; sufism.

Tashahhud-- testimony; the recitation of the shahada at a specific time in the ritual prayer (salat).

Taslim—uttering al-salamu ‘alaykum, peace to you; greeting in general; uttering al-salamu ‘alaykum at the end of formal ritual prayer.

Tawaf—encircling; the seven ritual circumambulations (walking) around the Ka’bah in Mecca (Q2:125).

Tawba (Hebrew: teshuvah)—repentance (Q 4:17-18).

Tawhid—making one; maintaining the unity of God; the divine unity of God, realized in the integration of the human person; Muslims seek to imitate the divine unity in their personal and social lives by integrating their institutions and priorities, and by recognizing the overall sovereignty of God. (In The Study Qur’an, p. xxxiii, it mentions that Ali alludes to his inner state of supreme identity or supreme union, to the full realization of unity (al-tawhid) in the following statement). Ali is reported to

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have said, “The whole of the Quran is contained in al-Fatihah (The Opening). The whole of al-Fatihah is contained in Bi’smi’Llah al-Rahman al-Rahim (In the Name of God, the Compasione, the Merciful)[This formula in Arabic begins with the letter ba]. The whole of the Bi’smi’Llah is contained in the letter ba’. The whole of the letter ba’ is contained in the dot (nuqtah) underneath the ba’. And I am that dot.”

Ta’wil—symbolic or allegorical interpretation of the Qur’an, often imparting new meaning that goes beyond common-sense commentaries and also explaining verses or letters with an ambiguous meaning.

Ta’widh—the invocation of God’s mercy and protection from the forces of evil, specifically the wiles or insinuations of the devil.

Tayammum—ritual ablution using clean sand or earth rather than water (used only under exceptional circumstances) (Q 4:43).

Tazakka—purification; refinement; an early name of the religion of Islam.

Ta’ziya—consolation; The Shi’I passion play commemorating the martyrdom of Imam Husayn at Karbala.

Tilawa—recitation of the Qur’an in general (Q 2:151).

Ulama (sing. alim)—learned men; the guardians of the legal and religious traditions of Islam; the custodians of ‘ilm, or

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knowledge, who transmit it from generation to generation as teachers and jurists within the ummah.

Uhud—the name of a famous battle in Medina (625 CE/3 AH) in which Muhammad was wounded and many of his followers and supporters killed from the Meccan attack.

Umayyad—reference to the clan within the tribe of Quraysh called the Banu Umayya; the first caliphal dynasty with its capital in Damascus (661-750 CE/36-125 AH).

Ummah (Hebrew: ummah)—the international (worldwide) Muslim community; a community having a common religion (Q 2:128, 3:113).

Umm al-kitab—the Meta-Book of all Divine Revelation, preceding the Qur’an and finalized in the Qur’an; it includes the Torah for Jews and the Injil, or Gospel, for Christians as well as other scriptures.

‘Umrah—the lesser pilgrimage, which can occur any time during the year and has fewer ritual obligations than the greater pilgrimage commonly referred to as Hajj (Q 2:196); the rites of the hajj that were performed within the city of Mecca, including the ritual circumambulation around the Kabah, excluding those performed in the surrounding countryside.

Wadu—washing with water that precedes prayer and cleanses the body (hands, mouth, face and feet) and spirit.

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Wahhabiya—the Arabic term for a puritanical Islamist movement founded in 18th c. Arabia by Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (English: Wahhabi movement).

Wajib (Hebrew: chovah)—obligatory.

Waleemah—reception after the wedding ceremony

Wali (pl. awliya’)—mediator; a friend or protege; protector; Muslim saint to whom God has granted special knowledge and Divine wisdom (Q 2:107).

Waqf (pl. awqaf)—private endowment of property for religious purposes such as the building and maintenance of mosques, schools, hospitals, or other socially beneficial purpose.

Wudu—the lesser ablution or washing, which renders ritual purity before engaging in certain ritual activities such as prayer or Qur’an recitation.

Yathrib—the oasis town to which Muhammad emigrated in 622 CE/1 AH, known afterward as madinat al-nabi (Medinah).

Yawm ad-din—day of reckoning; moment of truth.

Zakat—purity; purification alms; a charitable donation to the needy; required annually alms tax calculated on the basis of one’s wealth. The term used for a tax of fixed proportion of income and capital (usually 2.5 percent), which must be paid by all Muslims each year to assist the poor. One of the essential practices of Islam (Q 2:277).

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Zalim—outsider; a person who is abhorred because he does not belong to the tribe.

Zam-zam—the sacred well near the Ka’ba in Mecca.

Zaydiyya—Branch of Shia Islam which recognizes Zayd ibn Ali as an imam. Zaydis are distinguished from other schools of Shiism by their own school of Islamic Law and theology. They recognize a non-dynastic imamate through the lineage of Ali ibn Abi Talib based on the criteria of political and religious competence. As a consequence, Zaydis are willing to recognize more than one imam at a time or none at all. Today Zaydis are dominant only in North Yemen.

Zikr—voluntary daily meditation or Divine remembrance by Sufis, requiring the repetition of verses from the Qur’an or God’s Beautiful Names. Often practiced to cure mental or physical illness.

Ziyara (pl. ziyarat)—visitation to a holy shrine or grave of a holy person.

Zuhd—asceticism.