aqa examinations a level sport and physical education a 6581 module 4 part e

A2 Module 4E.1

AQA A Level Physical Education A 6581

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AQA ExaminationsA Level Sport and Physical Education

A 6581

Module 4 part E

Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance

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INDEX26 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT27 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES28 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL29 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES BY OBSERVATION / USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS

QUESTIONNAIRES30 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES 31 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT32 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE33 - AGGRESSION IN SPORT ASSERTION / CHANNELLED AGGRESSION HOSTILE AGGRESSION / INSTRUMENTAL

AGGRESSION34 - CAUSES OF AGGRESSION PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING BRACKETED MORALITY / SPECIFIC CAUSES35 - THEORIES OF AGGRESSION INSTINCT / FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORIES SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS36 - SPECTATOR AGGRESSION37 - RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR38 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR GOVERNING BODY39 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR COACHES / PLAYERS

Index

3 - PERSONALITY4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TRAIT

TRAIT THEORIES - CATTELL - EYSENCK5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS6 - EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - BANDURAVICARIOUS CONDITIONING

8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN10 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION11 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE12 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) - MOODS13 - SELF REPORT TESTS - PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS14 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS - THEORIES15 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION16 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES17 - MAJOR MOTIVES FOR YOUTH / ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION18 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION19 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS / SITUATIONAL ASPECTS20 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)21 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS22 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS23 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING GOAL STRUCTURE - OUTCOME / TASK ORIENTATION24 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING ENHANCING MOTIVATION25 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?

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PERSONALITYPersonality

PERSONALITY• unique characteristics of an individual• knowledge about personality is important to

ensure optimum sporting performance

PER SONALI TYSOCI AL LEARN I N Gbehaviours learnt by

observation andcopying

TR AI Tinnate andenduring

I N TER ACTI O N I STm ixture of trait

and social learning

extroversionintroversion

neuroticstable

type Atype B

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAITTRAIT THEORIES• general (covering all situations)• underlying (inside of and part of the person)• enduring (long lasting)• predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier)

CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality

Personality

PER SONALI TY

EXTR OVER SI O N(deals w ith others

easily andcom fortably)

PR I MAR YTR AI T

I N TR O VER SI ON(prefers to rem ain

independent /iso lated from others)

STABI LI TY(behaviour

rem ains the sam eover tim e)

N EUR O TI CI SM(behaviours

changeunpredictably)

SECON D AR YTR AI T

im pulsivenesssociability activityliveliness excitability

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EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D?

Personality

A• stable extrovert• talkative, outgoing, easy going,

carefree, showing leader qualitiesB• neurotic extrovert• restless, aggressive, excitable,

changeableC• neurotic introvert• anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic

D• stable introvert• careful, thoughtful, controlled,

reliable, even tempered

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EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES

THE TRAIT APPROACH• is seen as being too simple• and therefore produces a limited

view of what personality actually is• fails to recognise that people are

actively involved in constructing their own personalities

• and fails to recognise the effects of environmental situations

• as predicted by social learning and interactionist theories

TRAITS• do not predict behaviour• are seen as rigid (they are supposed

to be enduring and fixed with time)• the notion that traits are enduring is

seen as too long-term - people think that personality factors can change with time

• subject to situations which occur which might change these factors

Personality

TRAIT THEORIES• have a lack of sophistication• have problems of validity - how do

you confirm that the traits exist?

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• explains behaviour in terms of the

reaction to specific situations• we learn to deal with situations by

observing others• or by observing the results of our

own behaviour on others• and by modelling our own behaviour

on what we have seen– athletes learn behaviour by

watching others

BANDURA• behaviour is determined by the

situation– social comparison– behaving the same way as the

peer group• social approval or disapproval

determines our responses– behaviour is reinforced or

penalised

VICARIOUS CONDITIONING• the learning of emotional responses

through observational learning• example :

– learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same

Personality

SOCIALISATION• sport has a socialising effect• participation in sport establishes

norms and values of our society

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST

INTERACTIONIST THEORIES• traits determine behaviour• but can be modified by situations

– traits– situations– behaviour

LEWIN• behaviour is a function of both the

person (personality P) and the environment (E)

• B = f(P,E)

Personality

TH E SI TUATI ON

TH E PERSON(PER SONALI TY)

BEH AVI O UR

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST

Personality

EXAMPLE OF INTERACTIONIST THEORY APPROACH• a young field event athlete shows promise, but worries about competing in

important competitions and underperforms in these situations• her coach works with her on anxiety management strategies and in her

next competition she achieves a personal best

• the innate (trait) factors of the athlete’s personality cannot be changed by a coach

• so the coach must therefore get her to view her anxiety (which could be a trait which emerges whenever undue stress is placed on her) in terms of the specific situation of the next competition

• the anxiety could be channelled into positive images of her technical model

• rejecting poor efforts as due to external factors (the the weather / wind)• and building on positive images of successful technical elements achieved• the athlete can then build success by this focusing on factors other than

her own anxiety• this enables her to adjust her behaviour according to internal factors

such as rhythm and fluency• this strategy should enable the athlete to remove the stress from the

situation and hence reduce anxiety - even if she competes poorly

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MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITYINTERVIEWS• before or after the

event• not directly related to

performance• open ended and

flexible• transient feelings or

attitudes may be expressed

• difficult to quantify accurately

• may be influenced by the interviewer

Personality

QUESTIONNAIRES• before or after the

event• not directly related to

performance• rigidly and

systematically set out• transient feelings or

attitudes may be expressed

• able to quantify accurately

• would not be influenced by another

• can be used to assess specific traits

OBSERVATION• made during an actual

event• directly related to

performance• varies according to the

competitive nature of the event

• difficult to quantify accurately

• may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

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THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE

Personality

suspecting - accepting

lax - controlled

relaxed - tense

adventurous - shy

m ature - im m ature

tim id - confident

sociable - aloof

aggressive - m ild

enthusiastic - prudent

self-suffi cient - grouporiented

sensitive - tough

im aginative - practical

sophisticated -unpretentious

conscientious - casual

m entally bright -m entally dull

radical - conservative

high anxietylow anxiety

extroversionintroversion

tough m indedtender m inded

independencesubduedness

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PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)MOODS• are an important aspect of personality

which may influence sports performance

• tension• depression• anger• vigour• fatigue• confusion

• unsuccessful sportspeople show high– tension– depression– fatigue– confusion

• low– vigour

Personality

• elite sportspeople show low– tension– depression– confusion

• high– vigour

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SELF REPORT TESTSPROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS• lack of accuracy• participant honesty• the desire to create a

favourable impression and therefore give answers which is what the questioner wants, not what the subject feels

• lack of objectivity• neurotics emphasise certain

traits• ambiguous questions

Personality

THE ANSWERS CAN BE INFLUENCED BY :

• personality of the tester

• time of day / month• previous experience of

a test by a subject• a participant’s mood

swings• the fact that personality

is too complex to be viewed in response to yes or no answers

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MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORSMOTIVATORS• the reasons why sportspeople

think and behave as they do

THEORIES

Motivation

MOTI VATI ON

perform ance

continuity

drive tostrive persistence

intensity

direction

socialperception

goalorientation

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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

Motivation

MOTI VATI ONthe drive to

strive

EXTR I N SI CMOTI VATI O N

positive andnegative

reinforcem entcriticism

trophies

money badges

praise

fam e

I N TR I N SI CMOTI VATI O N

com petence m astery feeling goodINTRINSIC MOTIVATION

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EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES

EXTRINSIC REWARDS

INTRINSIC SOURCES

Motivation

I N TR I N SI CSOUR CES

satisfaction achievem ent feeling good

EXTR I N SI CREW AR DS

certificates

trophiesmoney

badges

m edals

positivepraisefam e

w inning

negativecriticism

defeat

TAN GI BLE

I N TAN GI BLE

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MAJOR MOTIVES

FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION

• fun• being with friends• thrills• excitement• success• developing fitness• improving skills• being good at it

FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION

• health factors• weight loss• fitness• self-challenge• feeling better

Motivation

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONDISADVANTAGES• adding extrinsic reward to a situation which

already provided intrinsic motivation• decreases the intrinsic motivation• eventually replacing it• so when rewards are no longer available• interest in the situation (sports activity)

reduces

EXPLANATIONS• the reward acts as a distraction• to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to

work at his / her own pace• rewards may turn play into work• relationships with the person giving

rewards might change• the nature of the activity changes• people like to determine their own

behaviour• rewards may make them feel that

someone else is in charge

APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION

• to attract youngsters to an activity

• to revive flagging motivation• to help a sportsperson over a

bad period in training• to provide information about

levels of achievement and competence

Motivation

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DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF• personal characteristics• situational aspects

MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN• the performer is keen to participate• the performer is keen to learn• the performer is keen to perform• the performer is keen to perform

effectively• when the motivational climate is

right• when the training programme is

interesting and varied

MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY• routine• competition between motives

PEOPLE• have multiple motives• share motives• have unique motivational profiles• need variation in training and

competition• need variation in intensity and

competitiveness• need structured coaching and

teaching environments

MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME

TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION• the drive to achieve success for its

own sake• related to

– competitiveness– persistence– striving for perfection

• influenced by– personality factors

• need to achieve• need to avoid failure

– situational factors• probability of success• incentive value of success

NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)Tendency to approach success (Ts)• this personality type likes a

challenge• likes feedback• is not afraid of failure• has high task persistence

NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)• this personality type avoids

challenges• does not take risks• often gives up• does not want feedback

(Atkinson and McClelland)

Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

A =• someone with a high need to

achieve• will probably have a low need to

avoid failure• will choose difficult or demanding

tasks which are more risky• the hard route up a rock face

Motivation

B =• someone with a high need to

avoid failure• will probably have a low need

to achieve• will choose tasks which are less

risky and more easily achieved• the easy route up the rock face

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS

A =• probability of success low• (competing against the world

champion)• therefore strive very hard to win• (incentive high)• (will be highly chuffed if win)

Motivation

B =• probability of success high• (competing in local club match)• therefore don’t need to try as

hard to win• (incentive low)• (and expect to win easily)• (not so pleasing)

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MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING

GOAL STRUCTURE• easily attained initially• progressively more difficult• training goals should be planned around overall

goals• short-term / medium-term / long-term• goal setting as a means of managing anxiety / stress• goal setting to increase motivation

GOALS ARE EITHEROUTCOME ORIENTED• towards the end result of the sporting activity• example : to win a raceTASK ORIENTED• performance oriented

– judged against other performances– example : to beat best time

• process oriented– improvement in techniques

Achievement Motivation

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MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING

TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION, GOALS SHOULD BE

• stated positively• specific to the situation and the performer• time phased• challenging• achievable - achievement would enhance

self-efficacy at the sporting task• measurable• negotiated between sportsperson and

coach• progressive, from short-term to long-term• performance / task oriented rather than

outcome oriented• written down• reviewed regularly (with downward

adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury)

Achievement Motivation

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ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATIONWHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)• increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and

satisfaction• ensure that goals are achievable• ensure that at least some situations guarantee success• and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress• ensure that tasks are challenging• ensure that the probability of success is good• ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth

winning?)REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)• reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying

about failure• focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability• this avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are

internal (due to lack of ability for example)• and reduces the risk of learned helplessness (see next slide)• avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing

against a much superior opponent)• if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have

succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals)

Motivation

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ATTITUDES IN SPORTATTITUDES• a combination of beliefs and feelings about :

– objects– people– situations– (called attitude objects)

• this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them

• learned or organised through experience

• evaluative• they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively• about an attitude object

• tend to be deep seated• and enduring• but can change or be changed

Attitudes

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FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

Attitudes

FOR M ATI ON OFATTI TUD ES

friendsm edia

prejudice

pastexperiences

teacherscoaches

peers

fam ily

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COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

Attitudes

ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise

COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs

exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit

BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour

exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly

AFFECTI VEfeelings and emotions

exam ple : I enjoy training

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MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDESBY OBSERVATION• related to actual events as they

are happening• difficult to quantify or

measure• open to interpretation by

observer

USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS• indicators such as

– blood pressure– skin conductivity– brain activity (ECG)

• can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth – about an attitude object

• measurable• independent of observer• but takes a long time to set up

requiring special apparatus

QUESTIONNAIRES• only as good as the questions

asked• measurable using

– Thurstone scale– Likert scale– Osgood’s Semantic

Differential Scale

Attitudes

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PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES

NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES • women in strength, endurance

and contact sports

• participation of the disabled in physical activity

• older age groups interest and ability at sport

• participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams

• examples : – the black quarterback in

American Football– the black sprinter– the white skier / swimmer

Attitudes

PREJUDICE• a prejudgement of a person,

group, or situation• usually based on inadequate

information• or inaccurate or biased

information• which reinforces stereotypes

• example : – women are often excluded

from male dominated sports clubs or events

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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT

POSITIVE ATTITUDES• has a positive physical self-

concept• satisfaction from participation

in sport• believe sport promotes health• success at sport• willing to try new activities• encouraged by significant

others• participates regularly• opportunity to participate

Attitudes

NEGATIVE ATTITUDES• had negative experiences at

sport• have lifestyle which makes

regular sport difficult• find sport frustrating• lack encouragement• unlikely to participate in sport• have a negative self concept• find sport boring

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ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE

PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION• the person must

– pay attention– understand– accept– retain– the message being given

• the coach must– be expert– be trustworthy

• the message must– be clear– be unambiguous– be balanced between

emotion and logic– be balanced between pros

and cons

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE• the person must

– be consistent between• cognitive• affective• behavioural

components

• the person must be consistent between different elements

• cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change– if two factual elements of

attitude conflict– example : the smoker who

knows that smoking is bad for health

Attitudes

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AGGRESSION IN SPORT

ASSERTION• sometimes called CHANNELLED

AGGRESSION• no intent to harm• legitimate force within the rules• unusual effort• unusual energy

HOSTILE AGGRESSION• intent to harm• goal is to harm• arousal and anger involved

INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION• intent to harm• goal to win• used as a tactic ‘dirty play’• no anger• illegal in all sports except

boxing

Aggression

AGGR ESSI ON

includes verbalaggression ifintended to

em barrass orhurt

m ain purpose is theintention to harm

another participantplayer / um pire /

spectator

outside therules of the

sport

not includeeyeballing orintentionally

dam agingequipm ent

not includeaccidentally

injuringor harm ing

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CAUSES OF AGGRESSIONPHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL• anger towards another person• causing an increase in arousal• highly motivated

UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING• players with low levels of moral

reasoning• more likely to be aggressive

BRACKETED MORALITY• double standard• condoning aggressive behaviour may

retard players’ moral development• ‘aggression is wrong in life, but OK in

sport’

SPECIFIC CAUSES• high environmental

temperature• home or away• embarrassment• losing• pain• unfair officiating• playing below capability• large score difference• low league standing• later stage of play (near the

end of a game)• reputation of opposition (get

your retaliation in first)

Aggression

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THEORIES OF AGGRESSION

INSTINCT THEORY• aggression is innate and instinctive• caused by survival of the species• sport releases built up aggression,

catharsis• Lorentz

FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY

• aggression caused by frustration• the person being blocked in the

achievement of a goal• this causes a drive towards the

source of frustration• Dollard

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY• aggression is learned• by observation of other’s behaviour• then imitation of this aggressive

behaviour• this is then reinforced by social

acceptance of the behaviour• Bandura

AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS• frustration causes anger and arousal• this creates a readiness for

aggression• which can be initiated by an incident

during the performance (the cue)• this is a learned response• example : a player sees a colleague

fouled then decides to join in• Berkowitz

Aggression

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SPECTATOR AGGRESSION

Aggression

SPECTATOR AGGRESSION caused by

• player aggression• poor or biased officials• alcohol• racial or national abuse• adult male crowdSUPPORTERS can help prevent

aggression by• avoid showing aggression• avoid advocating aggression

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RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

Aggression

R ESPON SI BI LI TYFOR

AGGR ESSI O N

infl uentialothers

theperform er

coaches

teachers

offi cials

parents

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PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

GOVERNING BODY• code of conduct

– coaches– players– officials

• use of strong officials

• use of rules of games– punishment (remove league

points)– sin bins– reward non-aggressive acts (FIFA

fair play award)

• use of language– reduce media sensationalism

• coach education programme

Aggression

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PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOURAggression

COACHES / PLAYERS• promote ethical behaviour• stress that each individual has a responsibility for reducing

aggression• promote sporting behaviour• use role models with none aggressive methods

• control aggressive behaviour• stress management strategies / relaxation techniques• self control strategies• reduce levels of arousal

• maintain a healthy will to win without winning being everything

• set task / performance goals rather than outcome goals

• remove players from field if at risk of aggression• enable channelling of aggression towards a performance

goal• use peer pressure ‘avoid letting the side down’• stress group responsibility for eliminating aggression

aqa examinations a level sport and physical education a 6581 module 4 part e

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