April Beresford

RELG 325 –VL2

Portfolio, RELG 325

Reading Questions: Religion

1. Explain the different religious perspectives discussed in Chapter One.

MATERIALISTIC PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that designates religion as a non-

material concept. That is, to explain religion as a conceived idea and not an object that can be

touched or physically manipulated. Religion is an illusion, a mental projection. Because we

cannot see, taste, feel, hear or smell any part of a designated religion, it has the ability to be

distorted or manipulated in an effort to evoke different emotions or behaviors from its followers.

This has been a reality for many religions. In exploring Christianity and the changes it has

experienced over the years, one would need to look no further than the humanities (art, sculpture,

literature) to see that government has used religion to control citizens, or evoke strong emotions

from them. In the 1600’s and the 1700’s there were religious images used to tell different

aspects of Bible stories that depicted extreme fear and extreme love. This was a huge change

from the previously tame and unemotional depictions that appeared previously. The religion had

not changed, it was the same God, but a different message was being sent. Because not many

citizens at that time were able to read, seeing these images and relating to them was the primary

way that individuals were introduced to religion. Many of these pieces were commissioned by

government officials in an effort to provoke civilians to obey government laws, and because

there was no tactile way to verify the foundations or concepts of Christianity, there was no way

to verify these imposed teachings. Religion is a mental experience, and has been shaped and

reshaped over centuries.

FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that religion, as a whole, has a real

purpose. “French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) proposed that humans cannot live

without organized social structures, and that religion is a glue that holds a society together.”

(Fisher, p.15) This perspective serves to explain how religion serves as a common bond between

believers, and functions to guide their shared values and principles, and often designates to them

a common purpose in life. It serves to include people into a virtual family, to avoid isolation and

provide support. It is also under this perspective that we can include the governmental and

political influences into religion.

FAITH PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that seeks to claim the mystical experience. The

relationship with the unknown, and the perspective that identifies how important and powerful

the religious relationship can be with the unknown. Followers of various religions believe

wholeheartedly in the presence of their God, and the influence that God has on their whole being.

This can be quite an intense experience, and seems to be a great source of comfort for most.

More than simply hoping for the best, having faith in a God who is certainly present even if not

seen, and seeks to have a personal relationship with each of his/her followers. Faith is the

presence of an Ultimate Reality, which transcends this dimension.

2. After reading the chapter and reflecting, what observations, comments, points,

etc. do you have regarding religions and religious beliefs?

Being raised a Christian in a community of mostly Christians, and residing in a primarily

Christian country based on traditional Christian values, I have not had much exposure to other

religious cultures. I find it most interesting to look at how similar religious systems are, and how

many of them address the same fundamental needs in their followers, such as life purpose,

personal validation, and participation in a cultural experience. On that same note, I also find it

highly interesting to see how different religions attempt to explain facets of life differently, such

as the female role or the existence of life after death. Religion seems to be both an empowering

and wonderful experience, as well as a root cause for so many wars. There is certainly an

unarguable negative side to organized religion. I especially agree with the statement made in the

text, that “…because religions may have such a strong hold on their followers – by their fears,

their desires, their deep beliefs – they are potential centers for political power.” (Fisher, p.37) I

have been drawn to tears several times listening to or reading about the Jewish Holocaust, which

was the purposeful slaughtering of millions of kind and honest families simply because they

worshipped a different God. It especially hits hard because it was designed and implemented by

a Christian political leader. I find it interesting but not surprising to narrow the religious

experiences throughout the world down to three perspectives, but after careful contemplation I

can see how these three perspectives serve to define the most important functions that religion

serves in the human experience. Although I was raised a Christian, and still attend a Christian

church, I am respect all peaceful religions. I am of the belief that not one of the established

religions has all of the answers; there is no ‘correct’ belief. I agree with Wilfred Cantwell Smith

(1917-2000) when he said, “…religions are themselves elusive, complex systems that do not fit

neatly into labeled, reified categories such as ‘Hinduism’ and ‘Christianity’. And the

experiential basis of religion means that it cannot be fully described and analyzed as an object.”

(Fisher, p.20)

3. What are cultural inheritances? Discuss three examples of cultural inheritances.

Why is it important to understand cultural inheritances?

Cultural inheritances include: assumptions, concepts, beliefs, world views, values, habits, truths

and ways of thinking.

Beliefs: Webster’s dictionary defines ‘belief’ as “a state of habit of mind in which trust of

confidence is placed in some person or thing” (Webster website, 2010). With the world wide

web readily available and with mass telecommunications now extending around the world, we

are experiencing more of a world culture now than ever before. Despite this, there are still many

differences between cultures, geographically and ethnically. Certain populations of people have

different value systems and expectations, based partly on religious training and culture, that are

believed to be universal truths. For instance, many Judeo-Christian people living in the United

States assume that mankind was created to dominate the earth, and the plants and animals living

on it. Because of this belief, most Americans have a dietary plan based on eating several kinds

of animals, and we have factory farms created where the quality of lives of the animals are not

considered as much as the food that they provide. The belief is that this is the will of a God

creator, that we are given the gifts of conscious thought and spirituality because we are a higher

life form and it is our right to use the earth for our pleasure and our survival. In the Buddhist

culture, humankind is not viewed as a dominant earth figure, but as a kin to all living creatures

on the planet. Vegetarianism is not unusual for Buddhist followers, though eating meat is not

strictly prohibited. In the Jewish culture, the belief is that humans are permitted to eat most

animals but because they are so lowly they are considered to be dirty and must first be blessed in

order to be acceptable as food products for humans, the ‘higher beings’. This is called “kosher”.

The Seventh Day Adventists is a Christian subgroup that believe that animals are indeed

subservient to humans but that is our responsibility as ‘higher beings’ to show empathy and

kindness to them. The beliefs surrounding our relationships with animals is quite different

between religions and cultures, and guides the way that humans and animals interact.

Concepts: Webster’s dictionary defines ‘concept’ as “something conceived in the mind; an

abstract of generic idea generalized from particular instances”. The concept of salvation is

different between religions. In Christianity, salvation is thought to be only possible through

Jesus Christ, and it is because of his birth and death on Earth that humankind has been saved

from sin, and those who believe in Jesus will not die permanently at the end of our earthly lives,

but be born again in heaven. This is a totally different concept of salvation in the Buddhist

religion, where the concept of deliverance from evil comes from meditation and studying of the

ancient scriptures, in an effort of supreme enlightenment. The two concepts involved in the

separate religions ultimately guide the goals of the religion, and essentially their purpose.

Concept can be further demonstrated by looking at different definitions of eternal life. Those

who believe in reincarnation are of the understanding that we live consecutive lives, moving up

or down in consciousness based on the quality of lives that we have previously lived. The

concept of eternal life in Christianity is one based on an infinite residency in heaven, with God.

Concepts that are taught in religion are ultimately the building blocks from which religious

teachings take hold, and they guide the ways its followers think and reason.

World Views: There are billions of people on this planet who live very different lives. Because

of our different experiences, values, and beliefs, we all form a slightly different view of the

collective world and cultures that we live in. For example, the United States has been fighting a

war in Afghanistan and Iraq. We began as a war based on eradicating Islamic fundamentalists

who use terrorist tactics to attempt to dominate and damage the Judeo-Christian values and

American lifestyle because of their own religious beliefs. What we have now, ten years later, is

a difference of world view. Americans believe that every human being has the God-given right

to freedom, and that the world is filled with evil and temptation and sin. The Islamic

fundamentalists that make up the Jihad believe that this is a male-dominated society and that

anyone who does not worship Allah should die. This is quite different than traditional Islamic

world views, that emphasize tolerance between religious cultures. Shift focus now to Native

American cultures, who in large part believe that the world has been given to us as a gift and all

living beings in it should be esteemed and praised. The world view of Buddhism is largely based

on suffering and tolerance and the search for enlightenment. Taoism teaches that the world is

like the yin and the yang, and that there is a delicate balance always present between the two

separate forces that is out of human control. Indeed world view is related to the values, beliefs,

and purpose of religion.

Understanding of the cultural inheritances of a religious culture is important in understanding the

differences and similarities between those cultures. Religion is not an isolated or random

occurrence; it is affected by the world and the people by which it is practiced. It changes with

time and circumstance, and evokes all sorts of emotions from religious followers. Being aware

of cultural inheritances not only allows us to take a critical look at the way we think and act, but

also helps us to understand people who do not think or act the way that we do.

Reading Questions: Taoism

1. What does the word ‘tao’ mean? “Tao” means “way” or “path”. It is the rhythm

of the universe, the way of nature and immortality (Fisher,2003).

2. In what country did Taoism originate? What is the role of nature in this religion?

Taoism and Confucianism grew largely in China, and later spread to Japan and Korea. These

two religions both arose from ancient traditions in the Shang dynasty (c.1751-1123 BC), but split

into two distinct religions during the Chou dynasty (c.1122-221 BC) (Fisher,2003). Taoism is

heavily reliant on the natural world. Taoism teaches balance and non-interference with the

natural order of things, in addition to patience, non-action (wu-wei), humility, duality, and

simplicity non-contention (True Tao,2010).

3. There are two kinds of Taoism: Philosophic and Religious. Philosophic Taoism is

older and is based on the book Tao te Ching and its teachings. Religious Taoism began in

the 2nd C and began incorporated many gods, rituals etc. Research and explain these. Find

(research on the internet) one ritual of Taoism and describe it. Find a picture of a Taoist

temple and examine it. Philosophic Taosim focuses on the reading and understanding of the

Tao Te Ching. Religious Taoism also uses the Tao Te Ching, but expands its practice to also

incorporate gods and organized rituals. According to Derek Lin, a leader in American Tao who

has authored books on the subject, the ‘Initiation Ritual’ is done by new Tao followers, who

formally declare their interest in the Tao and their intention to seek it of their own free will. This

is known as the ‘Qiu Dao’ ritual, and is part of the I-Kuan Tao religion. It is a staged interaction

between the ordained Master (Dian Chuan Shi) and a new follower. During this ritual, the

newcomer receives the Three Treasures of I-Kuan Tao, to begin their journey (Lin). The Temple

of Original Simplicity in the Boston area is a modest size building with an open interior space,

with lighting effects behind and around religious tapestries and figurines of prominent religious

leaders and gods. Most of these are carved out of wood. A gong is centered in the room. There

are candles, incense, and an altar in the front. It appears fairly simple in design, compared to

Christian churches (Tao.org).

4. We will be focusing on Philosophic Taoism, which has no gods to it. The point of

the religion is to understand the Tao (the Way of things) and to live in harmony with it. An

aspect of the Tao is constant change. What exists is constantly changing, and changing in a

very particular way, in movement from yin to yang. What are yin and yang? Yin and yang

are two opposing forces that are in constant motion. Where one ends is the point that the other

begins. The yin is the female aspect, dark and receptive. The yang is the male aspect, bright and

assertive. “Wisdom lies in recognizing their ever-shifting, but regular and balanced, patterns and

moving with them” (Fisher,2003). These two forces, together, make up the c’hi, which is the

energy from which we all live.

5. How is the conception of the Tao (note: this question is about the conceptions, not

the religions) different from the Judeo/Christian/Islamic conception of God? According to

Christianity, God is said to be a being. Although God does not have a physical form, he has been

designated to be male, and he has a personal relationship with his followers. When God, ruling

from the heavens, turned his back on the world of sin (ours), he sent his only son to Earth to save

humans. The human form was named “Jesus” and together, with the Holy Spirit, forms a sort of

trilogy. “The central message of Christianity is that Jesus Christ is God the Son who came to

earth to rescue sinners not only from a life of sin but also from eternal damnation in hell”

(Christianity, 2010). The Christian God and Jesus can be, and should be, prayed to, and God

answers prayers. God made rules, known as the Ten Commandments, to ascribe how humankind

should behave. God acts through disciples here on Earth, and after life on earth believers can

look forward to a life with Him after death. God is often seen and addressed as a fatherly figure,

a parent. Christians believe that God is the ultimate creator of heaven and earth, the ultimate

judge of character, and the only God of man. (Christianity, 2010). In Christianity, God is a

being, not a concept, and it is His will that brings joy and pain, sadness and hope, balance and

unbalance.

In Taoism, the Tao is not a being. Unlike the Christian God, the Tao is not personal and

the Tao is not divided into three. The Tao is the balance from which life can exist, and without

Tao life would be one-sided and would fall apart. The Tao is not a deity that can be prayed to.

The Tao cannot don an earthly body, have an established residence, and doesn’t define right or

wrong (Fisher, 2003; True Tao, 2010). The Tao does not judge or expect worship and praise.

(7) The Tao is infinite, eternal.

Why is it eternal?

It was never born;

thus it can never die.

Why is it infinite?

It has no desires for itself;

thus it is present for all beings.

The Master stays behind;

that is why she is ahead.

She is detached from all things;

that is why she is one with them.

Because she has let go of herself,

she is perfectly fulfilled. (Tao Ching Te)

Tao is a feeling, a movement, a need to merge opposites. Life in harmony with Tao lives with

principles rather than laws or commandments. This is quite different than a Christian God,

whose job it is to filter and separate good and evil (Satan/sin).

(5) The Tao doesn't take sides;

it gives birth to both good and evil.

The Master doesn't take sides;

she welcomes both saints and sinners. (Tao Ching Te)

6. Read the Tao te Ching. What is the Tao? What is living in harmony with the Tao

like? (I will provide some lectures, message board questions and links about this final

question, so take your time with it. Tao is translated to mean “the path” or “the way”. It is

referred to at times as “the unnamable original force”, and is a universal force throughout life

and death (Fisher, 2003). “(Tao) is a universal principle that underlies everything from the

creation of galaxies to the interaction of human beings” (True Tao, 2010). The Tao Te Ching,

which is the sacred scripture of Taoism, explains the Tao in a series of poems, which were later

translated into English:

(1) The tao that can be told

is not the eternal Tao

The name that can be named

is not the eternal Name.

The unnamable is the eternally real.

Naming is the origin

of all particular things.

Free from desire, you realize the mystery.

Caught in desire, you see only the manifestations.

Yet mystery and manifestations

arise from the same source.

This source is called darkness.

(4) The Tao is like a well:

used but never used up.

It is like the eternal void:

filled with infinite possibilities.

It is hidden but always present.

I don't know who gave birth to it.

It is older than God.

(5) The Tao doesn't take sides;

it gives birth to both good and evil.

The Master doesn't take sides;

she welcomes both saints and sinners.

The Tao is like a bellows:

it is empty yet infinitely capable.

The more you use it, the more it produces;

the more you talk of it, the less you understand.

Hold on to the center. (Tao Ching Te)

“Tao is a mystical reality that cannot be grasped by the mind” (Fisher, 2003). Tao is not a

person, a body, a defined spiritual creator or an object. It is a rhythm, a movement, a method,

and is applicable to absolutely everyone and everything created. Because of this Taoism, as a

philosophy, is often mixed with other religions. Those who try to follow the Tao are often trying

to settle themselves into acceptance and peace. Some devout religious Taoism followers believe

that through closely following the Tao, one person can live centuries. Central to defining the

Tao are seven teachings, which include non-contention, non-action, non-intention, simplicity,

wisdom, humility, and duality (True Tao, 2010). These themes appear repeatedly throughout the

Tao Te Ching. Tao is about finding the center, between extremes, and staying fluid and flexible

throughout life experiences. It is about being natural, ungrasping expectations and choosing

acceptance.

7. What is the Taoist view of change? Taoism is built on the concept of change. The

understanding is that the world, and everything in it, is always in a constant process of change. It

is during this constant change that we must find the ‘center’ and cease to show personal

preference. There is no static stability, but rather a rhythm and movement. The earth changes,

relationships change, and we change. Humans must acknowledge and expect this change and not

try to fight or control it. This is where the concept of yin and yang apply.

8. What is wu wei? Wu-wei is the Taoist paradox of non-action and non-interference. It

signifies a conscious decision to avoid intentional action to change the course of nature. “Wu-

wei is spontaneous, creative activity proceeding form the Tao, action without ego-assertion,

letting the Tao take its course” (Fisher,2003). Another way to interpret wu-wei is to think of it as

“spontaneous action” or “effortless flow”. In speaking of the martial art of Wu Wei Gung Fu,

which is based on this principle, “…the warrior becomes one with the flow of reality around him.

In that state of oneness, he is about to act without the necessity of volition. To the bystanders he

doesn’t seem to do much, and yet he delivers the exact minimum of impact at the exact right

time to accomplish what needs to be done and not one iota more” (True Tao,2010).

Reading Questions: Hinduism

1. What does ‘hinduism’ mean literally? How old is Hindusim? What makes it

difficult to answer this question?

“It is derived from a name applied by foreigners to the people living in the region of the Indus

River, and introduced in the nineteenth century under colonial British rule as a category for

census-taking” (Fisher, 2003, p.41). Hindism, also know n as Sanatana Dharma, dates back to at

least 8,000 years BCE. It is difficult to date because of the lack of accurately recorded historical

dates BCE, and the fact that Hinduism was born in a region where moderately similar religions

were also developing, including Buddhism and Jainism (Phillips, 1998), and the world view of

Hinduism is that life is linear, with no real beginning and no real end. Defining and recording

dates is of lesser importance to exploring the philosophical reasoning and beliefs of Hinduism.

2. What are the Vedas?

The Vedas are the religious texts that are often referred to as the foundations of Sanatana

Dharma. Depending on the group of followers, lessons and stories are interpreted broadly or

literally. The Vedas were first heard by the rishis (ancient sages) in 8000-6000BCE and carried

down through generations orally. The early Vedas were initially recorded in written form around

1500BCE. There are four distinct collections that compose the Vedas, which include the

Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and the Upanishads. The Samhitas were the original religious

recording, and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads are lengthy commentaries made

later by priests, to elaborate on the theology of Sanatana Dharma (Phillips, 1998, p.12-13). The

Brahmanas seeks to define the meaning and procedure of religious rituals, and are full of dense

prose. The Aranyakas were written by Hindu followers that isolated themselves to life in a forest

to commune with the gods, and offer further explanations of Hinduism philosophy. The

Upanishads are the most recent part of the Vedas, and are recorded teachings from highly

realized spiritual masters. They are the “philosophical part of the Vedas in Hinduism, intended

only for serious seekers” (Fisher, 2003, p.233).

3. What is the Rig Veda? Whose blessings are requested in the Rig Veda? Research

these deities and find out their characteristics, what they look like, etc.

Rig Veda is a collection of hymns to the gods, composed by Brahmin priests. It is the oldest of

known Vedic scriptures, as it was composed around 1000BC. These primarily consist of praises

of the devas, which are the controlling forces of the cosmos. Major deities include Indra (god of

thunder and rain), Agni (god of fire), Soma (associated with sacred drink), and Ushas (goddess

of dawn). Devas consecrate every part of life, and they are many of them. Devas are considered

to be both opaque (visible) and invisible, and they sustain everything that exists (Fisher, 2003).

In addition, the Rig Veda seeks to explain the significance of detailed rituals to honor the

religion (Phillips, 1998, p.12). Deities often posses exaggerated characteristics that give them

specific capabilities or skills, or bear the scars of epic battles. For example, Indra, a male deity,

is armed with a thunderbolt and a bow, has a thousand eyes and elongated arms. This serves him

with the capability to bring rain and zap enemies, to see evil at any distance, and reach to all

corners of the immeasurable cosmos. Nemesis of Vritra, god of drought and death, Indra is the

main subject of the Rig Veda, which praises his helpfulness to humans. Indra resides in his

heaven, called Svarga, with his wife, Indrani (Wolter, 2007, p.298). Ganesh, one of the most

popular deities, received the head of an elephant after a messy decapitation by Shiva. The

Brahmanas of the Vedas prescribe how to properly perform rituals and sacrifices to the deities

(Fisher, 2003, p.44). Offerings to the gods often included food. Because Hinduism teaches that

gods reside not only in a heavenly home but in and throughout the earth as well, it is often a

common practice to share food with others, including strangers. An offer to a guest is thought of

as a gift to the gods. In addition to food, there are other substances or items that are sacrificed to

the devas during prescribed rituals or daily devotions. For example, offerings to the god of fire,

Angi, often included “…ghee, grains, some, and sometimes animals.”

4. What are the Upanishads?

The Upanishads are the most recent part of the Vedas, and are recorded teachings from highly

realized spiritual masters. They are the “philosophical part of the Vedas in Hinduism, intended

only for serious seekers” (Fisher, 2003, p.233). Pupils are instructed in the art of deep

meditation, and “with their minds fully absorbed in love, direct their consciousness toward the

eternal One” (Fisher, 2003, p.21). They define the importance of reflecting, the ties of Brahman

to the natural universe, the personal transformation in Hindu rituals, and guide eager Hindu

followers to seek within themselves to find Brahman (Fisher, 2003, p.21-22; Phillips, 1998, p.12-

13). Some of the themes addressed in the Upanishads are reincarnation, karma, and

contemplation of the self in search for atman.

5. Overall, how do the teachings of the early Vedas differ from those of the

Upanishads? Why are the teachings of the Upanishads considered superior or more

important than the early Vedas?

The Upanishads were written in 600 to 400BCE. They differ from the other sections of the

Vedas because they are the most analytical and philosophical of the complete religion, and the

easiest to interpret in modern life. “The Upanishads became the basis of the most important

school in Hindu philosophy, known as the Vedanta” (Phillips, 1998, p.12). The teachings in the

Upanishads are often considered to be the most philosophical, and therefore are considered to be

the most important for Hindu scholars and religious leaders to understand. The Upanishads seek

to encourage exploration within the self to find the true Brahman. The concept of atman, the

manifestation of Brahman, or the divine principle, in the human soul, is explored. It is declared

that ultimate bliss is attained when one discovers Brahman in him or herself (Fisher, 2003, p.48).

Reincarnation is another concept of the Upanishads, which is a central belief to the cycle of birth

and death that Hinduism embraces. In reincarnation, the soul leaves the body at death and enters

a new one. The new form is not necessarily human, or even mammal. Reincarnation ties in

closely with karma, which is defined as a “cycle of causality; the belief that deeds, in this or

previous lives, decides destiny” (Phillips, 1998, p.138). Karma occurs because every action has

consequences, good or bad, and serves to shape our futures. Karma is not shed at death, but

instead carries over from life to life throughout samsara (the cycle of birth or rebirth) and

ultimately determines our next form. All souls strive to achieve moksha, which is “liberation

from the limitation of space, time and matter through realization of the Absolute” (Fisher, 2003,

p.49). This is referred to at times as an ultimate bliss or a merging as one with Brahman. These

concepts addressed in the Upanishads became some of the biggest focuses within the religious

philosophies of Hinduism.

6. What is Atman? What is Brahman?

Brahman is “the supreme, all-permeating divine reality or absolute truth” (Phillips,1998,p.138).

Brahman is not a godhead, a creator, or a judge. Brahman does not have a heaven or an evil

counterpart. Brahman is god and man together as one. Brahman is everywhere, and the source

of creation as we see it. Atman is sometimes referred to as the ‘soul’ but this does not account

for the complexity of the individual. A facet of Hindu belief is that god is not a single ruler or a

leader, but a breath within ourselves that, once discovered, will lead to ultimate bliss. “Atman is

the manifestation of Brahman, or the divine principle, within the human soul, the Self”

(Phillips,1998, p.138). Hindu followers use different paths to seek atman, through rituals

performed in honor of deities, yogic practices, mantras, or intense scripture study. The opposite

concept of atman is maya, which is the ‘real world’ that surrounds us. Maya is everything

trapped in this physical world that distracts us from finding atman. Belief in reincarnation is also

belief in the road to atman, attempting over and over again to find Brahman within ourselves.

When atman is realized, and we find Brahman, moksha is achieved, which is ‘liberation from the

limitations of space, time and matter (Fisher, 2003, p.49). “God is the whole universe and the

innermost self of each human being is a tiny particle of God” (Cavendish, 1980,p.21).

7. What is reincarnation?

Reincarnation is the thought that when a soul leaves a dead body, it enters a new one. This

concept is not isolated to humans, but includes all living things. One soul is born again and

again, in attempt at living the best life possible and escaping samsara, the karma-lead wheel of

birth and death. Karma, which follows the soul through samsara, is a concept meaning ‘every

action has a consequence’. Everything we do changes our future, and our lives are a result of the

collection of choices we make, karma accumulates. If we make good choices, and seek

Brahman, we may have a chance at achieving moksha, or finding Brahman within ourselves, and

liberation from earthly existence and all of the struggle and strife that exists within it. “Many

lifetimes of upward-striving incarnations are required to reach this transcendence of earthly

miseries” (Fisher, 2003, p.49).

8. “Our life is what we have made it.” Explain this.

Karma, which follows the soul through samsara (doomed cycle of reincarnation), is a concept

meaning ‘every action has a consequence’. Everything we do changes our future, and our lives

are a result of the collection of choices we make, karma accumulates. If we make good choices,

and seek Brahman, we may have a chance at achieving moksha, or finding Brahman within

ourselves, and liberation from earthly existence and all of the struggle and strife that exists

within it. “Many lifetimes of upward-striving incarnations are required to reach this

transcendence of earthly miseries” (Fisher, 2003, p.49).

9. What is bhakti yoga?

Yoga, in Hindu terms, is a practice for increasing balance, purity, wisdom and peacefulness, all

concepts of sattvic.. There are four major yogic paths: raja, jnana, karma, and bhakti. Bhakti

yoga is the most popular in Sanatana Dharma, and is based on enriching a relationship with

Brahman. Translated into English, bhakta means devotee and bhakti means intense, personal

devotion to a manifestation of Brahman (Fisher, 2003, p.64-65). The relationship can mirror that

of a husband and wife, a father and son, or a friend. A person following bhakti yoga surrenders

his or her whole life to the Absolute out of love. This creates a devoted personal relationship,

full of feeling and devotion in an effort to participate in selfless love. The ultimate goal in bhakti

yoga, as is with all other forms of yoga, is realizing the Absolute (Morris, Hinduism lecture,

2010).

Who is Krishna?

Krishna, who appears in the written Mahabharata, is the eighth manifestation (avatar) of Vishnu,

who was the the third god of the Hindu triad. According to literature, called the Bhagavad-Gita

(Song of the Lord), Krishna navigates a philosophical battle between earthly duties and spiritual

aspirations. “Krishna came to Earth destined to defeat evil demons and become worshipped as a

god in his own right” (Wolter, 2007, p.162-163). Krishna has also been noted to have many

lovers, and a few of those have been noted to possess qualities of the perfect Hindu follower. In

the story told in the Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna intervened as two armies were heading into battle,

and recited a mystic poem that inferred that everything is the result of fate, we on earth are tied

to a destiny (Wolter, 2007, p.168-169; Fisher, 2003, p.55-570). We read about Krishna again in

the Puranas, poetic ancient texts, where he is described as a mischievous young boy who steals

butter balls from neighbors and flirts with women when he is not vanquishing demons. This

story serves as an example for Hindu followers to use the bhakti path of intense emotional

longing to search for and concentrate on Brahman.

What is an avatar?

An avatar is a physical manifestation of something other than itself. Webster’s dictionary

defines an avatar as “the descent of a deity to the earth in an incarnate form or some manifest

shape; the incarnation of a god.” For example, when Vishnu created Krishna, it could be said

that Krishna was actually Vishnu incarnate. It was Vishnu living as the form Krishna on earth.

In Hindu text, it is stated that Vishnu came to earth as multiple animal and human forms, and

there is one avatar yet to come. His name is Kalki(n), and he will descend to earth at the end of

time to restore moral order (Phillips,1998, p.60).

10. What are the yoga paths or disciplines?

There are two methods predominantly characteristic of Hindu spirituality: Yoga and Vedanta.

Yoga, known in modern times for its characteristic body postures and breathing techniques, is

popular in non-Hindu civilizations as a form of exercise and health promotion. In Hindu

religion, yoga is a form of working to achieve self-understanding and union with the divine

(Cavendish, 1980, p.19). It is a way to detach oneself from maya, the distracting world around

us, and focus on the journey inward to find and merge with Brahman. This state of purity,

wisdom, balance, and peacefulness is referred to as sattvic (Fisher, 2003,p.59-60). Yoga was

first introduced in the Upanishads. There are four primary methods of yoga: raja yoga, which

focuses on physical and psychic practices, and engaging chakras and life centers within the body;

jnana yoga, which engages the rational mind to develop spiritual virtues and insight; karma

yoga, which teaches that services rendered without expectations for personal benefit or gain is

the best way to bring peace and consciousness; and bhakti yoga, which engages a relationship

with the Supreme by transposing emotions experienced in other human relationships, such as

lover or friend or parent or child.

11. Siva

Siva is one of the deities worshipped by Hindus. In the oldest of Hindu teachings, he is part of

the Hindu god triad (trimurti), along with Brahma (creator) and Vishnu (Preserver), he is the

destroyer. Siva symbolizes many things: light, hope, creation, asceiticism, knowledge and

conquering of the ego. Siva has multiple female companions, the most prominent being Parvati.

These two are often depicted symbolically by a lingam, representing the phallus, and the yoni

symbol, representing the female genitals. Siva’s son is Ganesh, one of the most prominent and

beloved deities in modern Hinduism. “Siva has a grim and terrifying side to his nature, for he

unites opposites: loving and cruel, creative and destructive, sane and raving mad, he is eternally

active and eternally at rest” (Cavendish, 1980). Saivites, who are dedicated followers of the god

Siva, see him not as frightening but as a protector, who loves his children and sometimes uses

punishment to turn them around. Siva is devout in perfect meditation, but also has a love of

dancing. There are many myths featuring Siva, including an event where he cut off one of

Brahma’s four heads, when he battled demons in an impenetrable castle, and how darkness came

to earth when Parvati playfully covered Siva’s eyes, causing a third eye to emerge on Siva’s

forehead (Wolter,2007,p.158-160).

Lakshmi

Lakshmi is the goddess of good luck, fortune, happiness, marriage, family, fertility, health and

beauty. She is a female companion of Vishnu, and said to be an avatar of Devi, who is the

consort of Brahma. She is depicted always as a beautiful woman, and is sometimes depicted

with a lotus blossom, which symbolizes fertility, purity, and spiritual perfection

(Wolter,2007,p.321). Often she is depicted with golden skin (Phillips,1998,p.110). Lakshmi is

celebrated and honored on the first new moon following October, in a festival called Divali; it is

a time of tidying homes and businesses, wearing new clothes, gambling, feasting and fireworks

(Fisher,2003,p.80). Households put out lighted lamps to attract Lakshmi to their homes with her

generous prosperity (Phillips,1998,p.111). She is often honored by women who spend time

carefully constructing handmade designs in front of their homes, at the beginning of the day, out

of edible substances, such as rice and flour (Fisher,2003,p.80). It is said in Hindu text that

Lakshmi emerged from the Milk Ocean, and became Vishnu’s shakti, or energy. As Vishnu’s

companion, she came to earth with him in the form of Sita when Vishnu was Rama, and again as

Radha and Rukmini when Vishnu incarnated as Krishna. Their relationship is seen as ideal, and

serves as a good example of bhakti, or having a personal relationship with god

(Phillips,1998,p.110-111). The god of love, Kama, is said to have been the offspring of Vishnu

and Lakshmi.

Ganesha

Ganesha is one of the most popular Hindu deities, and one of the most well-known symbols of

the Hindu religion to non-followers. Ganesha is the son of Siva, who guards the threshold of

space and time, has a love of sweets and a head of an elephant, and brings blessings to new

journeys (Fisher,2003,p.69). He is the deity of literature, good luck and the solver of problems

(Wolter,2007,p.321). In Hindu myth, Ganesha was created with a ‘normal’ head but after an

argument with Siva, his head was smashed to pieces. When Ganesha’s mother, Parvati, created

him and stood him to guard her dwelling, he refused to allow Siva to enter. That anger, and the

subsequent decapitation of Ganehsa, angered Parvati, who refused to forgive Siva until he

repaced Ganesha’s head. The only thing available was the head of a baby elephant. Ganehsa is

viewed as being good natured and benevolent. He is celebrated during the Ganesh Chaturti,

where he is sung to and offered sweets, and clay images of Ganesha are brought to and floated

down the one of the sacred rivers among the sounds of drums and cymbals (Fisher,2003,p.79).

Because Ganesha is the god of all beginnings, he is always honored before addressing other gods

in worship. Some believe that Ganesha was the original scribe for the Mahabharata at the

dictation by Vsaya, using one of this own broken-off tusks to write. Ganesha’s name means

“Lord of Hosts” and he also serves as a general in Siva’s army (Phillips,1998,p.107).

Kali

Kali is considered one of the most terrifying of the Hindu deities, as the goddess of death. “She

is usually shown as a ferocious black-skinned naked woman, her tongue hanging out as if to lap

up the blood of her victims” (Wolter,2007,p.340). She is usually depicted holding a club or

sword, and a severed head. She wears a garland of skulls and a skirt of severed arms. As

terrifying as she is, she does have respect as a destroyer of demons who threaten the cosmic

order. Because of the Hindu belief that death and birth are linked through reincarnation and

samsara, Kali is revered as a powerful and important deity. Those who worship Kali often offer

blood sacrifices, and view her as a loving mother to her devotees (Fisher,2003p.66). Kali is the

dark manifestation of Durga, who sprang forth during a battle with a demon king

Phillips,1998,p.107). Most disturbingly, human sacrifices were routine in Kali worship until the

early 1800’s (Cavendish,1980,p.26).

Devi

The word “Devi” means goddess. In Hindu belief, Devi is the principal female deity, from

where all other female goddesses arise, including Sati, Kali, Parvati, Umi, Lakashmi, and Durga.

“Just as the many Hindu gods are all aspects of one ultimate truth, Brahman, so all the goddesses

come together in one figure, the Great Goddess Devi” (Wolter,2007,p.160). Devi is the consort

of the male god Siva, and in her hands the goddess holds both joy and pain (right hand) and life

and death (left hand). Devi is the goddess of life and nature, the feminine divine. Sakti is the

power of the feminine goddess, and goddesses are said to posess kundalini energy, which is

erotic and plentiful with creativity. It is said that the full potential of energy and power a Hindi

god may have is fully unleashed with he is paired with his sakti, or female counterpart

(Fisher,2003,p.67). Because Devi is linked to nature, worshipers often honor the goddess divine

by bathing in or offering sacrifices into the sacred rivers, one of these being the Ganges. Other

methods of devi worship include concentrations on yantras, meditation with mudras, kundalini

practices and use of mantras (Fisher,2003,p.66-67). Devi is often symbolically represented by a

yoni, or a figure in the shape of female genitalia.

12. What is the goal, or point, of Hinduism, particularly the form that is focused on

Brahman?

Hinduism is a very unique religion in that it is based not solely on worship of a ruling deity, but

has evolved around a philosophy and an experience. Each Hindu follower has his or her own

path to discovering the Almighty. Some Hindu followers believe in many deities, some in very

few. There is no central creed to the Hindu religion, and no required belief traditions. It is a

spiritual journey that each person is responsible for taking in his or her own time. Brahman, the

Eternal One, is a gentle god who wears many masks, as evidenced by hundreds of deities and

avatars, who all serve as a way to find him. Prayer, yoga, ceremonies, meditations, sacrifices,

mantras, rituals, and customs are all ways in which a Hindu follower learns about Brahman and

comes a little closer to it (Cavendish,1980,p.12-14).

Reading Questions: Buddhism

1. Who is Siddhartha?

Born around 563 BC, Siddhartha Gautama was a man who was born in Nepal who later became

Buddha. Siddhartha was born into a wealthy family, a clan of warriors and aristocrats, but

declined a life of ease and wealth in favor of a lifestyle of asceticism, in search of a way to end

the eternal cycle of human suffering. He left a wife and child, and around age 30 he adopted a

life of homelessness and poverty, as was traditional for Indian sannyasins (Fisher, 2003).

Through his experiences in meditation and with training from Brahmins, he was the first person

ever to reach supreme enlightenment. This event is sometimes also referred to as ‘awakening’

because it is viewed as an accessible goal for all human beings. During this transition, all

ignorance was erased and he was able to see all things for what they exactly are with crystal

clarity (Erricker,1995,p.26). After this episode, which occurred while sitting under a fig tree in

northeast India, under total meditation, he was then called “Buddha” which translates into

‘enlightened one’ (Wilkinson, 2008) and devoted his life to assisting others in following the path

to enlightenment and ending human suffering. He traveled with disciples, using skillful teaching

to guide others into self-awareness and motivation to seek truth and enlightenment. He sought

out not only sangha (religious monks) but lay people of all castes, including women. He died at

the age of eighty after an accidental food poisoning, but spent his final hours teaching to those

around him and finding a way to comfort the person responsible for his illness.

2. According to your reading, what is the Middle Way and how did Siddhartha come

to it?

Following the ‘Middle Way’ means embracing neither self-indulgence nor self-denial

(Fisher,2003,p.107). “Following the Middle Way begins with a desire to end one’s suffering

based on an understanding of the causes of that suffering. It ends with the realization of the goal

– liberation” (Gerhards,2007,p.14). One of the guiding principles of Buddhism is the Middle

Way, which Buddha discovered by comparing his previous lifestyles: a life of riches and a life of

asceticism. Siddhartha realized that neither lifestyle extreme was capable of bringing about an

end to human suffering. According to his teachings, it was finding the middle of these two

extremes that provided the best path for finding enlightenment (Wilkinson,2008,p.191). When

Buddha was enlightened, the Middle Way became a reality and was part of his teachings about

the eightfold path, or elements necessary for virtuous living (Wilkinson,2007,p.190). The

Middle way, according to Buddha, will lead to “vision, knowledge, calm, insight, enlightenment,

nirvana” (Erricker,1995,p.36), and was addressed by the last of the Four Noble Truths he set

forward for others to follow. Without a Middle Way, following the Noble Eightfold Path is not

possible. This concept is similar to Taoism philosophy, in that we must all find the middle, the

center, between the extremes.

3. Is Buddha a God? Does Buddhism advocate seeking a God?

Buddha is not perceived as a God. In fact, Buddhism is often described as a non-theistic religion

because “….there is no personal God who creates everything and to whom prayers can be

directed” (Fisher, 2003). Buddha is seen as an enlightened teacher, who showed us the method

to enlightenment, but is not as an worshiped deity. As declared at the 1993 Chicago Parliament

of the World Religions, it was Buddhists themselves who explained it this way:

Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was not God or a god. He was a

human being who attained full Enlighenment through meditation and showed us

the path of spiritual awakening and freedom. Therefore, Buddhism is not a

religion of God. Buddhism is a religion or wisdom, enlightenment, and

compassion.

Buddhism does not advocate for seeking a god. Buddha, in his lifetime, did not claim his

teachings to be unique, but instead told his followers, “Don’t take what I am saying… If it

doesn’t make sense, discard it. If it does make sense, then pick it up” (Erricker,2005, p.2-3).

Instead, it encourages others to accept four basic facts of life, and to follow the Eightfold Path of

liberation. There are, however, sects of Buddhism that recognize deities, but these are also

viewed differently than deities in other religions. For instance, the deities of Vajrayana

Buddhism are meditated upon, to bring forth their specific qualities to those who try to manifest

its energy. “These radiant forms are themselves illusionary, like the moon’s image on water.

But meditating on them is considered a way of reflecting on and thus bringing forth one’s own

true nature” (Fisher, 2003). These deities do not bring salvation or deliver specific gifts, but

offer a more direct path to understanding the path to enlightenment.

4. How is Buddhism like Hinduism? How is it different?

Both religions acknowledge Brahma. According to Buddhist scriptures, “The god Brahma came

to the Buddha and exhorted him, out of compassion for the world, to share his wisdom…”

(Erricker,2005,p.16). Brahma is the supreme all-knowing, or the Absolute, in the Hindu religion,

which also formed in ancient India. Buddhism, like Hinduism, also recognizes samsara, the

wheel of birth and death, and reincarnation. Buddhism recognizes itself as a method to

achieving self-awareness and enlightenment, which is similar to the basis of Hinduism, which is

to find the God particle within the self, a goal called moksha (Fisher,2003); however, Buddhism

is not based on deitiy worship. Buddhism is a religion where followers seek to mimic the path

taken by Siddhartha as he went from bodhisattva to Buddha, and recognize Buddha not as a god

but as a guide. Hinduism is largely based on deity worship, and has thousands of popular and

personal deities that includes both prayer and sacrifices, including animal sacrifices. Buddha, in

his early years as a wandering ascetic, found animal sacrifices unfitting and quite destructive.

While the key to moksha in Hinduism often lies in the relationship between humans and gods,

enlightenment in Buddhism takes place when one is able to get rid of the self and find the

Buddha-nature within. These two religions also differ in the approach they take toward

classifying humans. Hinduism is generally a patriarchal society, and relies heavily on the caste

system, while Buddha himself allowed women to participate in religious training and opened his

circle of students to people of all castes.

5. What are the Four Noble Truths?

The Four Noble Truths first appeared in Buddha’s first sermon as a fully realized and

enlightened Buddha, at Deer Park. These are considered the heart of Buddhism, and they

address human suffering. They are this:

1. Life inevitably involves suffering (dukkha), is imperfect and unsatisfactory.

2. Suffering originates in our desires.

3. Suffering will cease if all desires cease.

4. There is a way to realize this state: the Noble Eightfold Path

Dukkha encompasses grief, sadness, unfulfilled desires, sickness, old age, physical pain, mental

anguish, illness and death. Dukkha can occur in our personal, physical, mental, economic and

social realms. Just as happiness (sukkha) is not permanent (anicca), neither is dukkha; life is in

continual change. Dukkha originates from desires: fame, fortune, sensory pleasures, or for things

to stay as they are (Fisher,2003,p.110-111). Buddha’s explanation for the second truth is that we

do not fully comprehend what it is that we desire, because we do not understand the true nature

of things and its origins are much deeper than we realize. What we want, what we expect and

what we grasp is not permanent. It in this truth that we begin to understand the impermanence of

the self, and to begin to understand the state of the world around us. Here we are able to

understand the significance of attachments as hindrances, reasons we are not able to achieve

enlightenment The third truth is important because it more clearly identifies what it is that we

seek. “Illusion ends, and ultimate reality, or nirvana, is revealed” (Fisher,2003,p.112). This truth

is really where Buddha calls for mental conditioning and discipline. The Noble Eightfold Path

that is identified in the last of the truths is a systematic approach to a life of morality,

concentration, and wisdom. It includes living with ‘right speech, ‘right conduct’, ‘right

occupation’, ‘right understanding’, ‘right motives’, ‘right mindfulness’, right meditation’ and

‘right effort’.

6. According to your reading, what is Nirvana?

Nirvana is the goal of the Buddhist’s spiritual efforts. Nirvana is not a geographical location or

place, such as heaven. “The word itself refers to the extinguishing of a flame from lack of fuel”

(Fisher,2003,p.114). It is more of a quieting of the mind, a release from samsara and karma,

from birth and death, happiness and sadness, and from changes. Nirvana is described as

peaceful or tranquil, and as being freed in this life and from the continuous cycle of rebirth and

suffering. “It is an awakening to the way things truly are” (Erricker,1995,p.17-18). Buddha

achieved Nirvana under a Bodhi tree, but had little to say about the experience. His rationale for

this was simple: describing it was not helpful in finding it. To get to nirvana, one must

understand the Four Noble Truths and follow the Noble Eightfold Path, and it was these that

Buddha taught.

7. What is a bodhisattva?

A Bodhisattva is a person who is on the path of achieving ultimate enlightenment, and thus

becoming a Buddha, but puts off final enlightenment in order to assist others in reaching that

same state. They appear primarily in Mahayana Buddhism, one of the two major branches. The

bodhisattva concept is a bit different than that of the goal of diligently seeking personal

enlightenment, but instead follows the Buddhist teachings regarding community and saving

others. The Lotus Sutra, an early Mahayana scripture, states that everyone has an inner Buddha

nature, and that every human has the capacity to reach complete enlightenment, to become a

Buddha eventually. Mahayana Buddhists practice this bodhisattva vow:

The deluding passions are inexhaustible.

I vow to extinguish them all.

Sentient beings are numberless.

I vow to save them all.

The truth is impossible to expound.

I vow to expound it.

The way of the Buddha is unattainable.

I vow to attain it.

The bodhisattva path is rooted in patience, giving, morality, meditation and wisdom. The

Diamond Sutra addresses the selflessness of the bodhisattva in this way:

If a Bodhisattva has any notion of being a person or self, he could not be called a

bodhisattva… he should give without the notion of a giver or a gift….

8. What is Theravada Buddhism?

Theravada means ‘the way of the elders’, and it is one of the two main branches of Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism is viewed as the more conservative of the two, and Mahayana is the other

branch. Theravada Buddhism in popular in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.

The scripture most sacred to this school of Buddhism is the Tipitaka, or the Pali Cannon. It is

written in the ancient Indian language of Pali. Tipitaka means ‘three baskets’ which is symbolic

because the ancient scriptures were originally written on palm leaves and stored in baskets. The

tipitaka is divided into three subjects: rules to live by, the Four Noble Truths, and philosophical

training. The goal of Theravada Buddhism is to become an Arahant, “one who has achieved

liberation” (Erricker,1995,p.64). “The Arahant is the ideal of the Theravadin school. The word

refers to those sages who, having followed the Buddha’s teachings, upon death, will enter into

Nirvana. They are fully emancipated (from samsara)” (Erricker,1995,p.65). The Theravada

Buddhists place a large emphasis on monastic commitment, though there are lay persons are

committed followers, it is the monks that have the greatest chance at enlightenment. Throughout

decades, Theravada Buddhism became increasingly biased against women joining the monastic

lifestyle, because females were said to be a distraction to a monk, but in recent years has started

to ordain female nuns. Traditional Therevada teaching emphasizes moral development,

concentration, wisdom, and observing the Three Refuges (Buddha, dharma, and sangha).

Theravada monks practice scholarship and work within the community but place a very large

emphasis on meditation. Lay people typically more devotional than intellectual, which is one of

the major focuses of monks. They may also acquire the services of monks for spiritual guidance

and services, such as prayers or chants during illness, death, or festivals (Fisher,2003,p.125-125).

9. What is Mahayana Buddhism?

Mahayana means ‘greater vehicle’ and is one of the two major schools of Buddhism. Mahayana

is most popular in China, Tibet and Korea. Mahayana recognizes teachings and Buddhas past

the Pali Cannon, and takes a more liberal approach to Buddhism than Theravada. Mahayana

more openly encompasses lay persons than Theravada, which only recognizes those participating

in the monastic lifestyle as eligible for sangha. While Theravada Buddhism believes that the

Buddha ceased to exist once he reached nirvana, Mahayana Buddhism believes that the Buddha

lives on and should not only be emulated but worshipped as well (Wilkinson,2008,p.201).

Another unique view to Mahayana Buddhism is that other beings can become Buddhas, too.

“When a person loses selfhood, what is left is a kind of inner essence called Buddha-nature”

(Wilkinson,2008,p.201). Another unique part of this is the belief that there were several

enlightened beings before and after Siddhartha Buddha, and many more are to come. These

enlightened beings are often shown in a form that emphasizes their symbolic significance, such

as Avalokiteshvara who has one thousand hands, each containing an eye. This represents his

ability to see need and extend service to all living beings (Erricker,1995,p.66). Mahayana

Buddhists believe in striving to adopt both wisdom and compassion, and people who are able to

shed selfhood completely are able to approach Nirvana. “To Mahayanas, Nirvana has no

purpose unless it is used to assist others in their spiritual path… those who come close to nirvana

normally remain in the world as saintly beings who are enlightened but living”

(Wilkinson,2008,p.201). These people are known as bodhisattvas, and they are said to

demonstrate six perfections: generosity, morality, patience, vigor, meditation and wisdom. The

Mahayanist sutras are written in Sanskrit, and ancient Indian language, and not all of them

historically trace back to the Buddha and his life on earth. They are nonetheless considered to be

significant and meaningful as followers strive to follow the path toward enlightenment.

10. Research and explain what attachment is in Buddhism. Give two examples of

attachment from your own experience. How does attachment create suffering?

Attachment, in the views of Buddhism, are the desires we have in our lives. These bonds are

addressed within the second of the Four Noble Truths. “The Second Noble Truth is that dukkha

has it’s origin in desire – desire for sensory pleasures, for fame and fortune, and for things to stay

as they are or to become different than they are – an in attachment to ideas” (Fisher,2003,p.110-

111). Buddha explains that the reason this happens is that unenlightened beings fail to

understand things as they really are, which are fleeting and momentary connections.

“Everything is actually impermanent, changing all the time. We seek to grasp and hold life as

we want it to be, but we cannot, since everything is in constant flux” (Fisher,2003,p.111). We

humans tend to try to rearrange the things around us to be what we want, because of these

attachments, but that effort is useless. This is a highly valued and important part of reaching

enlightenment, as once we are able understand that there is no permanent world (and no

permanent self) we are able to free ourselves in this life and end the continuous cycle of rebirth

(Fisher,2003,p.112). There are five aggregates in which dukkha will manifest, causing

attachment: sensations (physical and mental), perceptions (recognition, relation), matter (things

of the five senses, and our thoughts, ideas and perceptions), mental formations (intuition,

determination, heedlessness and the idea of self; also includes cravings, ignorance and

aversions), and consciousness (sensory awareness). Attachments can easily become such a

distraction that enlightenment cannot be obtained. It is because of this that monks, upon entering

their lifestyle, renounce property, money, sexual relations, and luxury. When Siddhartha

Gautama left his wife and child, and all of his wealth and status, to follow the life of a religious

ascetic, he let go of attachments for the purpose of gaining enlightenment. Meditation is one

way that beings can attempt to let go of attachments, and see things as they really are. In my

own life, I understand how attachments can become a preoccupation and a driving force: my

attachment to my children is one strong example, as there is very little that I will not do in order

to provide the best life for them as they grow up. They are at the center of my world. Another

example would be my attachment to the idea of marriage. Next to my children, the commitment

I have made to my husband stands out to me as one of the most important connections I have in

this life, and many of the decisions I make reflect the honor and commitment I have to this.

Other common attachment examples would be cravings that a person might have for another

person’s belongings, striving to make or protect money, or overindulgence in foods or use of

illegal or harmful drugs. Attachments can also be as simple as an unhealthy determination to

climb the corporate ladder, in search for more money or respect or power.

11. How is Vajrayana Buddhism different from the other two kinds?

Vajrayana Buddhism is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism, which developed primarily in Tibet. It

is also popular in Nepal, Bhutan, Sikkim, and Mongolia. One of the major differences is that this

branch recognizes and worships deities. Although worship in the Buddhist sense is different than

in many other religions, Buddhists will engage in meditations on deities who embody different

energies. “These radiant forms are themselves illusory, like the moon’s image on water. But

meditating on them is considered a way of reflecting on and thus bringing forth one’s own true

nature” (Fisher,2003,p.131). The Dali Lama is the highest human leader in this religious

practice, and are thought of as reincarnated bodhisattvas, capable of predicting their own tulku

(reincarnation form) at their time of death (Erricker,1995,p.139-140). Followers of Vajrayana

Buddhism, like in the Hindu religion, that we are living Kali Yuga, the dark ages. This is

significant because it leads to the thought that it is not good to follow society’s norms.

Vajrayana Buddhists believe that practices to train the mind can also lead to livitation,

clairvoyance, meditating continuously without sleep, and warming the body from within while

sitting naked in the snow (Fisher,2003,p.131). Repetition is a large part of the Buddhist worship

tradition, and thus the creation of prayer wheels and prayer flags are quite popular and useful, as

they assist in maintaining prayer for long periods of time. Vajrayana Buddhism has survived the

Chinese invasion into Tibet, its primary center, and through there were millions of people killed

in that tragic event, Vajrayana Buddhism continues to thrive today in Dharmsala, India, with the

hope of someday returning to Tibet.

12. Who is the Dali Lama?

Lamas are part of Vajrayana Buddhism.  They are chosen and trained a young age to be teachers

and guides, and they are considered to be reincarnate Bodhisattvas.  The Dali Lama is the highest

of the lamas.  From the 1400’s until the Chinese invasion of Tibet in the 1950’s, the Dali Lama

was both the head of church and state.  Tibet was a country that was partly nomadic with a large

percentage of persons living the monastic lifestyle, and the country was heavily embedded in

Buddhist culture.  Today, the current Dali Lama (fourteenth Dali Lama) continues to live in exile,

traveling around the world (including the United States) to spread his message of tolerance and

non-violence.  The 14th Dali Lama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1989.  It is

said at, at the time of death, the Dai Lama will continue the tradition of his predecessors by

predicting the location of the next Dali Lama.  This is a phenomenon known as tulku

(Erricker,1995,p.140-1).

13.  Who is Thich Nhat Hahn?

Thich Nhat Hahn is the spiritual leader of Plum Village Meditation Practice Center in France.  He

is a Buddhist monk from Vietnam, and spends his time mentoring both monastic and lay persons. 

He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.  Because of

his vocal opposition to war, he was exiled from Vietnam for four decades.  He is a Zen Buddhist

master.  At the age of sixteen, as an aspiring monk in a Vietnamese monastery who was

completely opposed to the war, he chose to combine his spiritual study with compassionate

outreach to his countrymen.  By doing this, he began a movement called “Engaged Buddhism”,

which encouraged Buddhists to engage in peaceful activism for the purpose of social reform.  He

helped organize and set up schools, relief organizations and medical centers, and because of his

public opinion he was forbade to return to his home in Vietnam in 1966 after traveling abroad to

spread his peaceful message. He eventually settled in France.  “Thich Nhat Hanh's key teaching is

that, through mindfulness, we can learn to live in the present moment instead of in the past and in

the future. Dwelling in the present moment is, according to Nhat Hanh, the only way to truly

develop peace, both in one's self and in the world” (Plum Village, 2010). 

14. Research Soto Zen Buddhism

Zen Buddhism, born in 12th century, is based on serene yogic meditation.  Zen Buddhists believe

that everyone is a Buddha, but not everyone has realized that potential. They also believe that

everyone and everything is united, from microscopic organisms to the cosmos.  The meditation

that Zen Buddhists practice is called zazen: sitting rigid upright in absolute stillness with a calm

and ‘blank’ mind.  This elicits inward calmness, which is said to the like an open sky, or kensho. 

Zen traditions are practices of ultimate concentration, and encourage us to be fully engaged in the

task at hand, whether it is washing dishes, walking, or breathing.  There is a tea ceremony that is

practiced by Zen Buddhists that is a way of practicing simplicity and self-restraint.  Achieving

enlightenment in Zen Buddhism is described as “all aspects of life becom(ing) at the same time

utterly precious and utterly empty” (Fisher,2002003,p.135-6).  Zen Buddhism has two main

branches within it:  Rinzai and Soto.  Rinzai was founded in the middle of the 10th century by a

monk named Eisai.  “Rinzai challenges conventional ways of wisdom.  Rinzai masters may act in

surprising ways, sometimes shouting at or hitting their pupils… to shock them into new ways of

thought” (Wilkinson,2008,p.202).  Soto Zen, brought about by a student of Eisai named Dogen. 

Dogen encouraged his followers to meditate for long stretches, “bringing tranquility of mind and

enabling the person to realize his or her Buddha nature” (Wilkinson,2008,p.202).  This school of

Buddhism also uses the koan to provoke scholarly thought; these simple questions are open-

ended and often riddle-like.  Soto Zen Buddhism is quiet and contemplative, and encourages

bringing those qualities to each and every phase and task in our lives on a daily basis.

15.  Research the six realms of Buddhism. 

The Six Realms are descriptions of conditioned existence, or samsara, into which beings are

reborn. The nature of one's existence is determined by karma. Some realms seem more pleasant

than others, but all of them are temporary and imperfect.  They are like layers of consciousness,

and they all intertwine with one another (O’Brien, 2010). 

* Deva-gati: the realm of god-like beings (devas) who enjoy power and wealth and splendor. 

Because of this perfect and happy life, they are often out of touch with suffering, so beings in this

state do not excel at wisdom or compassion.

* Preta-gati: the realm of hungry ghosts (preta), who are constantly searching for what they

cannot have and are never satisfied with what they have. “It is like drinking salt water to quench a

thirst” (www.tibetanlama.com).   Associated with addiction, compulsion and obsession.  Ghosts

are portrayed with large stomachs, pinhole mouths and thin necks.

* Asura-gati: strong and powerful beings who are sometimes enemies of the devas.  This is

sometimes referred to as the ‘jealous god realm’.  The beings here have large envy, hate and

jealousy, and are always trying to ‘outdo’ each other.  Beings are placed in asura-gati by always

striving to be superior to others, having no patience with inferiors, having no trust and belittling

others.  Outwardly, they appear to have justice, wisdom and faith, but inside they are very self-

centered.

*Naraka-gati: the most terrifying of all realms, this is hell.  Beings in this realm are always angry,

and are prone to aggressive actions.  They drive out love and kindness, and the anger drives a

cycle of negative feedback, where the anger and aggressions multiply.

*Tiryagyoni-gati: the animal realm, where beings are prejudiced, stupid and complacent.  Those

who end up in this level are either already animals or were beings that were ignorant and content

to stay that way.  Security comes from desiring everything to be predictable, never venturing

away from our safety zone.

*Manusya-gati: the human realm, where enlightenment is nearby yet few are able to attain it. 

This is the only gateway out of samsara.  Beings are placed here by showing passion, doubt and

sincere desire.

16. What is the point of Buddhism?

Buddhism is not a structured way of god worship, or a set of laws and rules to live by. Buddha

was not a savior or a god, but instead is revered as a great teacher. Following Buddha’s teachings

only serves us as a guide to help us achieve enlightenment, but is not a rigid structure of

prescribed actions or beliefs that one must adhere to. Buddhism seeks to provide its followers

with a path to enlightenment and full understanding of the nature of life. “It is only useful to you

if it’s practical” (Erricker,1995,p.5). Buddhists try to reassess personal priorities and critically

evaluate behaviors in the spirit of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Some followers

participate in a monastic lifestyle, and others remain lay persons. There are different versions of

Buddhism throughout the world, but they all have one main purpose: to provide a link to get us

from where we are to where we want to be, which is enlightenment, a full understanding of who

we are and what our purpose is, and a release from dukkha and the the cycle of rebirth. A

Buddhist lifestyle emphasizes mindfulness, wisdom, compassion, skillfulness, and awakening

(Erricker,1995,p.10-18).

References

Cavendish, R. (1980). The Great Religions. New York: Arco Publishing, pp.13-57.

Center for Traditional Taoist Studies (2009). Retreived September 20, 2010 from www.tao.org

Christianity. (2010) Retrieved September 21, 2010 from www.christianity.com

Fisher, M. P. (2003). In Miller R. (Ed.), Living religions (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.:

Prentice-Hall, pp.171-185.

Gerhards, Paul (2007). Mapping the Dharma: A Concise Guide to the Middle Way of the

Buddha. Vancouver, WA: Parami Press.

Initiation Ritual. Derek Lin. Retrieved September 20, 2010 from www.greatTao.org

Merriam-webster dictionary. (2010). Retrieved September 20, 2010, from www.merriam-

webster.com

O’Brien, Barbara, www.buddhism.com/about Retrieved November 14, 2010

Phillips, C. (1998). The Eternal Cycle. London: Time-Life Books, pp.8-114.

Wolter, D. (2007). Mythology. New York: DK Publishing.

Tao Te Ching. Retrieved September 20, 2010 from www.academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu

True Tao, (2010). Retrieved September 21, 2010 from www.taoism.net

Wilkinson, Philip (2008) Religions. New York: DK Publishing.

www.TibetanLama.com, 2004.  Retreived November 14, 2010

www.plumvillage.org Retreived November 14, 2010

Discussion Board Posts, RELG 325, via Ferris State University online class forum

1.September 15, 2010, in response to a post by Sonya Jackson, where she identified with a facet

of the Tao from her perspective as a Christian follower, and recognized how her influences

shaped how she was able to understand new religions:

RE: Chapter 1/thoughtsInteresting question to ponder: how do these outside influences (media, wars, etc.) influence religion? Does it drive people toward or away from it? Do rituals or values change because of it? And when there is a 'misbehavior' by a religious group as seen by the public, how does it affect not only THAT religion but the others around it? I think it we sit and ponder this, we can think of several ways that this will send shockwaves through not only the local community in which the church resides, but the Christian population at large, as well as the Islamic community, and even as far as the United States government.

2. October 7, 2010, in response to a post by Debra Francik, where she questioned why rebirth

was seen as a primarily negative concept.

RE: ReincarnationReincarnation itself is not a bad thing, but being caught in the continual cycle of samsara (rebirth) is a "continuation of suffering unless we break the cycle by realizing the (Eteranal One)". Hindu followers believe that there is no beginning and no end to to the cycle of time. To become entrapped in the repetative cycle is not seen as a good thing.

Phillips, Charles (1998). The Eternal Cycle. Duncan Baird Publishers, London, England.

3. November 21, 2010, in response to a post by Debra Francik regarding the concept of

Nirvana. She used an example of finding Nirvana in her own life, assimilating it to

acceptance rather than revisiting and dwelling on hopes or past experiences. This is also

how I interpreted Nirvana, and I used that opportunity to communicate with my peer.

RE: NirvanaI think that is a very good example, Debra. I don't know if it would be the Buddhist's definition of reaching Nirvana, but I do think that it expresses how finding that 'middle path' comes into reality. Acceptance is a big part of the Buddhist experience.

4. November 13, 2010, in response to a post by Debra Francik regarding her interpretation of the

Middle Way in Buddhism after reading from our textbook. Her interpretation was more of a

constant reflection that drives ‘better’ choices.

RE: Middle WayI agree with you that it is easy to look back on years past and decide what the 'middle path' was. It's part of reflection. My opinion of following the Middle Way is a bit different. Instead of looking back, the Middle Way is forging ahead. It is much more challenging to balance ourselves as we go ahead through life, constantly and intentionally seeking to buffer ourselves into that middle space as we are finding our way through unknowns.

5. October 10, 2010, in response to a post by Lori Ann Van Zoeren where she shared some

thoughts regarding Hinduism, which was a new religion to us both.

RE: Sanatana DharmaI agree, that the concepts and philosophies behind Sanatana Dharma are a bit difficult to understand, having no prior experience with this religion until taking this class. I have had to read and reread several parts, and made a 'cheat sheet' with several dozen Hindu terms, to make reading flow easier. I have found several of the concepts remarkable, such as the thought that Brahman resides in us, that to see Brahman we have to be able to shut out the 'maya' of the earth and gain absolute focus within ourselves. I also find it interesting to learn that there are so many dieties, each with his own unique atributes. I was familiar with the concept of reincarnation but not to include samsara or moksha. Probably the hardest concept for me to fully grasp was the caste system. Having been born in America, and raised as a Christian where it was taught that God embraces the poor and the destitute, it was hard for me to imagine a religion and a culture that purposefully segregates groups to the point of condemning them to a life of poverty and disrespect with no hope of acquiring those. Encompassing that thought with the

concept of reincarnation, I can better understand how this can be viewed as acceptable, as life in Hindu terms is linear, and not a single event, but cycles the soul through reincarnation over and over again.

6. December 9, 2010, in response to Sonya Jackson, when she commented on our ability to

identify our own personal opinions and influences in order to understand other religions.

I agree with you, that letting go of personal opinions is a challenge to understanding new cultures. It's human nature to label things as "right" or "wrong", especially when religions are involved. Religions are especially tricky as they are learned cultures with defined values and expected actions tied in directly with a higher purpose or goal. I have often questioned some of the dogma involved with my own religion, and I have truely enjoyed shedding some of my own personal culture in order to open my mind wide enough to generate some form of understanding of how others live and think and act. I wish more people were able to do the same. I think it would lead to more interfaith tolerance.

I have thoroughly enjoyed this class. I have always enjoyed learning about new cultures, and

this class peaked that interest. One of the things I enjoyed most in my years in obstetrics at a

large city hospital was being immersed in a wide variety of cultural practices. I looked for ways

to make healthcare meaningful for each person, and this class helped me to unlock some of the

reasons behind the actions. I can honestly say that this has been one of my favorite classes as I

travel toward my baccalaureate in nursing degree. Thank you for a great semester.