OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR EXAMS 1-6

Objective questions and answers (Exam 1)

1. What are the four limitations of the fossil record? Habitat bias Taxonomic and tissue bias Temporal bias Abundance bias 2. The Earth began to form _4.6 billion__ years ago.3. Life began around _3.4 billion__ years ago. 4. Over 542 million years ago, life was exclusively unicellular. Oxygen

was absent from the atmosphere and oceans until the evolution of photosynthetic bacteria. This was during the __Precambrian__ Eon.

You need to know Eons and Eras, but you are not responsible for knowing periods or epochs. Reference the lecture slides while studying for your exam and memorize the ones circled in red.

5. Adaptive radiation is triggered by two general mechanisms, which are? New resources New ways to exploit resources

6. What is the Cambrian Explosion and what triggered it? The rapid diversification of multicellular animal life that took

place around the beginning of the Cambrian Period. Triggers:

o Higher oxygen levels o Evolution of predation o New niches beget more new niches o New genes, new bodies

7. What is the title for the extinction that killed the dinosaurs and what is our hypothesis for the cause?

End-Cretaceous Extinction Impact hypothesis: asteroid struck Earth 65mya…caused things

like hot gas fireball, tsunami, acid rain, dust, ash, soot, etc.

8. Metabolism Chart Define each highlighted word and fill in blanks (Carbon needs come after Energy needs for terms). These are the six possible ways of producing ATP and obtaining carbon (6 types of metabolism).

Carbon

9. Since all organisms fit into at least one of these categories, it’s obvious

that all organisms must do what? Acquire chemical energy in the form of ATP Obtain carbon compounds that can serve as building blocks

for synthesis of cellular components 10. Which of the above are used by eukaryotes?

Photoautotrophs and Chemoorganoheterotrophs 11. How many do bacteria and archaea use?

All 6. Bacteria and archaea are more diverse than eukaryotes pretty much in every way. This makes sense because they’ve been around a lot longer.

12. What are the three domains of life? Bacteria (unicellular and lack membrane bound nucleus) Archaea (unicellular and lack membrane bound nucleus) Eukarya

13. Why is the term prokaryote considered outdated by many biologists?

It groups things that actually aren’t that close together, or paraphyletic. Archaea and Eukarya are more closely related.

14. Complete the table of key differences between the three domains.

Characteristic Bacteria Archaea EukaryaDNA in Nuclear envelope

No No Yes

Circular chromosome

Yes Yes No

Organelles in membranes

No No Yes

Some species multicellular

No No Yes

Unique phospholipids in

No Yes No

Energy enEEne

Auto (can make its own food (plants))

Hetero (can’t make own food, must eat other organisms to generate energy, (humans))

Photo (light) Photoautotrophs Photoheterotrophs Chemoorgano (organic)

Chemoorganoautotrophs

Chemoorganoheterotrophs

Chemolitho (inorganic)

Chemolithoautotrophs Chemolithotrophic heterotrophs

plasma membranes Cells walls (when present have peptidoglycan)

Yes no no

15. The oldest fossils were found __3.5 billion__ years ago and was what type of fossil?

Bacteria 16. Eukaryotes do not appear in the fossil record until __1.7 billion__

years later. 17. Why can bacteria and archaea live in a wide array of

environments? Because they are very diverse in morphology and metabolism

18. What are extremophiles? Organism that live in conditions of extreme temperature,

acidity, or chemical concentration.

19. What is the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative?

Gram-positive bacteria will turn purple after having a treatment with a dye called a gram stain. Gram-positive will turn purple because it contains a lot of peptidoglycan.

Gram-negative looks pink and does not contain near as much peptidoglycan in a thin layer, and also has a second component called a phospholipid bilayer

20. Can you use antibiotics to get rid of a common cold? NO!! Antibiotics can’t fight viruses.

21. How do scientists study bacteria and archaea? Enrichment cultures Genetic techniques

22. What is unique about the electron donors and acceptors used for cellular respiration by bacteria and archaea?

Eukaryotes can only use oxygen and sugar while bacteria and archaea are very diverse and can use many different things.

23. What are the functional roles of bacteria and archaea? Why are they important? What do they do?

Oxygen revolution o No oxygen on Earth for first 2.3 billion years.

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic bacteria and were the

first to perform oxygenic photosynthesis. They changed the earths atmosphere to one with high concentration of oxygen. Now oxygen was common in oceans so cells could carry out aerobic respiration (before they could only do anaerobic (without oxygen)).

Nitrogen fixation/pollutiono All organisms need N to synthesize proteins and nucleic

acids. N2 is abundant but most organisms can’t use it directly, they have to do it through nitrogen fixation. Bacteria and archaea are responsible for the nitrogen cycle, driving the movement of nitrogen atoms through ecosystems around the globe.

o Ammonia fertilizers are causing pollution. Bacteria releases it as waste products. Nitrates also cause pollution in aquatic environments causing dead zones.

Extremophiles – scientific and industrial uses o Extremophiles are enzymes that function at extreme

temperatures and pressures are useful in industrial processes

o Used in making biofuels and mining o May help explain how earth began o Are model organisms in the search for extraterrestrial life

Medical – pathogens, antibodies, and mutualists o Pathogens: bacteria that cause disease. Prior to mid-1800s,

they thought disease transmission was due to “bad air” instead of person-to-person tranmsmission.

Koch guessed that bacteria might be responsible for causing infectious diseases.

Koch’s postulates The microbe must be in all individuals that

have a particular disease The organism must be isolated and grown in a

pure culture away from the host organism If organisms from the pure culture are injected

into a healthy experimental animal, the disease symptoms should appear.

The organism should be isolated from the diseased experimental animal, again grown in pure culture, and demonstrated to be the same as the original organism

His experimental results were the first test of the germ theory of disease:

Pattern: some diseases are infectious Process: transmission and growth of certain

bacteria and viruses

This led to modern medicine Improved sanitation miraculously

o Antibiotics: molecules that kill bacteria or stop them from growing. They are produced naturally by certain soil-dwelling bacteria and fungi

Bioremediation o Use of bacteria and archaea to clean up sites polluted with

organic solvents o bacteria and archaea produce extremely sophisticated

enzymes, so they can live in extreme environments and use toxic compounds as food

o uses 2 strategies: fertilizing contaminated sites to encourage the

growth of existing bacteria and archaea that degrade compounds

“seeding”, or adding, specific species of bacteria and archaea to contaminated sites

Food o Bacteria and fungi help us make cheese and other foods

delicious o Sometimes be responsible for disease

24. Tell me everything you know about Cyanobacteria. Formerly known as blue-green algae Found as independent cells, chains that form filaments, or

colonies All perfrom oxygenic photosynthesis Some species of cyanobacteria can

o Fix oxygen o Associate with other organisms by providing nutritional

benefit o Release toxic molecules called microcystins o Responsible for the origin of the oxygen atmosphere on

earth o They still produce much of the oxygen, nitrogen and

organic compounds that feed other freshwater and marine organisms

Objective questions and answers (Exam 2)

1. Which monophyletic group contains fungi and animals?

Fungi and animals are monophyletic; their group is Opisthokonta (ones with flagella in back).

2. What is it about fungal infections in humans harder to treat than bacterial infections? We are so closely related to fungi that anything that affects fungi negatively will affect

us negatively.

3. How do fungi eat? Absorption using their hyphae

4. What are the two growth forms exhibited by fungi? Unicellular (yeasts) and multicellular

5. What are hyphae and septa? Coenocytic hyphae? Hyphae: each of the branching filaments that make up the mycelium of a fungus Septa: “cross walls” of hyphae. Divides hyphae into cells. Septa are usually perforated by

pores, so some things are able to get through Coenocytic hyphae = no septa.

6. Describe what is meant by EMF and AMF. EMF = Ecotomycorrhizal fungi (grows on the outside of a plant) AMF = Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (grows into the roots of a plant)

7. How do fungi affect plants? Parasitic relationships, symbiotic relationships, etc.

8. Where does digestion take place in fungi? Outside of the body. The fungus breaks down the complex material by secreting digestive enzymes through their cell wall that will digest the complex organic compounds and convert them into simple molecules that can readily be transported through their cell walls.

9. Give 4 examples of mutualistic fungi. Mycorrhizal: 1) arbuscular (AMF) and 2) ectomycorrhizal (EMF) Ants farming fungus

10. Saprophytic fungi: eats dead things

11. What is the role of fungi in the carbon cycle? Break things down that are difficult for other organisms to break down; cellulose

and lignin.

12. What are some ways that fungi benefit humans? FOOD <3, medications, beer and wine, decomposers, etc.

13. Give examples of how fungi act as parasites or pathogens. Ringworm Athletes foot Cordyceps fungi Lots of plant diseases (Dutch Elm Disease and Chestnut Blight)

14. What is a spore? Plasmogamy? Dikaryotic? Karyogamy? Spore: part that disperses to get to a new location to start a new body. Plasmogamy: hyphae meet from two different individuals (recognize by

pheromones), they join, and plasmogamy happens. The two cytoplasms mix together.

Dikaryotic: two separate nuclei in a single cell Karyogamy: two nuclei fuse and you have a diploid nucleus Next step after this is meiosis, which turn into haploid cells which can then be spores and start the cycle all over again!!!

15. Give examples or characteristics of the six major groups of fungi. Microsporidia – small, parasitic Zygomycetes – molds Chytrids – flagella Glomeromycota – lots of AMF Basidiomycetes – EMF, most mushrooms we eat are in this group, big colorful

ones in forest, club fungi, yeasts Ascomycota – truffles, sac fungi, lichens, yeastsRemember them in this order and give examples of each that will help you distinguish them from each other.

16. When did animals first show up in the fossil record?600mya

17. Why is the Cambrian Explosion significant for animal diversity? 550mya this occurred, higher oxygen levels may have caused this. A lot of the diversification today came from this.

18. What are key traits for animals? MulticellularMobility Heterotroph Muscles and nerves Digest food internally

19. In a phylogeny of animals, what is the outgroup? Most basal group? Outgroup is Choanoflagellates (most closely related to animals). Most basal group is sponges (Porifera).

20. What are key characteristics of sponges? Sessile Live in aquatic systems They filter feed; they are suspension feeders

21. What is the difference between diploblasts and triploblasts? At which point on the phylogenetic tree did each trait evolve?

Diploblasts only have two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm) while triploblasts have three germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm). Ctenophores and Cnidarians are diploblasts, and the rest below are triploblasts.

22. Which groups are radially symmetrical? Ctenophores and Cnidarians have radial symmetry All below have bilateral symmetry EXCEPT echinoderms

Side note: sponges are not symmetrical at all and don’t have organized tissue.

23. What is the advantage of bilateral symmetry? Central nervous system development is linked to bilateral symmetry (brain, and other important things). It enables effective movement in purposeful and intentional directions for the animal and more

24. Which animal phylum is the most speciose?Arthropods

25. What are the challenges associated with transitioning from water to land?Needed to be able to:

Exchange gases Avoid drying out Hold up their bodies under their own weight

Side note: the adaptations they developed in order to do these things are: High surface area to volume ratio (increases efficiency of gas exchange across surface in moist environments)Gills or other respiratory structures located inside body (minimizes water loss)Waxy layer (minimize water loss)Desiccation-resistant eggs (keeps moisture in eggs)

26. What are the differences between protostomes and deuterostomes? Protostomes develop mouth before anus. Blocks of mesoderm hollow out to form the

coelom Deuterostomes devlop anus before mouth. Pockets of mesoderm pinch off to form

coelom

27. Which three traits are used to identify an animal as a lophotrochozoan? Lophophore Throcohpore larva Spiral cleavage

28. What trait distinguishes ecdysozoans from lophotrochozoans?Ecdysozoans grow by molting and lophotrochozoans grow by extending the size of their skeleton and continuously growing when conditions are good

29. What traits do you associate with rotifers? Platyhelminthes? Annelids? Mollusks? Mollusks have a muscular foot, visceral mass and mantle. They also have a radula

(feeding structure that functions like a rasp or file, sharp plates). The mollusks lineages are bivalves (clams and mussels), gastropods (slugs and snails), chitons (mollusks with plated dorsal shells), and cephalopods (squids and octupuses)

Rotifers live in damp soils and marine and freshwater environments. They have a coelom and are less than 1mm long. Although they are are lophotrochozoans, they have neither a lophophore nor a trochophore.

Platyhelminthes are flatworms. They have a broad, flattened body shape, are unsegmented, lack a coelom.

Annelids are segmented worms.

Objective questions and answers (Exam 3)

1. What are two characteristic morphological features in deuterostomes? Anus develops first and the coelom forms from mesoderm being pinched

2. What are three synapomorphies that characterize echinoderms? Adults have radial symmetryEndoskeleton Watervascular system

3. What are the components of the echinoderm water vascular system?Tube feet – podium (outside body) and Ampulla (inside body)

4. What type of symmetry do adult echinoderms have? Radial

5. Describe three different ways in which echinoderms feed. Mass feeding – ex: feeding on bivalves by ripping their shells apart with their tube feet, extruding their stomachs through the opening, secreting enzymes into them and sucking them upSuspension feeding – extend tube feet into the water and use them to flick up food particles. Their cilia then sweep food into their mouth Deposit feeding – dissolve food in mucus and eat mucus by moving it to their mouth with their tube feet

6. Which lineage of echinoderms are sessile suspension feeders? Crinodea

7. How would you distinguish a brittle star from a sea star? Brittle stars have a much more defined central region. In sea stars the arms blend into

that central region.

8. How do sea stars (Asteroidea) use their tube feet? Eating and feeding

9. Compare and contrast the sea urchins and sand dollars (Echinoidea). Sea urchins feed on kelp grazing on the ground and sand dollars are suspension feeders

that use mucus.

10. What are the four shared morphological features of chordates? Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits and muscular post anal tail

11. Which subphylum of chordates lacks three of these features in adults? Urochordates AKA sea squirts or tunicates

12. How does the dorsal hollow nerve cord differ between the vertebrates and the other subphyla of Chordata?

Bonier and becomes the spinal column

13. What is the purpose of the notochord in vertebrates? The notochord helps organize the body plan early in development by secreting proteins

that induce somite formation. Somites are segmented blocks of tissue that later differentiate into vertebrae, ribs, and skeletal muscles

14. What are the two synapomorphies that characterize vertebrates? Cranium and vertebrae. Both protect the CNS

15. What are three regions of the vertebrate brain and what do they control? Front, mid, and hind brain. Front brain controls smell, mid brain controls sight and hind

brain controls balance and hearing

16. What did the innovation of jaws allow? Predation

17. What did the innovation of the bony endoskeleton allow? Faster movement

18. What did the innovation of the amniotic egg allow? More developed juvenile stage. The amniotic egg provided a more moist environment.

Before, the eggs would’ve dried out on land.

19. What are the two primary lineages of the vertebrates that have roughly the same number of species?

Tetrapods and ray finned fishes

20. From what structure did the vertebrate jaw evolve? Gill finned arches

21. Describe the relationship between lungfish and tetrapods. Lungfish had bony limbs and tetrapods are animals that have limbs (although some have

lost either one pair of limbs or both). Tetrapods include amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

22. How are amphibian eggs different from those reptiles, birds, and mammals? Amphibian eggs only have one layer Yolk sac (contains nutrients), Amnion (contains embryo) and Allantios (contains waste)

23. What innovation do viviparous vertebrates have and why is it important/what does it do?

Placenta. This is important because it shields the embryo; constant temp, transport, easy transport of baby. It transfers nutrients and oxygen from mom to baby and CO2 and waste from baby.

24. How does parental care entail a fitness trade-off? The components of offspring are # of children and survival. You can only give so much to

offspring so you can’t have that many. So you are having less offspring but they are more likely to survive.

25. What adaptations have facilitated vertebrate flight? Hollow bones, keel (elongated keel on sternum for attachment on flight muscles),

endothermic (produce heat in their own tissues)

26. What is the difference between hominins and hominids?Great apes are called hominids Hominins include all of the homo species (including us and all the distinct species)

27. What are the two main groups of primates?Prosimians & anthropoids

28. What are some of the defining characteristics of primates?Opposable thumbs Flat nailsLarger brainsColor vision Complex social behaviorForward facing eyes

29. What is the difference between a hominid and a hominin?Hominins is a subset of the hominids. Hominids are all great apes

30. What synapomorphy distinguishes hominins from other hominids?Bipedalism

31. How are recent species in the genus Homo distinguished from earlier species?Larger body size and larger brain cases

32. Describe the Out-of-Africa hypothesis. Human originated in Africa so we evolved all our modern traits there. Then there was this huge migration out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago. After they migrated out of Africa, humans mated with Neanderthals and experienced gene flow with them.

33. Why are we discussing green algae along with the land plants?Land plants evolved from green algae and they have a lot of similar characteristics

34. Which species colonized terrestrial environments first, plants or animals?Plants

35. In what way are plants “primary producers”?They harvest the energy from the sun using photosynthesis to produce sugar and oxygen from CO2

36. Describe the process of plant domestication. Humans started about 10,000 years ago with completely wild plants and selected traits that they liked in those plants and after awhile those plants change to become the way humans wanted them to.

37. What are some ways that biologists can study plants?Fossil record Genetics Morphological traits

38. In what ways are green algae similar to land plants?Chloroplasts are similar Thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts are similar

39. What are the three primary groups of land plants and how are they differentiated based on morphology?

Seedless vascular Nonvascular Seed plants (angiosperms and gymnosperms)

40. What does the fossil record tell us about the evolution of land plants?Plants originated Sylerian Devonian explosion – all modern innovations of plants evolved during this Carboniferous was next – coal deposits in swamps now we are to current day – angiosperm radiation

41. What feature did land plants evolve in order to cope with dessication and what problem did this feature introduce?

Cuticle – the cuticle introduced the problem of being able to get air through the cuticle. The stoma solved this problem. First they were just pores but then evolved guard cells.

42. Why was increased UV radiation a problem for land plants and what was the evolutionary solution?

UV radiation damaged DNA. Flavonoids served as sunscreen that protected them from UV radiation.

43. Why is sprawling growth habit a disadvantage for nonvascular plants?Because when they grow taller they have more access to sunlight and more resources

44. Describe the unique cell wall structure found in fossils of land plants.2 cell walls; 1 is very well formed (primary cell wall) made up of cellulose and then the rings of lignin began to form to make up vessel elements and tracheids.

45. How do tracheids and vessel elements differ?Vessel elements: shorter, wider, and larger openings at the top

46. In what two lineages have vessel elements evolved?Angiosperms and gnetophytes

47. What is the primary difference between the life cycle of green algae and the land plants?

Land plants go through Alternation of Generations and green algae do not Green algae do not have diploid sporophyte (but they do have diploid zygote)

48. What are the two multicellular generations/individuals in land plant life cycles?Diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte

49. What is the difference between a spore and a zygote?Spore is haploid and zygote is diploid. Spore is produced by sporophyte and zygote is produced by gametophyte

50. Which generation dominates the life cycle later in land plants, the gametophyte or the sporophyte?

Sporophyte

51. What is the difference between homospory and heterospory?Homospory – gametophyte is bisexual (both male and female) Heterospory – gametophyte is either male or female

52. In what type of plants is pollen found? What are some advantages of pollen?Seed plants – gymnosperms and angiosperms. More effective transport and the sporopollenin keeps it from drying out

53. What are the components and benefits of a seed?

Embryo Nutritive component Outer protective layer

54. What are the four main components of a flower?Stamen (male) and carpel (female) petals and sepals

55. Describe the process of double fertilization. Main difference that you need to know: 2 from mom and 1 from dad…triploid AKA three copies of genetic material

56. Describe the directed-pollination hypothesis and give an example that supports it. The color, smell, etc. have all evolved to attract pollinators An example is bees being attracted to a certain color flower

57. What is derived from the ovary?Fruit

58. How many species of angiosperms are there?Over 250,000…they represents one of the greatest adaptive radiations (it’s happening now)

59. What is the difference between monocots and dicots?Monocots – one cotyledon, scattered vascular tissue, parallel leaf veins, and petals in multiples of three Dicots – two cotyledons, vascular tissue in circular arrangement, branching veins in leaves and petals in multiples of 4 or 5

60. What is the importance of a cotyledon?It’s the first source of nutrition…first leaf to photosynthize after germination

61. Dicots are _paraphyletic_ which means there are multiple independent lineages. Monocots are monophyletic.

62. Describe nonvascular plants. First land plantsHave a low, sprawling growth habit Lack vascular tissue with lignin-reinforced cell walls Have flagellated sperm that swim to eggs Have spores that are dispersed by wind

63. Describe seedless vascular plants.

Paraphyletic group between nonvascular plants and the seed plants All species of seedless vascular plants have vascular tissue comprised of lignin-reinforced cells Seedless vascular plants depend on presence of water for reproduction Sporophyte is dominant phase of life cycle

64. Describe seed plants. Monophyletic group including gymnosperms and angiospermsDefined by the production of seeds and pollen grains Found in virtually every type of habitat Have life spans ranging from a few weeks to almost 5000 yearsAre all heterosporous

Objective questions and answers (Exam 4)

1. Where do new cells come from? Preexisting cells (part cell theory)

2. The two types of cell division are __Meiosis__ and __Mitosis__. Meiosis produces __gametes (eggs and sperm)__. Mitosis produces somatic cells. What are these? …all of the other cells in the body that

are not reproductive cells

3. Mitosis and Meiosis are both accompanied by __Cytokinesis__, which is what? …The division of the cytoplasm

4. How many daughter cells does Meiosis form? How about Mitosis? Are the daughter cells identical or nonidentical?

Meiosis produced 4 daughter cells that have half the amount of material as the parent cell, so they are NOT identical Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells because the genetic material is copied and divided equally between the two. Therefore, daughter cells are genetically IDENTICAL to the parent cell

5. What are the three key events that mitosis and cytokinesis are responsible for in multicellular eukaryotes?

Growth Wound repair Asexual reproduction

6. How many types of chromosomes are in the human genome? Do all species have this same number of chromosomes?

23…but we are diploid (2n, 2 copies of each) so 46 No, every speices has a different amount of chromosomes

7. Draw a chromatid and label each part.

*chromatids from the same chromosome are referred to as sister chromatids

8. What happens in the M phase of the cell cycle?Mitotic phase; cell divides here

9. Does division happen in Interphase?NO

10. When in replication occurring?The S phase (synthesis phase) which is part of interphase

11. What are the two gap phases? G1: first gap phase; occurs before S phase G2: second gap; occurs between S phase and mitosis

12. Now put all of those steps in order, starting with the fist gap phase. G1 S phase G2 Mitosis

13. Which lasts longer, interphase or m phase?Interphase

14. What has happened in the picture below?

the chromosomes just went through S phase and have been replicated!

15. What has happened in the picture below and what phase are we in?

the chromosomes have condensed; this is the start of Mitosis (m phase)

16. What types of cells do mitosis and meiosis produce and how do these differ in terms of their chromosomes?

Meiosis – produces gametes, 4 chromosomes that are not genetically identical the the parent, haploidMitosis – produces somatic cells, 2 chromosomes that are genetically identical to the parent, diploid

17. What are the two main phases of the cell cycle? What are their subphases?Interphase includes G1, S phase and G2M phase includes Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

18. What is the purpose of the Gap phases of interphase?They are checkpoints that make sure the cell is ready to move on the next phase.

19. How do chromosomes differ between the G1 and G2 phases?G1 = unreplicated G2 = replicated

20. When do chromosomes condense during M phase? Prophase of Mitosis; right at the beginning

21. What are the two types of microtubules and how do they differ functionally?Kinetochore microtubules – pulling chromosomes toward opposite poles Polar microtubules – pushing on poles to pull ends apart

22. During what M-phase subphase do chromosomes line up along a central plane in the cell?

Metaphase

23. During what subphase do sister chromatids divide?Anaphase

24. How can the cell cycle differ across cell types?The speedFor example, brain cells last a very long timeCells in digestive tract do not

25. How do chromosomes migrate toward the cell poles during anaphase?Disassembled at kinetochore and chromosomes are being pushed during disassembly towards the poles so the cell is ready to divide

26. During cytokinesis, describe how plants and animals divide their cytoplasm. Plants – vesicles line up Animals – actin and myosin filaments pinch until there is two daughter cells

27. What are the components of MPF and how do they differ?Mitosis Promoting Factor…2 components are cylin and kinase. Cylin is regulating when the cell division occurs (telling kinase what to do) and kinase actually carrying out phosphorylation (which means the addition of a phosphate group)

28. When is concentration of the Cyclin component of MPF the highest and what triggers MPF’s activation for mitosis?

Two phosphates will join, then one is removed, and that’s what activates the MPF and then the cell begins Mitosis

29. When does MPF degrade?Happens in Anaphase The enzymes are targeting the cyclin Kinase stays same concentration throughout cell cycle

30. When do the checkpoints for the cell cycle occur and what is their purpose?In interphase:G1G2In M phase: Two in M phase

If they don’t pass these checkpoints, they are marked for Apoptosis using p53

31. What is the function of p53?Signal saying cell needs to be degraded because it’s having problems.If it’s not degraded, it will cause cancer.

32. What is cancer caused by?Cells that grow in an uncontrolled fashion

Invade nearby tissuesSpread to other sites on the body

33. What is the difference between a benign tumor and a malignant tumor?Benign tumors are noninvasive and noncancerous. Malignant tumors are invasive, cancerous, can spread throughout body via the blood or lymph, initiate secondary tumors

34. When malignant tumors detach from the original tumor and invade other tissues, it is called what?

Metastasis

35. What does the G1 checkpoint check for?Is the cell size is adequate Nutrients are sufficient Social signals are present DNA is undamaged

36. What does the G2 checkpoint check for?Chromosomes have replicated successfully DNA is undamaged Activated MPF is present

37. How many M-phase checkpoints are there and what do they check for?2 checkpoints 1 checks that the chromosomes have attached to the spindle apparatus the other checks that the chromosomes have properly segregated and MPF is absent

38. Mature cells get permanently stuck in the G1 phase. What is this arrested state called?G0Mature cells are nondividing cellsCell stops dividing permanently

*real life application: some cells are terminally differentiated. Neurons and red blood cells are examples of terminally differentiated cells. When these cells reach their final mature state, they do not need to divide ever again. For this reason, the cells leave G1 and enter an alternative state called G0 (read G-zero) where they stop dividing permanently. Not all cells can enter the G0 phase. Cells in G0 may not undergo mitosis, but they are still very metabolically active. For example, half of a human brain consists of neurons that are in G0. Yet the brain consumes about 25% of the body’s metabolic energy each day You did not need to know this it is just an example that may help some people.

39. What about cell cycles can vary among different cell types?The length of the cell cycleVariation in the length of G1 phase is responsible for differences

40. In the simplest way possible, how would you describe to someone what cancer is?Out of control cell division due to cell cycle checkpoints failing (usually G1)

41. What two types of defects can cancerous cells have?Defects that make the proteins required for cell growth active when they should not be Defects that prevent tumor suppressor genes from shutting down the cell cycle*note that both of these result in out of control cell growth 8. Describe the difference between a benign tumor and a malignant tumor. Benign tumors are noninvasive and noncancerous Malignant tumors are invasive, cancerous, can spread through body via the blood or lymph, initiate secondary tumors

9. when cancer cells detach from the original tissue and invade other tissues, what is this called?

Metastasis

10. what is the difference between homologs and sister chromatids?Homologs consist of 1 paternal chromosome and 1 maternal chromosome (1 from mom and 1 from dad) that are similar in size, shape and gene content Sister chromatids are two identical chromatid copies in a replicated chromosome

11. what is a bivalent (or tetrad)?Homologous replicated chromosomes that are joined together during prophase I and metaphase I of meiosis

12. At the end of Meiosis I, are we left with 2 diploid or haploid cells?Haploid

13. At the end of Meiosis II, are we left with 4 diploid or haploid cells?Haploid

Objective questions and answers (Exam 5)

1. How did Plato’s typological thinking regard phenotypic variation within a species?Unchanging. Perfect essence (phenotype)

2. Describe Aristotle’s “Great Chain of Being.”Ladder – humans on top being as good as species can get

3. How did Lamarck’s ideas on species differ from Aristotle’s and how did Lamarck incorporate inheritance of acquired characteristics?

Escalator – less complicated to more complicated

4. How did Wallace and Darwin’s ideas differ from Plato, Aristotle and Lamarck?Came up with natural selection which is the process component of evolution. Evolution of natural populations – changed over time. A variation of traits is important because now there is an adaptive potential.

5. Describe the pattern component of the theory of evolution. Species change over time and they have common ancestors

6. In what ways did the fossil record contribute to the pattern component of the theory of evolution (Hint: extinction, transitional features, vestigial traits)?

Extinction: Irish Elk example. We wouldn’t have been able to miss that thing if it was still around today!!!Transitional features: Tetrapod limbs example. If we go back into the fossil record and the older they are, the less and less limbs they have. Vestigial traits: Human tail bone example. We don’t have tails anymore but we used to.

7. What are some examples of evolutionary changes observed in nature in modern times? Pesticide resistant insects Bugs developing antibiotic resistance

8. What types of homology can help illustrate descent from a common ancestor? Structural homology Genetic homology Developmental homology

9. What does it mean for a theory to have “internal consistency”? Lots of sources of evidence supporting this theory

10. What is the process component of evolution?Natural selection Natural selection acts on individuals but actually evolves populations. Removes unfit individuals from population

11. What were the two sources of inspiration for Darwin for the process component of evolution?

Artificial selections – doves

And Malthus book

12. What are Darwin’s four postulates? Individuals vary for heritable traits These traits are heritable – they can be passed on from one generation to the next More offspring are produced than can survive Individuals with certain form of that trait are more likely to survive than others

within the population

13. Describe the two examples of evolution through natural selection that we discussed in class that have been documented in modern times.

Tuberculosis – individuals vary in traits because some were resistance to the medication and some were not. This resistance can be passed on to offspring. Limited resources with harsh environment. Only individuals resistant to medication can survive

Finches in Galapagos – Individuals vary for beak depth trait. This can be passed on to offspring. Drought makes it so not all offspring produced can survive. Finches with longer beaks survive.

14. At what levels do natural selection and evolution occur?Natural selection – individuals; weeds out individuals who are not fit Evolution – populations; change of allele frequencies

15. What is the difference between acclimatization and adaptation? Acclimation – phenotype changes; response to environment; red blood cell example Adaptation – genotype changes;

16. Why do we say that evolution is not “goal directed” or “progressive”?Evolution is not goal directed, it’s random. Every once in a while there is a mutation that will be beneficial to the population so natural selection will act on that. Sometimes things will evolve to become more simple, it just depends on the environment they are trying to adapt to. Ex: tapeworms

17. What are some examples of clear constraints to evolution? We have to wait for the right variation of traits to be produced for adaptation to occur. Traits that evolve are not always best fit for everything.

18. What would be an example of a fitness trade-off? Fewer offspring but increase of change of survival for those offspring

19. If you were told that p = 0.6 and q = 0.4, how would you calculate expected genotype frequencies within a population?

If p = A1 and q = A2, what is the frequency of the homozygote A1? (0.6)^2 = 0.36 What is the frequency of the A2 homozygotes? (0.4)^2 = 0.16

Frequency of the heterozygote? 2pq = 2(0.6)(0.4) = 0.48

20. If there is 100 individuals in this populatin that you see in #19, how many would you expect to be heterozygotes?

48… take 0.48x100

21. What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation?p+q=1

22. What is inbreeding depression and how is it caused?Inbreeding is breeding of close relatives. Increase in homozygous individuals so there is less variation in future generations, resulting in deleterious alleles being more prominent making the population less fit.

23. What are the four evolutionary processes that change allele frequencies? Natural selection Gene flowGenetic driftMutations

24. What are the four types of natural selection and what would be an example of each type?

Disruptive selection – can result in speciation. Balancing selection – ex: babies with average birth weights have a better chance of surviving than babies with low or high birth weights Stabilizing selection – pushing towards middle to one specific version of trait, decreasing diversity Directional selection – pushing population in certain direction.

25. What is the difference between intersexual selection vs intrasexual selection?-Intersexual: mate choice. Individuals, usually female, are picky choosing their mate. Look for males that would help care for young/provide resources. There are some characteristics (more colorful beaks and feathers, etc.) that can show the females who the healthiest mates would be. -Intrasexual: competition. Direct competition among individuals of one sex for mates of the opposite sex (usually occurs in males).

26. Describe the pattern and process components of the Bateman and Trivers theory of the Fundamental Asymmetry of Sex.

Pattern of colorful bodies and displays by males being favored Process is the female choosing the right male. Female is choosy because she invests a ton of resources into having offspring

27. What examples have been observed that support this theory?

Example where they some finches better diet than others. Ones with better diet had more colorful beaks and were chosen by females.

28. What is genetic drift and what is an example of how it could occur? Any change in allele frequencies in a population due to chance

29. How does population size determine the influence of genetic drift? Small population = faster drift

Objective questions and answers (Exam 6)

1. What is the central goal of ecology?Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment. The central goal of ecology is to understand the distribution and abundance of organisms. How many individuals are there, where are they located and why.

2. What topics are covered in the 6 subfields of ecology?Organismal Ecology

Population Ecology

Community Ecology

Ecosystem Ecology

Landscape Ecology

Global Ecology

Physiological, evolutionary, behavioral ecologySubdisciplines are physiological ecology (investigates how organisms are physiologically adapted to their environment) and behavioral ecology (how the behavior of an individual organism contributes to survival and

Factors that affect population size, how and why it changes through time. Focuses on groups of interbreeding individuals (same species in same area at same time). Includes studies of species interactions. Predation, competition, parasitism and mutualism.

Interactions between species; effect of disturbance on groups of species. Focuses on why some areas are species rich while others are species poor. Studies how species composition and community structure change over time, particularly after disturbance.

Energy flow, chemical cycling. An ecosystem consists of all the organisms in a particular region, along with nonliving, or abiotic components. Study how nutrients and energy move among and between organisms and the surrounding atmosphere and soil or water.

Factors controlling exchanges of energy, materials, organisms across ecosystems. What is the relationship between spatial patterns and ecological processes? What is the interaction among pattern, process and scale? How do ecosystems interact?

Regional exchange of energy, materials, across the biosphere. How do changes in one area of the globe affect other regions? How do human activities influence atmospheric chemistry? How does energy use relate to global climate change?

reproductive success).

3. What is an ecosystem?An ecosystem consists of all the organisms in a particular region, along with nonliving, or abiotic, components

4. What is the difference between ecology and environmental advocacy or environmentalism?

Ecology provides scientific understanding of living things and their environment. Environmentalism is advocacy focused on conservation and preservation of life on Earth.

5. List abiotic factors that may limit distribution. Temperature, sunlight/seasonality, water, wind, soil type, disturbances

6. What is the difference between climate and weather?Climate is the prevailing long-term weather conditions found in an area. Climate determines broad species distributions of populations. Weather is specific short-term atmospheric conditions of temperature, precipitation, sunlight and wind. Extreme weather can impact individuals, but rarely affects populations.

7. Describe how global air circulation patterns determine biomes. Hadley cell.

8. What is a Hadley cell?Circulation cells exist at the equator. The sun is closest to the equator. Warm air rises and cools, dropping rain. Cooled air is pushed poleward. Dense, dry air descends, warms and absorbs moisture. Circulation cells also exist at higher latitudes. There are three circulation cells in the Northern Hemisphere. There are also three circulation cells in the Southern Hemisphere.

9. What causes seasonal variation?The tilt of the earth.

10. How do mountain ranges affect climate?Side wind is coming from will be very wet so that side will support forest, and the other side will be very dry.

11. What factors limit species distribution? Abiotic factors, biotic factors, dispersal limitation (can it even get there?), and behavior (behavioral differences can cause organisms to no longer mate, like the birds with their different songs example).

12. What is the Wallace line, and what does it demonstrate?Between Indonesian islands. The fauna on the northern side is different from the fauna on the southern side. These land masses were together a long time ago when Pangea was still together. There were many millions of years when they were apart and they just recently came back together. They are on different evolutionary trajectories. There’s a deep ocean line between the two so they have dispersal limitations.

13. What can we learn about populations from studying invasive species?We can learn whether or not those populations are able to live with those invasive species, if it will change the way it lives, etc.

14. How would you test whether a biotic interaction affects the distribution or abundance of an organism?

Manipulate the organisms you want to test but you need a control so you can find out what happens to the ones that aren’t manipulated as well and compare the two.

15. What are the 4 primary approaches used in ecology?Historical, experimental, stimulation, and observational.

16. What is behavioral ecology?Behavior is some action responding to some stimulus. Behavior ecology is studying this – how organisms interact with their environment.

17. Differentiate between proximate vs ultimate causes of behavior.Proximate – HOW? What is happening behind the scenes to cause this behavior?Ultimate – WHY? Why has this evolved? Why is this happening?

18. What are fixed action patterns? What is the alternative?Innate behavior – coocoo killing his siblings, sneezing, etc. The opposite of this is a learned behavior. Speech is learned behavior in humans.

19. What factors do scientists measure when doing a behavioral cost-benefit analysis?Is it worth the energy expense? Ex: cheetah giving up hunt because it’s no longer worth the cost. Cost + benefit should always be net positive; AKA overall benefit. While observing this you’re looking at Ultimate causes.

20. Is behavior limited to animals?No. Behavior is a response to stimulus. Anything can behave, it’s just usually more interesting in animals.

21. What is optimal foraging theory?Maximizing benefits and minimizing costs. Expending as little energy as possible but getting the most food. Costs can be energy expended, using energy, etc. Benefit is getting food for energy!

22. What are the proximate and ultimate causes typically studied when evaluating mate selection in animals?

Proximate..how are mates chosen? – hormones, appearance, seeing what the other has to offer, etc. Ultimate..why are certain mates chosen? – females being choosy

23. What are the three primary ways animals navigate?Piloting = using known landmarks to get aroundCompass orientation = movement oriented in a specific direction (using magnetic field, etc.)True navigation = ability to locate a specific place on Earth’s surface

24. What are the ultimate causes of migration? AKA why do animals migrate?Climate, seasonal predators, better food source somewhere else at some time of year

25. What is communication? There needs to be something communicating and something responding. It’s not communication is something is conveying information but nothing is responding. Honey bees communicate by doing the round dance or waggle dance to tell the other members of the colony where the food is.

26. What are the proximate and ultimate causes of honeybee communication?Ultimate: Why would a honeybee want to communicate to its fellow hive members?Because it benefits the entire hive when they all know where the food is. Proximate: How do honeybees communicate?Waggle dance or round dance

27. What are examples of deceitful communication? When is it effective?Deceitful communication is lying. Ex: fish pretending it’s a female when it’s actually a male and sneaking in and fertilizing the eggs when nobody is watching. Ex: male snake that came out of hibernation that was really cold so it gave off pheromones pretending it was female so all the males came to warm it up because they thought he was female and were trying to mate with himNot effective when everyone is doing it because everyone knows it’s a scam and they’ll fall for it. It works when it is rare.

28. What is altruism? Why is it paradoxical? What is hamilton’s rule?Altruism is a behavior that has a fitness cost to the individual exhibiting it and a fitness benefit to the recipient. Altrusim is paradoxical because it decreases the organisms fitness that is doing the altruistic act. Hamilton’s rule describes the conditions under which altruism is beneficial.

29. What is inclusive fitness? Direct fitness is own fitness Indirect fitness is the fitness you’re gaining by your relative’s fitness Both of those together is inclusive fitness! Direct + indirect

30. Describe altruism vs. kin selection. An altruistic BEHAVIOR is one in which an individual (the donor) performs an action that helps another animal (the recipient) with no apparent advantage to itself. Natural selection should eliminate such behaviors, yet there are many examples (alarm calling in squirrels, helpers at the nest in scrub jays, sterile worker castes in honey bees etc.)

Kin selection is the evolutionary mechanism that selects for those behaviors that increase the inclusive fitness of the donor.

31. Define these population attributes: Range, Spatial pattern, Size, Density, DemographyRange = geographic distribution Spatial pattern = can be clumped (caused by patchy habitat or social organisms), uniform (caused by negative species interactions) and random (independent distributions of each individual). Size = N. how many are in the population Density = the number of individuals per unit area – often varies throughout its range Demography = study of factors that determine the size and structure of populations through time

32. How do you estimate population size in the field?2 main approaches 1) Population growth equations: Use simple/general equations to predict population dynamics over longer-term.2) Life tables. Use detailed info about current state of the population to predict near-term future of the population. Useful for populations with age or stage structure.

33. What are the four fundamental components of population growth?Birth, immigration, mortality and emigration

34. What is r and how does r differ from rmax? What factors control r?

35. What are the main assumptions for exponential and logistic growth?Exponential assumptions: 1)closed population (no immigration/emigration)2)continuous population growth (no time lags)3)unlimited resources (constant birth and death rates)4)no age or size structure in the populationLogistic assumptions: All the same as above EXCEPT without the unlimited resources assumption (3).

36. How do density-independent and density-dependent factors control growth?Density independent factors alter birth and death rates regardless of the number of individuals in the population. Examples are extreme weather, earthquakes, volcanoes, asteroid/comet impacts Density dependent factors are factors that affect population size differently depending on population density. Typically limit growth at high densities. Examples are competition for limited resources, metabolic wastes, diseases, parasites and predators.

37. What is a carrying capacity? What factors determine it?Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals in a population that can be supported in a particular habitat.

38. What is a metapopulation? How does it relate to population growth?A metapopulation is a population of populations connected by migration.

39. What causes populations to cycle?Some causes of oscillation of population size around the carrying capacity are: Density-dependent factors like hormonal effects on fertility, reduced abundance of prey animals, presense of diseases. Also affected by climate-driven fluctuations in nutritional quality of plant foods or abundance of prey and presence of predators.

40. How do life history characteristics vary among species and affect populations?Life history traits are the attributes of a species that affect populations. They are adaptive, presumably derived from natural selection. Some of these traits that affect populations are survivorship, ones that affect fecundity, population growth, tradeoffs, and more.

41. What are survivorship curves? Provide examples of species that follow each type. Type I survivorship curve is high survivorship low, low juvenile mortality. A species that follows this is elephants. Type II is steady survivorship, mortality independent of age. A species that follows this is roosters. Type III is low survivorship high, high juvenile mortality. A species that follows this is oysters.

42. What is fecundity? Generation?Fecundity = the number of female offspring produced per female in the population Generation = average time between the birth of an individual and the birth of its offspring

43. How does R0 differ from r?R0 = net reproductive rate r = per capita rate of increase

44. What are the two common life history strategies (e.g. life history tradeoffs)?1)grow quickly, reach sexual maturity at a young age, produce many small eggs or seeds2)grow slowly, invest their energy and time in traits that reduce damage from enemies and increase their own ability to compete for resources

45. What is the current trend for human populations? Current trend for human populations is exponential growth. But this won’t last forever! Eventually it will have to level off (reduce number of births) or decline (increase number of deaths)