approaches for conservators to the identification of plant material used in maori artefacts
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Approaches for Conservators to the Identification of Plant Material used in Māori Artefacts Author(s): Debra Carr, Natasha Cruthers, Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele Source: Studies in Conservation, Vol. 53, No. 4 (2008), pp. 252-263Published by: on behalf of the Maney Publishing International Institute for Conservation of
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252
Approaches for Conservators to the
Identification of Plant Material used in
Maori Artefacts
Debra Carr, Natasha Cruthers, Elizabeth Girvan and Susan Scheele
The aim of this study is to provide a suite of tools to assist with the preliminary identification of historical textile plant material
originating from New Zealand. The plants investigated are indigenous to New Zealand and were/are used by Maori for the
manufacture of baskets, mats, nets, ropes, snares and various garments. Surface morphology of leaves, fibre bundle shape and
repeating pattern observable in transverse sections of leaves, fibre dimensions and the presence of crystals were evaluated. Some
results from this research have been used to establish a free-to-use on-line database that may assist in identifying plant material
used in artefacts manufactured by Maori, but which should not be regarded as a substitute for a confirmed identification by a plant scientist.
INTRODUCTION
It is widely recognized that the identification of
material(s) used in artefacts is critical before the selection
of appropriate conservation treatments (see for example
[1?3]). Cultural institutions, both in New Zealand and
overseas, hold collections of woven and plaited artefacts
manufactured by Maori, including fragments from
archaeological excavations. The plant material used in
such objects is not always known nor easily determined
by employees in these cultural institutions. Plant material
used in artefacts from New Zealand is often recorded
as unknown or tentatively recorded as either Phormium
tenax (harakeke) or Cordyline australis (t? kouka). Processing
methods, surface dirt, historical conservation treatments,
ageing processes, storage issues and, particularly, a lack of
readily available reference information all contribute to
the difficulty of making positive identifications of plant species used.
Before European contact, Maori were reliant on
local plant resources for their survival. As well as the
Received October 2007
essentials of food, medicine and shelter, the leaves, stems
and occasionally bark of many species were used to
make clothing, containers (in the absence of pottery), mats and cordage (see for example [4-13]). The most
widely used and important species in Maori subsistence
economy was Phormium tenax (harakeke, New Zealand
flax). Leaf strips (whenu) were used to make baskets (kete) and other containers, mats for sleeping and sitting on,
fishing nets and snares, serviceable garments, sandals
(paraerae) and, in more recent times, the swinging skirt
called a piupiu.The fibre (muka or whxtau) extracted from
the leaves was used for the manufacture of cloaks and
other fine garments and cordage. Phormium cookianum
(wharariki) is not as strong and fibrous as P. tenax, but
was employed in the manufacture of items that could be
used and discarded, or where lightweight qualities were
desired. The tough fibrous leaves of Cordyline australis
(t? k?uka, cabbage tree) were valued when hard-wearing
properties were required, such as for sandals, snares,
baskets for collecting shellfish, and to create an outer
layer of thatching on rain capes (i.e. short strips of plant material inserted into the outer surface of the main body of the cape in an overlapping manner). Cordyline is more
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 253
resistant to rotting in seawater than Phormium, so fibre
retted from Cordyline was used for the manufacture of
anchor ropes. Cordyline indivisa, (t?t, mountain cabbage
tree) was particularly important in mountainous regions where harakeke did not grow, and the retted leaf fibre
was used in making weatherproof capes. Strips of
Freycinetia banksii (kiekie) leaves were another highly
regarded resource for weaving fine mats and baskets
and in making tukutuku (decorative panels). The retted
fibre was also used in making capes. The sedge Eleocharis
sphacelata (kutd) was favoured when softness was desired
for weaving baskets, widows' mourning caps, hats and
mats. The spongy stems of another sedge, Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (k?p?ng?wh?, and also called kutd), closely related to the worldwide genus Scirpus, were used to
plait sleeping mats and whitebait nets. The tough,
golden leaves of Desmoschoenus spir?lis ipTngao), a sedge found on sand dunes, were used to weave baskets, belts
and poho-taupa (chest protectors used in fighting), and
in decorative tukutuku panels. Strips of the lacy inner
bark of Hoheria spp. (houhere, lacebark) were used when
making decorative baskets, for ornamentation such as
braiding on hats, while the tough outer bark was plaited into strong ropes. Hierochloe redolens, (k?retu, holy grass) is
a sweet-scented grass used to manufacture women's belts, headbands and as a scented necklace. The dried leaves of
Dracophyllum spp. (neinei, inanga) were tied into cloaks as
ornamental tags. The silvery tomentum of the leaves of
large mountain daisies (Celmisia spp.) was removed and
used in making cloaks (often as ornamental tags), rain
cloaks and stuffed into leggings to protect travellers' legs from thorny plants. Among other less common plants used on cloaks for decoration or thatching are tussock
grasses, such as Poa spp. The current research focuses on the development
of a web-based atlas containing reference information
from dried and semi-processed contemporary specimens of indigenous New Zealand plant material (e.g., fibre
and leaves) that may assist employees in cultural institu
tions with the identification of plant material. It is
envisaged that the atlas will grow to include similar
information regarding historical specimens, further
assisting identification of plant material used in objects. The atlas aims to provide images that the non-specialist can use to assist in identification and thus add to the
suite of observed features available. It seeks to provide a
preliminary step towards species identification, although consultation with specialists may be required for a
positive identification.
It is useful to define some terms that are used by
object and textile conservators, and by botanists and
plant anatomists. Fibre aggregate, a term used by textile
conservators/scientists, refers to the macroscopic product of leaf or stem processing [14]. Fibre aggregates are
popularly referred to as 'the fibre' in publications, but may contain many components, i.e. ultimate fibres and often
vascular bundles which transport water and solutes [15,
16]. Ultimate fibre is a textile/fibre science term used to
describe the individual fibres or single sclerenchyma cells
(plant science term) found in fibre aggregates [14,16]. In
fibre aggregates, the ultimate fibres are twisted together or arranged in an overlapping manner, and are adhered
in a non-cellulosic matrix. Bundles of fibres may be
visible in transverse sections of leaves [15].
Diagnostic tools that can contribute to the identifi
cation of plant material and would be relatively accessible when specialized advice is not available
include morphological features such as plant leaf
surfaces, transverse sections of leaves and ultimate
fibre dimensions. In textile science and conservation,
microscopy is used primarily to distinguish among different fibres [1?3, 14?18]. The shape and size of the
fibre bundles in transverse sections of leaves and of the
individual ultimate fibres can be tools for identification
purposes [14-18]. However, minimal information has
been reported previously for plants from New Zealand.
Exceptions include Goulding, who provided criteria
and a key (but no microscopy images) for identifying 13
plants used in New Zealand artefacts, including Cordyline
spp., Dracophyllum spp., Phormium spp., Hierochloe redolens,
Freycinetia banksii, Eleocharis sphacelata and Desmoschoenus
spir?lis [17]. A number of light microscopy images of Phormium have been published, the ultimate fibres are
reportedly convex polygonal, with a round lumen and
may be pitted [14, 16, 18]. A study of the transverse sections of leaves from different cultivars of Phormium
has suggested differences in the pattern of'molar tooth
shaped' and 'keyhole shaped' fibre bundles that may enable different cultivars to be distinguished [18]. Unlike
most plants, there is an equal number of stornata on
both sides of the Cordyline leaf and this may assist is
distinguishing Cordyline from other species. There is much debate in the plant science literature
about whether the presence of crystals in plant material
can be a useful tool for their identification [16, 19?22].
However, crystals are widely used in textile science and
textile conservation to assist in the identification of plant material [2, 14-16]. At least five crystal morphologies are identified in the literature, but these are commonly
grouped into these main categories:
raphides (needle-like crystals);
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254 D. CARR, . CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE
sand-like, styloids and prismatic crystals; and
druses (multiple crystals that appear flower-like) [16,
19-22].
Crystals are notoriously difficult to use as a diagnostic feature as the take-up of calcium or silica by the plant and deposition in the cells is erratic and related to soil
and geology, sometimes on a very localized basis. In this
study the presence of crystals was noted, but care should
be taken not to rely too heavily on their presence as a
reliable diagnostic criterion.
The aim of this study was to provide selected refer
ence data - images of leaf surfaces, transverse sections
(to allow examination of fibre bundle shape and repeat
pattern), ultimate fibre length and width, and presence of crystals
? that might assist with identifying such plant material.
METHODS
Materials
Plant specimens for study were selected according to
their importance in early Maori material culture, as
reflected in the literature [4-13]. The selection was
approved by Maori weavers, conservators and other
museum professionals, and circulated to relevant
academic departments within the University of Otago for their comment. All plant specimens in this study were
identified, collected and supplied by an ethnobotanist of
long-standing experience and whose primary research
area is weaving plants used by Maori (S. Scheele). On
arrival at the University of Otago each plant specimen was given a unique code and documented; the locality at
which it was collected was recorded, the specimen was
photographed and notes made regarding its appearance. The botanical, Maori and common names of the species that were chosen are listed in Table 1 along with their
common uses, while other pertinent information
regarding usage is summarized above. Plant material was
generally processed in some way before the manufacture
of objects, e.g., extraction of fibre aggregates, softening of strips of leaves, drying, beating, boiling, bleaching and sometimes dyeing. It should be noted that such
processing may have degraded the diagnostic features
discussed in the current work.
Plant material transverse sections
and fibre dimensions
Pieces of fresh material (~5 x 10 mm) were cut from the
centre of leaves (right side), stems or bark as appropriate, fixed with Tellyesniczky s formula (100 mL 70% alcohol/ 5 mL glacial acetic acid/5 mL 100% formalin) for 24
Table 1 Botanical, Maori and common names of the plants studied, with details of the parts used and their common uses
Botanical name Maori name Common name Part used Common uses
Celmisia semicordata
Cordyline australis
Cordyline indivisa
Desmoschoenus spir?lis
Dracophyllum spp. Eleocharis sphacelata Freycinetia banksii
Hierochloe redolens Hoheria populnea
Phormium tenax Phormium cookianum Poa cita
Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani
tikumu
ti k?uka
toi
pingao
neinei, inanga kuta kiekie
harakeke wharariki wJ
k?pung?wh?
mountain daisy
cabbage tree
mountain cabbage tree
golden sand sedge
bamboo spike sedge kiekie
k?retu holy grass houhere lacebark
leaf, tomentum
leaf, fibre
leaf, fibre
leaf
leaf stem
leaf, fibre
leaf outer and inner bark
New Zealand flax, swamp flax leaf, fibre mountain flax, coastal flax leaf silver tussock leaf lake clubrush stem
rain-protective tags on cloaks, as stuffing in
leggings baskets, nets, snares, anchor ropes, rough garments, sandals rain capes (fibre), sandals, rough garments, baskets, cordage baskets, chest-protectors, belts, decorative house
panels decorative tags on cloaks soft hats, baskets, mats
baskets, mats, decorative house panels, rain cape (fibre) belts, necklace, headbands inner bark - kete, hats, decorative braids outer bark - cordage, piupiu, garments cloaks, baskets, cordage, mats, sandals, piupiu baskets, mats, tags on cloaks
stuffing in leggings, top layer on cloaks
mats, whitebait nets
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 255
hours and then stored in 70% alcohol. The methods used
to prepare plant material transverse sections, macerate
fibre bundles into ultimate fibres, and measure the
dimensions of the ultimate fibres have been described
previously [23]. Means, standard deviations (s.d.) and
coefficients of variation (CV) for ultimate fibre 'width'
and length measurements (for an average often samples: =
10) were calculated.
Images of plant material surfaces
Pieces of plant material were placed in buffered acid-free
paper, sandwiched between buffered museum board and
an outer metal frame and were oven dried (50?C, 72
hours). Dried, rather than fresh, material was examined
because plant material specimens removed from artefacts
are in a desiccated state. Small pieces (~5 x 10 mm) of
this dried material were mounted on 25 mm diameter
aluminium stubs with carbon tape so that the adaxial
and abaxial surfaces could be examined. The specimens were coated with approximately 5 nm of gold/palladium or carbon and viewed in a Jeol 6700F field emission
scanning electron microscope (FESEM) (3-5 kV, 7?8 mm working distance).
Chemical composition of crystals
The transverse sections previously prepared (see above) were examined using polarized light to identify which
specimens contained crystals. Crystals were observed
in specimens of Cordyline spp., Hoheria, Dracophyllum, and two selections of Phormium (provenance Karikari
Beach and the named cultivar 'Waihirere' ? both
growing at Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand). Dried
specimens for each of these were split and mounted
on an aluminium stub using carbon tape. A Jeol 2300F
energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) detector (10 kV, working distance 15 mm) was used to measure the energy of
the X-rays emitted when an electron beam collided
with the surface of the specimen, hence the elemental
composition of the crystals could be investigated. Point and area analyses were used, dead time was kept below 25% and spectra were collected for 60 seconds.
The specimens were then coated with 5 nm of gold/
palladium using an Emitech K575X high-resolution coater and crystals imaged using a Jeol 6700F FESEM
(3 kV, 10 A).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
General observations
Phormium tenax (harakeke) and P. cookianum
(wharariki): A range of provenances and cultivated
varieties (cultivars) of Phormium were examined (n =
28). Fibre bundles were either keyhole or molar-tooth
shaped, and repeating patterns for these shapes were
commonly observed (Figure la). Fibre bundles were
larger in the upper part of the leaf. Generally, the fibre
bundles in cookianum were smaller than those in
harakeke. Sclerenchyma fibres had convex polygonal
shapes with a clear elliptical or circular lumen, and were
sometimes pitted. Hoheria populnea (houhere): The inner bark had a
characteristic lace-like appearance. Fibre bundles were
quadrilateral or elliptical in shape (~30-50 x 150-200
), typically containing 30?50 convex polygonal fibres
(occasionally pitted) with small circular or elliptical lumen (Figure lb).
Hierochloe redolens (k?retu): The transverse section
had a lace-like appearance (Figure lc).The elliptical or
convex polygonal fibres had large lumens, thin walls and
some were pitted.
Freycinetia banksii (kiekie): The fibre bundles in the upper part of the leaf were irregular in shape (5?40
fibres), while in the lower part they were round (10?20
fibres) (Figure Id) [19]. Small (lighter stained) fibre bundles were observed close to the upper and lower
epithelium with a cap over the top of the vascular
bundle. The convex polygonal fibres were large with
large lumens and comparatively sharp edges.
Dracophyllum traversii {mountain neinei) and
D. elegantissimum (neinei): Fibre bundles were not
observed in either Dracophyllum species, rather the fibres
were found throughout the structure (Figures le and
If). The convex polygonal fibres had large lumens, and
were smaller in D. eleganitissimum (which has the longer, narrower leaves) than in D. traversii.
Desmoschoenus spir?lis (ptngao): Triangular/half-oval
shaped fibre bundles (~50 x 50-100 ) were observed,
while larger elliptical/irregularly shaped fibre bundles were observed in the centre of the leaf (Figure lg).The convex polygonal fibres had relatively thick cell walls
with small lumens.
Cordyline australis (t? k?uka): More fibre was observed in the upper portion of the leaf than the lower
portion (Figure lh).The fibre bundles (100 x 300 ) repeated in a pattern of: molar tooth; small truncated
oval or molar tooth; truncated hourglass or long molar
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256 D. CARR, . CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE
(f) Figure 1 Transverse sections (light microscopy, scale bar = 50 m): (a) Phormium tenax Opiki'; (b) Hoheria populnea; (c) Hierochloe redplens; (d) Freycinetia banksii; (e) Dracophyllum traversii; (f) Dracophyllum elegantissimum; (g) Desmoschoenus spir?lis; (h) Cordyline australis; (i) Cordyline indivisa; Celmisia semicordata
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 257
Figure 1 Continued.
tooth; small truncated oval or molar tooth; and molar
tooth.The rounded thick walled convex polygonal fibres
in C. australis had large elliptical lumens and pits. Thick
distinct layers of wax were observed on the upper and
lower cuticles.
Cordyline indivisa (??f):The fibre bundles (~ 300 x 350 ) were molar-tooth shaped, the repeat pattern was large bundle, very small, small, very small, then large
(Figure li). Fibres were convex polygonal with large lumen.
Celmisia semicordata (tikumu): The fibrous surface
appeared as flattened ribbons. In transverse section, a
thick upper epidermis and distinct vascular tissue capped
by small fibre bundles were noted (Figure lj).
Ultimate fibre dimensions
Ultimate fibre dimensions were obtained for most
of the plants in the study (Table 2). Mean transverse
widths of ultimate fibres from P. tenax varied from
11 (Campbell Island) to 15 ('Taeore' cultivar) and mean lengths varied from 1.79 mm (Ten Mile
Creek) to 4.27 mm (Auckland Island) (Table 2). The cookianum examined tended to have larger transverse
widths compared to P. tenax and the ultimate fibre
lengths tended to be longer (Limestone Stream, width
13 , length 3.95 mm; Punakaiki, width 14 , length 3.86 mm;Wharariki '#62', width 14 , length 3.05
mm; Okiwi Bay, width 15 , length not collected)
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258 D. CARR, . CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE
(Table 2). Cultivars from the Rene Orchiston weaving collection were represented throughout the range of
ultimate fibre transverse widths and lengths (Table 2) [12]. The ultimate fibre widths and lengths of cultivars
prized for the length, strength and ease of extraction of
fibre ('Taumataua'/Tapamangu'and'Taeore') also varied
across the range measured. The range of values obtained
for P. tenax ultimate fibre dimensions is similar to those
previously reported [18]. Fibres from Cordyline spp. were similar in width to
P. tenax fibres, but were shorter, and this may assist in
distinguishing between the use of these two plants. Ultimate fibres from C. austr?te were 13 wide and
1.39 mm long (Table 2). C. indivisa ultimate fibres were
15 wide and 1.45 mm long (Table 2).That C. indivisa has coarser fibres than C. austr?te has been previously noted, although no dimensions were given [17, 24].
For other plants, mean ultimate fibre dimensions
ranged in width from 8 (Dracophyllum elegantissimum) to 23 (Hierocliloe redolens) and in length from 0.68
mm (Freycinetia banksii) to 1.92 mm (Desmoschoenus
spirate) (Table 2).
Crystals
Calcium Oxalate raphide crystals were observed in three
Cordyline species: C. austr?te, C. banksii and C. indivisa
(Figures 2a?c). Raphides have been previously reported in Cordyline (species not stated) [20,25] and in specimens of root from C. austr?te [26]. Druse crystals were observed
in Hoheria (Figures 3a and 3b) and styloid crystals were observed in both Dracophyllum species studied (Figures 4a and 4b). The presence of these crystals in Hoheria and
Dracophyllum does not appear to have been previously
reported. Calcium was detected using EDX in two
selections of Phormium (Karikari beach, 'Waihirere'), but
crystals were not observed in the specimens examined,
although they were detected when transverse sections
were examined with polarized light. Styloids have
been reported as being present in Phormium, although no further details of the plant(s) examined were given
[20, 27]. Parkin reported raphides in Phormum tenax var.
atropurp?rea [28], a bronze variety more commonly known as 'Monrovia Red' [29]. Raphides have also been
reported in the roots o? Phormium cookianum [26].
Database
Reference data obtained during the research have
been incorporated into a free-to-use on-line database
aimed at assisting workers in cultural institutions to
OTAGO SEI 3.0kV X4,000 l^m WD 7.6mm
(c) Figure 2 Raphide crystals in Cordyline spp. (FESEM):%(a) Cordyline australis; (b) Cordyline banksii; (c) Cordyline indivisa.
STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53 (2008) PAGES 252-263
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 259
Table 2 Dimensions of ultimate fibre: an average of ten (n = 10) unless otherwise stated
Specimen Width mean s.d.
(pm) (Mm)
Length Coefficient of
Variation
(%)
mean
(mm)
s.d.
(mm)
Coefficient of Variation
(%)
Phormium tenax^ cultivars/provenance:
H?hiroa2
Ngutunui2
Opiki2
Paoa2
Paretaniwha2
Potaka2
Taeore, Taiore2
Taumataua2
Tapamangu2
Tupurupuru2
Waihirere2
Wharanui2
Whareongaonga2
Auckland Island
Campbell Island
Chatham Islands
Karikari Beach
Norfolk Island
Port Hills
Raoul Island
Taramea Bay
Ten Mile Creek
Three Kings Island
P. cookianum' cultivars/provenance:
Limestone Stream
Okiwi Bay
Punakaiki
Wharariki #622
Cordyline australis
C. indivisa
Desmoschoenus spir?lis
fibre surrounding vascular bundle
close to epithelium
Dracophyllum elegantissimum
D. traversa
Freycinetia banksii
fibre under vascular bundle
fibres in other locations
Hierochloe redolens
Hoheria populnea
Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani
11
12
15
12
15
14
15
12
15
12
12
13
14
12
11
13
12
12
12
15
12
13
15
13
15
14
14
13
15
12
9
8
16
13
18
23
16
nc
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
7
4
nc
19.0
16.3
13.0
14.9
12.1
16.2
14.2
8.3
16.7
9.5
10.8
12.8
8.0
18.2
13.7
14.4
17.6
12.5
14.8
11.2
10.8
12.7
14.4
10.5
12.5
17.1
12.6
14.2
14.8
13.7
21.9
20.5
13.4
21.2
16.1
33.1
24.7
nc
3.68 (n = 2)
nc
3.66
2.52 (n = 5)
nc
3.86
nc
3.09 (n = 4)
nc
nc
2.25
nc
2.67 (n = 5)
4.27
2.77 (n = 5)
nc
nc
nc
4.25 (n = 8)
3.14
nc
1.79
3.14 (n = 4)
3.95 (n = 6)
nc
3.86
3.05
1.39
1.45
1.92
nc
nc
0.75
0.82 (n = 8)
0.68
nc
nc
0.96
1.63
0.77 (n = 5)
0.19
nc
0.62
0.27
nc
0.61
nc
0.59
nc
nc
0.33
nc
0.97
0.73
1.66
nc
nc
nc
0.36
0.37
nc
0.30
0.35
0.51
nc
0.70
0.49
0.52
0.31
0.36
nc
nc
0.15
0.13
0.16
nc
nc
0.20
0.27
0.18
5.2
nc
16.9
10.9
nc
15.9
nc
17.3
nc
nc
14.7
nc
36.3
17.1
59.9
nc
nc
nc
8.5
11.8
nc
16.8
11.2
12.8
nc
18.13
16.2
37.5
21.5
18.8
nc
nc
20.0
16.3
23.5
nc
nc
20.3
16.6
23.1
' Growing at Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand;2 from the Rene Orchiston weaving collection; nc = data not collected
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260 D. CARR, N. CRUTHERS, E. GIRVAN AND S. SCHEELE
(b)
Figure 3 Druses crystals in Hoheria populnea (FESEM): (a) magnification 750; (b) magnification 2500.
take steps towards the identification of plant material in
artefacts. Consultation with New Zealand conservators
suggested the use of minimal text in the database and the
inclusion of images of leaf surfaces; transverse sections;
photographs of the plants (to give an idea of the general appearance rather than as an identification tool); Maori, common and botanical names; some traditional uses;
and useful links. The microscopy images provided in
the database are at magnifications well within the range of simple optical microscopes commonly available
in conservation laboratories. The leaf surface images
(b)
Figure 4 Styloid crystals in Dracophyllum spp. (FESEM): (a) D.
elegantissimum; (b) D. traversii.
were obtained using scanning electron microscopy to
ensure good depth of field, but the magnifications used
(X100?200) were chosen with optical microscopes in
mind. The database He mrangi whakaaturanga o ng? taonga r?kau (data /identification /exhibition list of treasured plants) is available at www.otago.ac.nz/textiles/plantfibres/ index.html (accessed 10 November 2008). The authors
are in the process of adding images of historical
specimens to the database and encourage submission
of images for inclusion. The images used in the
database are not reproduced in this article, but higher
STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53 (2008) PAGES 252-263
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 261
magnification images have been provided to illustrate
the discussion.
CONCLUSIONS
A database of observed features has been developed and
made accessible to assist workers in cultural institutions
to characterize plant material that has been used in
objects originating from New Zealand. These include
transverse sections, fibre bundle shape and repeat pattern, ultimate fibre dimensions and the observation of crystals for contemporary plant material. Distinct differences
have been identified between the two most commonly
used, and commonly confused, plants, i.e. Phormium tenax
and Cordyline australis. Of particular use are:
the comparison of the transverse sections of Phormium
and Cordyline; the observation of raphide crystals in C australis;
the ultimate fibres in tenax and C. australis are
similar in width, but those from C. australis are
shorter; and
the transverse sections of Freycinetia banksii {kiekie) and Desmoschoenus spir?lis (p?ngao); because the leaves
from some P. tenax that have been processed into
narrow strips and woven into fine articles dry to
shades of white and yellow similar to those shown by kiekie and pxngao.
However, it must be emphasized that the database
contains information collected on semi-processed, dried
contemporary material. It is recognized that for historic
specimens some of the features described in this paper
may be degraded or the processing may be at such a
level that the diagnostic features described are no longer visible. Further work is required to address these issues.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Maori ownership, traditional knowledge and the
status under Article II of The Treaty of Waitangi of the
plants investigated in this work are acknowledged and
recognized by the authors. Heike Winkelbauer, an objects
conservator, first suggested the development of an atlas
of plant material from New Zealand. New Zealand
Lottery Grants (Lottery Environment and Heritage
Committee) funded this work.The authors acknowledge the assistance of K. Columb (Human Nutrition), A.
McNaughton (Otago Centre for Confocal Microscopy) and D. Potter (Histology), and comments made by C.
Smith (Clothing and Textile Sciences), Professor R.M.
Laing (Clothing and Textile Sciences) and Dr J. Lord
(Department of Botany), all of the University of Otago. We also acknowledge comments made by the referees.
Rua McCallum (Ng?i Tahu wh?nui) provided guidance throughout the project
? kia ora, Rua.
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AUTHORS
Debra Carr is a materials engineer whose research
interests include the structure, properties and use of
fibres. She is an Affiliate Member of the New Zealand
Conservators of Cultural Materials (NZCCM). Address:
Clothing and Textile Sciences, University of Otago, PO Box
56, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]
Natasha Cruthers is a PhD student whose research
interests include properties of natural fibres. Address: as
Carr. Email: [email protected]
Elizabeth Girvan is a scanning electron microscopist who works with staff from a wide range of departments at the University of Otago, New Zealand. Address: Otago Centre for Electron Microscopy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]
Sue Scheele is an ethnobotanist, with particular research
interests in weaving plants used by Maori. Address:
Tandeare Research, PO Box 40, Lincoln 7640, New Zealand.
Email: ScheeleS@landcareresearch. co. nz
R?sum? ? Le but de cette ?tude est de fournir une s?rie d'outils pouvant aider ? identifier de fa?on pr?liminaire les mat?riaux
textiles v?g?taux originaires de la Nouvelle-Z?lande. Les v?g?taux ?tudi?s sont indig?nes de Nouvelle-Z?lande et ?taient
(ou sont) utilis?s par les Maoris pour la fabrication de paniers, nattes, filets, cordages, pi?ges, et v?tements vari?s. On a ?tudi?
la morphologie de la surface des feuilles, la forme des faisceaux de fibres et les motifs r?p?titifs observables dans les sections
transversales des feuilles, la dimension des fibres et la pr?sence de cristaux. Certains r?sultats de cette recherche ont ?t? utilis?s pour ?tablir une base de donn?es libre d'acc?s qui peut aider ? identifier les mat?riaux v?g?taux utilis?s dans Vartisanat maori, mais qui ne doit pas ?tre consid?r?e comme un substitut pour une identification fait par un scientifique sp?cialiste des plantes.
Zusammenfassung ? Ziel der vorliegenden Studie ist es, mit einer Reihe von hilfreichen Werkzeugen bei der Identifizierung
von historischem textilem Pflanzenmaterial aus Neuseeland zu assistieren. Die untersuchten indigenen Pflanzen Neuseelands
wurden/werden von den M?ori f?r die Herstellung von K?rben, Matten, Netzen, Seilen, Stricken und verschiedenen
Kleidungsst?cken verwendet. Die Oberfl?chenmorphologie der Bl?tter, die Form der Faserb?ndel und sich wiederholende Muster
im Querschnitt von Bl?ttern, Faserdimensionen sowie die Anwesenheit kristalliner Strukturen wurde zur Analyse genutzt.
Einige Ergebnisse der Forschung wurden zur Etablierung einer freien Onlinedatenbank genutzt, die dazu beitragen kann, das
Pflanzenmaterial von durch die M?ori hergestellten Objekten zu bestimmen, was allerdings nicht als Ersatz f?r eine sichere
Bestimmung durch einen Botaniker gelten kann.
Resumen ? La intenci?n de este estudio es aportar una gama de herramientas v?lidas para ayudar en la identificaci?n
preliminar de materiales hist?ricos textiles de naturaleza vegetal originarios de Nueva Zelanda. Las plantas investigadas son
ind?genas de Nueva Zelanda fueron, o son, usadas por los Ma?ori para la manufactura de cestos, esteras, redes, cuerdas, trampas
y diversas vestimentas. Se evaluaron la morfolog?a superficial de las hojas, la morfolog?a de los haces de fibras, la repetici?n de
STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53 (2008) PAGES 252-263
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APPROACHES FOR CONSERVATORS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL USED IN MAORI ARTEFACTS 263
estructuras en cortes transversales de hojas, las dimensiones de las fibras la presencia de cristales. Algunos resultados de esta
investigaci?n han sido utilizados para establecer bases de datos en l?nea de libre acceso que puedan ayudar a identificar materiales
de origen vegetal empleados en la manufactura de objetos de los Ma?or?, aunque no deber?an ser utilizados para sustituir las
identificaciones precisas del cient?fico de materiales vegetales.
STUDIES IN CONSERVATION 53 (2008) PAGES 252-263
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