appraisal of forest resources -...

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Chapter V : Appraisal of Forest Resources

Chapter- V

Appraisal of Forest Resources

5.1 Introduction

Appraisal is the process of estimating a value or simply market value of the

forest. Appraisal is common in many countries particularly where commercial

forestry has been performed. While appraising the forest, species richness, its quality,

average diameter, size etc are seen which is dependent on peculiar climatic conditions

of the region. The impact of the Western Ghats is clearly marked on the vegetation

pattern in the entire Khadakwasala irrigation project division. The crest of the

Western Ghats forms the northern and western boundary of Pune forests division.

These hill ranges run parallel to the coast line, with an average elevation of about 650

meters and sometimes, these hills rises to the height of 1300 meters or even more

above the mean sea level. The ridge of the Western Ghats has an immense effect on

the climate of the study area. Since there is a heavy rainfall on the ridge itself, with

very marked rainshadow effect from east to west. The rapid change in rainfall

conditions over such a short distance have direct effect on the vegetation pattern since

large portion of the area becomes a succession of tension zone where vegetational

formations can find optimum conditions. Such a fascinating environment has

produced a variety of vegetation patterns with a variety of plants adapting to different

localities. Villages located on steep eastern slopes like Tekpole, Mangaon, Pole,

Dhamanohol, Gadale etc which are still inaccessible have retained the forests. In such

villages hacking and grazing is limited just to satisfy and fulfill the family

requirements. Contrary to this, villages on eastern parts of the study area particularly

in Khadakwasala catchment which are fairly accessible have been suffering steady

depressions, commercial exploitation of the forests coupled with hacking and grazing

have reduced the greater part of the area to a stage where trees have given place to

shrubs and grasses only.

5.2 Methods to study vegetation pattern

Since the major objective of the present study is to understand the status and

pattern of existing vegetation cover, it was necessary to find the vegetation parameters

like density of plants, frequency and abundance of plants in the study area. Generally

for the detailed information about the plant composition, structure, species diversity,

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growth, density, abundance and the other characteristics of the community,

‘Phytocosiological methods’ are mostly used. In these methods, three forms of

sampling units viz. a) Area (quadrat method), b) Line (transact method) and c) Point

(point method) are used.

To acquaint with the existing forests cover in the study area, extensive

vegetation surveys were conducted. The forests were visited during the dry period of

the year in the month of March, April and May for the phyto-sociological data

collection. In the present study quadrate method has been adopted to collect the

various parameters regarding the vegetation. Sampling with quadrate i.e. plots of a

standard size can be used for most plant communities (Cox, 1990). A quadrate

delimits an area in which vegetation cover can be estimated, plants counted, or

species listed. It can be established randomly, regularly or subjectively within the

study area. In all twenty two quadrate plots of 20m × 20m size were laid randomly

according to the altitudinal variation in the forests area (Fig 5.1). The quadrat survey

is employed in counting the individual plants of each species to determine their

frequency, density and abundance. Quadrat is a square area of varying size marked off

for the purpose of plant enumeration. The geographical co ordinates of each sample

plot were recorded using Geographical Positioning System (GPS) receiver (Table

5.1a). The species of all trees, in each sample plot were listed. The entire study area is

characterized by various types of shrubs and grasses, which are also noticed

separately. All the major trees found in the study area were studied according to its

economical as well as ecological importance. While addressing the importance,

parameters like food, fodder, fuel, fiber, timber, ornamental, manure, tanning,

religious, spices or flavor, perfume, ecological, folk medicines and medicinal aspects

were considered in data entry and further in analysis.

5.2.1 Characters used in community structure

In any geographical area pattern and distribution of plants in a community is

not totally uniform. The important quantitative analysis like density, frequency and

abundance of tree species were determined. It is influenced by environmental

characteristics and biotic factors.

LOCATION OF QUADRAT

KHADAKWASALA IRRIGATION PROJECT DIVISION

Fig 5.1

Ch

ap

ter V : A

pp

raisa

l of F

orest R

esou

rces90

Plot No Latitude Longitude Altitude (M) Village

1 18.39925879 73.72003906 634.677 Malkhed

2 18.37575073 73.76930937 722.019 Thopatewadi

3 18.36995423 73.73517439 919.401 Thopatewadi

4 18.34934442 73.72969991 901.808 Mogarwadi

5 18.36673394 73.70071737 750.255 Nigade Mose

6 18.39088605 73.70007332 578.087 Wardade

7 18.41819912 73.68505362 901.825 Sangrun

8 18.43629202 73748699571 591.384 Kudje

9 18.36639049 73.64460326 749.782 Rule

10 18.36159718 73.60788588 814.335 Dhindali

11 18.38564199 73.58834943 670.428 Saiv Kh

12 18.40281678 73.56945711 706.864 Mose Bk

13 18.38521257 73.62076693 597.266 Panshet

14 18.39332207 73.45094151 703.084 Ugavali

15 18.39637622 73.44171928 686.769 Dhamaohol

16 18.38521257 73.45867943 691.427 Gadale

17 18.39143845 73.47864517 664.832 Sakhari

18 18.34764262 73.52759345 762.852 Balvadi

19 18.34206084 73.45438572 753.654 Dapsare

20 18.32022777 73.49165198 901.11 Tekpole

21 18.32544952 73.54820325 746.513 Shirkoli

22 18.37921615 73.78299375 905.536 Donaje

Sr.No. Altitude (M) Plot No Total

1 Below 700 1,6,8,11,13,15,16,17, 8

2 700 to 900 2,5,9,10,12,14,18,19,21 9

3 Above 900 3,4,7,20,22 5

Total 22

Table 5.1b-Altitude wise distribution of quadrate

Table 5.1a -Geographical coordinates and village wise location of quadrate

91Chapter V : Appraisal of Forest Resources


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5.2.1.1 Frequency

This term indicates degree of dispersion of an individual species in an area or

community and it is estimated in percentage occurrence and can be calculated as

under.

Frequency = Number of quadrats in which species occured

Total number of quadrats studied × 100

Regular pattern of distribution indicates high frequency of the plants, while

cluster appearance exhibits low frequency. Random distribution pattern indicate

moderate frequency. Frequency of each species can be grouped under five frequency

classes (Raunkiaer’s 1934). Depending upon the frequency value there are total five

frequency classes viz, 00 to 20% A-class, 21 to 40% B-class, 41 to 60% C-class, 61 to

80% D class and 81 to 100% indicates E-class.

5.2.1.2 Density

The number of individual of species in any unit area is its density. Density

gives an idea of degree of competition. It indicates the numerical strength of plants in

a community and the number of plant species per unit area; it is calculated as under.

Density = Total number of plants of in the quadrats

Number of quadrates’ quadrats examined

5.2.1.3 Abundance

Abundance is related with density and is expressed in a qualitative terms. It is

the numerical strength of plant species in total number of quadrates in which it occurs.

Abundance is calculated as under.

Abundance = Total number of plants of species in all the quadrats

Number of quadrats in which the species occurred

5.3 Altitude wise distribution of species in the study area

All the twenty two randomly selected quadrat samples collected are organized

in zone I, II and III according to the altitudinal variation (Table 5.1b). Quadrat study

shows that, the present forest cover in the study area is characterized by various

vegetation types which mainly belongs to tropical moist-deciduous forests, sub-

tropical semi evergreen forest, grass lands and in few pockets by ravine or broad

leaved forests. The vegetation pattern changes from few pockets of grass lands in the

zone I (below 700 m), to moist deciduous type and few evergreen species vegetation

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in zone II (700 to 900 m) and finally semi- evergreen types of vegetation can be

observed in last zone i.e. zone III (900 to 1100 m). Although there is no clear

demarcation, there is great change in the type of vegetation pattern from the lower

part to the crest line. In the study area, many sacred groves were observed. Vartak

(1966) has placed the vegetation of these sacred groves under the category of broad

leaved valley or ravine vegetation.

5.3.1 Variation in major plant species below 700 m ASL

It is the lower most part of the study area as far as altitude is concern and

covers 40.69 % of the total geographical area. Most of the part of this zone gets

submerged under water during the monsoon as the level of water increases. In this

zone particularly very large trees are seen. Total eight randomly selected quadrat

samples were laid below the altitude of 700 m in the study area (Table 5.2). In these

samples total 127 individual species has been observed. According to the Raunkier’s

frequency classes, out of 24 species, around 5 species are observed in frequency class

‘A’ (00% to 20%) and 10 species found in frequency class ‘B’ (21% to 40%).

Mangifera indica, Hardwickia binata Roxb, Syzygium cumini Skeels, Dalbergia

latifolia Roxb, Acacia nilotica, Terminalia alata Heyen Grawia tillaefolia are found

in frequency class ‘C’. All these species has high frequency as they occurred in at

least five quadrate out of total eight quadrates laid in this sample area. Total density

of major plant species is also calculated and it ranges from 12.50 to 50 ha. Mangifera

indica, Bauhinia racemosa Lam, Eucalyptus glchosus, Leucaena leucocephals,

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk have a greater density.

Total abundance was observed 2374 ha and it ranges from 28 to 400 per ha.

It

shows greater variation, except Bassia longifolia L. as this species was found only one

quadrate and hence it has frequency range of very much frequent (400 per ha),

followed by Ficus beneghalensis, Semecarpus anacardium L.F, Eucalyptus glchosus,

Ficus arnottiana Miq, Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk etc occurs frequently.

It has also been observed that, 51.53 % of the entire settlement area in the

study area is observed below the 700 m contour. Hence most of the area under forest

in this altitudinal zone is affected and altered.

5.3.2 Variation in major plant species between 700 to 900 m ASL

This zone covers total 43.64 % of total geographical area and it acts as a buffer

zone. It is characterized by few evergreen and mostly deciduous trees. In this

Table 5.2 Characteristics of vegetation in the study area (below 700 m)

(Total Quadrat- 8)

No Name of the plant species PLOT NO Individuals Occur in Frequency Density Abundance

1 6 8 11 13 15 16 17 No (%) quadrates (%) Class (Qua) (ha) (Qua) (ha)

1 Mangiferaindica L 3 2

1 1 5

12 9.4 5 63 D 1.5 30 2.4 48

2 HardwickiabinataRoxb,

1

3 2 1 7 5.5 5 63 D 0.9 17.5 1.4 28

3 Bauhinia racemosa Lam

2

1 3

6 4.7 3 38 B 0.8 25 2 66.7

4 ArtocarpusheterophyllusLqm 1 2

3 2.4 2 25 B 0.4 18.8 1.5 75

5 DalbergialatifoliaRoxb

1 1

1 2 5 3.9 4 50 C 0.6 15.6 1.3 31.3

6 SyzygiumcuminiSkeels 1

1

2

2 6 4.7 4 50 C 0.8 18.8 1.5 37.5

7 Tamarindusindica L

1 2

2

5 3.9 3 38 B 0.6 20.8 1.7 55.6

8 Ficusbeneghalensis

2

2

4 3.1 2 25 B 0.5 25 2 100

9 Tectonagrandis L 1 3 1 2

3

1 11 8.7 6 75 D 1.4 22.9 1.8 30.6

10 Acacia nilotica

1 1 3 2 1 8 6.3 5 63 D 1 20 1.6 32

11 Anogeiaaualatifolia Wall

1

3 2 3 9 7.1 4 50 C 1.1 28.1 2.3 56.3

12 FicusglomerataRoxb 1 1

2 1.6 2 25 B 0.3 12.5 1 50

13 TerminaliaalataHeyne 1

1

2 1 2 7 5.5 5 63 D 0.9 17.5 1.4 28

14 Semecarpusanacardium L.F

2

2 1.6 1 13 A 0.3 25 2 200

15 Eucalyptus glchosus

2 2

4 3.1 2 25 B 0.5 25 2 100

16 FicusarnottianaMiq

2

3 5 3.9 2 25 B 0.6 31.3 2.5 125

17 Bassialongifolia L.

4

4 3.1 1 13 A 0.5 50 4 400

18 Delonixregia, 2

2 1.6 1 13 A 0.3 25 2 200

19 Moringaoleifera 2

2 1.6 1 13 A 0.3 25 2 200

20 LeucaenaleucocephalsWt

3

1 2

6 4.7 3 38 B 0.8 25 2 66.7

21 Acacia catechu 2

2

4 3.1 2 25 B 0.5 25 2 100

22 Grawiatiliaefolia

1 2 1 3

7 5.5 4 50 C 0.9 21.9 1.8 43.8

23 Angle marmelosLorr, Bel 2 2

4 3.1 2 25 B 0.5 25 2 100

24 ZizyphusmauritianaLamk

2

2 1.6 1 13 A 0.3 25 2 200

TOTAL 16 17 10 13 11 30 15 15 127 100

15.9 576 46.1 2374

Table 5.3. Characteristics of vegetation in the study area ( between 700 to 900 m)

(Total Quadrat - 9)

No Name of the plant species PLOT NO Individuals Occur in Frequency Density Abundance 2 5 9 10 12 14 18 19 21 No (%) Quadrate (%) Class (Qua) (ha) (Qua) (ha)

1 TerminaliaalataHeyne 1 1 4 2 2 4 14 8.33 6 66.7 D 1.56 25.93 2.33 38.89 2 Mangiferaindica L 1 3 4 2.38 2 22.2 B 0.44 22.22 2 100 3 Bauhinia racemosa Lam 3 1 2 6 3.57 3 33.3 B 0.67 22.22 2 66.67 4 Acacia suma B-ham 1 2 2 5 2.98 3 33.3 B 0.56 18.52 1.67 55.56 5 AlbizziaproceraBenth 1 2 1 4 2.38 3 33.3 B 0.44 14.81 1.33 44.44 6 Acacia catechu 1 1 3 3 8 4.76 4 44.4 C 0.89 22.22 2 50 7 DalbergialatifoliaRoxb 1 1 1 3 1.79 3 33.3 B 0.33 11.11 1 33.33 8 Erythrina variegate L 1 2 1 4 2.38 3 33.3 B 0.44 14.81 1.33 44.44 9 SyzygiumcuminiSkeels 2 1 1 2 6 3.57 4 44.4 C 0.67 16.67 1.5 37.5 10 Eucalyptus glchosusi 3 1 2 6 3.57 3 33.3 B 0.67 22.22 2 66.67 11 GrewiatillaefoliaValln 1 5 1 1 2 2 12 7.14 6 66.7 D 1.33 22.22 2 33.33 12 FicusglomerataRoxb 2 2 4 8 4.76 3 33.3 B 0.89 29.63 2.67 88.89 13 Semecarpusanacardium L.F 3 3 1.79 1 11.1 A 0.33 33.33 3 300 14 Tectonagrandis L 4 1 2 4 11 6.55 4 44.4 C 1.22 30.56 2.75 68.75 15 ZizyphusmauritianaLamk 1 2 1 4 2.38 3 33.3 B 0.44 14.81 1.33 44.44 16 HardwickiabinataRoxb 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 4.76 6 66.7 D 0.89 14.81 1.33 22.22 17 AzadirachtaindicaA.Juss 1 1 2 1.19 2 22.2 B 0.22 11.11 1 50 18 Holarrhenaantidysenterica Wall 1 1 3 5 2.98 3 33.3 C 0.56 18.52 1.67 55.56 19 Tamarindusindica L 3 3 1.79 1 11.1 A 0.33 33.33 3 300 20 EmblicaofficinalisGaertin 1 2 3 1.79 2 22.2 B 0.33 16.67 1.5 75 21 Anogeiaaualatifolia Wall 3 2 5 2.98 2 22.2 B 0.56 27.78 2.5 125 22 AnthocephaluscadambaKig 2 2 1.19 1 11.1 A 0.22 22.22 2 200 23 FicusarnottianaMiq , 2 2 4 2.38 2 22.2 B 0.44 22.22 2 100 24 ButeamonospermaTaub 2 1 1 4 2.38 3 33.3 B 0.44 14.81 1.33 44.44 25 Flacourtialatifolia 1 1 1 1 2 6 3.57 5 55.6 C 0.67 13.33 1.2 24 26 Terminaliachebula Retz 1 2 2 2 3 4 14 8.33 6 66.7 D 1.56 25.93 2.33 38.89 27 MitragynaparavifloraKunth 2 1 1 2 6 3.57 4 44.4 C 0.67 16.67 1.5 37.5 28 HomonoiaripariaLour 1 3 1 3 8 4.76 4 44.4 C 0.89 22.22 2 50

TOTAL 13 12 14 12 25 21 10 31 30 168 100

18.67 580.9 52.28 2195.5

Table 5.2 Characteristics of vegetation in the study area ( below 700 m)

Table 5.4. Characteristics of vegetation in the study area (between 900 to 1100 m)

(Total Quadrat - 5)

No Name of the plant species PLOT NO Individuals Occur in Frequency Density Abundance

3 4 7 20 22 No (%) Quadrates (%) Class (Qua) (ha) Qua) (ha)

1 TerminaliaalataHeyne

1 2 1 4 6.35 3 60 C 0.8 26.67 1.33 44.4

2 DalbergialatifoliaRoxb

1 1

2 3.17 2 40 B 0.4 20 1 50

3 Bauhinia racemosa Lam

3

3 4.76 1 20 A 0.6 60 3 300

4 HardwickiabinataRoxb

2

2 3.17 1 20 A 0.4 40 2 200

5 Anogeiaaualatifolia Wall 2 2

3

7 11.1 3 60 C 1.4 46.67 2.33 77.8

6 Terminaliachebula Retz

2 4

6 9.52 2 40 B 1.2 60 3 150

7 GrewiatillaefoliaVall 1

1

2 4 6.35 3 60 C 0.8 26.67 1.33 44.4

8 Acacia nilotica 2

2 3.17 1 20 A 0.4 40 2 200

9 GmelinaarboreaRoxb

2

2 3.17 1 20 A 0.4 40 2 200

10 Adina cordifoliaRoxb

1

1 1.59 1 20 A 0.2 20 1 100

11 CynadondatylonMarli

1

1 1.59 1 20 A 0.2 20 1 100

12 HomonoiaripariaLour

1 1 1.59 1 20 A 0.2 20 1 100

13 SemecarpusAnacardium 1 1

1

3 4.76 2 40 B 0.6 30 1.5 75

14 CeseariagraveolensDelz 1

1 1.59 1 20 A 0.2 20 1 100

15 Eleodendronglaucum,Pers. 2

2 4 6.35 2 40 B 0.8 40 2 100

16 Bombaxceiba L

1 1

2 4 6.35 3 60 C 0.8 26.67 1.33 44.4

17 Albizzialebbeck

1 2 1 4 6.35 2 40 B 0.8 40 2 100

18 Erythrinavariegata

2

2 4 6.35 2 40 B 0.8 40 2 100

19 Angle marmelosLorr

2 2 3.17 1 20 A 0.4 40 2 200

20 MytragynaparvifloraKuntha

1

1 1.59 1 20 A 0.2 20 1 100

21 OleadioicaRoxb

1 1

2 3.17 2 40 B 0.4 20 1 50

22 Terminaliabellerica

1 2

3 4.76 2 40 B 0.6 30 1.5 75

TOTAL 9 8 14 19 13 63 100

12.6 726.7 36.33 2511

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altitudinal zone of 700 to 900 meter, total nine randomly sample quadrate were

selected and around 168 plant species were listed (Table 5.3). In this altitudinal zone

out of 28 species 3 species have frequency class ‘A’, 14 species have class ‘B’, 7

species have class ‘C’ and ‘D’ frequency class have 4 species. In this zone Terminalia

alata Heyne, Acacia catechu, Syzygium cumini Skeels, Grewia tillaefolia Vall,

Tectona grandis, Carissa congesta Wigesto, Hardwickia binata Roxb, Terminalia

chebula Retz , Lasiosiphon ericephalus Dene etc have greater frequency. It shows that

occurrence of these species was more than in 4 quadrate within 700 to 900 m.

Total density of this altitudinal zone is calculated and is observed to be 580.93

per ha and it ranges from 11.11 to 33.33 per ha. Terminalia alata Heyne, Ficus

glomerata Roxb , Semecarpus anacardium L.F, Tectona grandis, Tamarindus indica

A.Juss, Homonoia riparia Lour, Anogeiaaua latifolia Wall etc. species have more

than density of 25 per ha. Out of 28 species Dalbergia latifolia Roxb and Azadirachta

indica A.Juss shows less density per ha and it is observed to 11.11 per ha.

Abundance in this altitude ranges from 22.22 to 300 per ha, except

Semecarpus anacardium L.F and Tamarindus indica A.Juss have 300 per ha. It

includes in very much frequent group of abundance, followed by Bassia longifolia L,

Mangifera indica L, Anogeiaaua latifolia, and Ficus arnottiana Miq includes under

common group.

5.3.3 Variation in major plant species between 900 to 1100 m ASL

This zone covers 15.68% of the total study area and in this altitudinal zone,

total five randomly sampled quadrates were taken where total 63 plant species are

observed (Table 5.4). The percentage frequency observed and out of total 22 major

plant species, 10 species have class ‘A’, 8 species have class ‘B’ and total 4 species

have class ‘C’. Terminalia alata Heyne , Grewia tillaefolia Vall Syzygium cumini

Skeels etc have more frequency and occurred in 3 quadrate out of selected 5

quadrates. Whereas Bauhinia racemosa Lam, Hardwickia binata Roxb, Ficus

glomerata Roxb Ficus arnottiana Miq , Syzygium cumini Skeels Lasiosiphon

ericephalus Dene etc shows less percentage of frequency.

Total abundance for this altitudinal zone has been calculated and it is observed

that it comes 2511.11 ha. Bauhinia racemosa Lam, Ficus glomerata Roxb, Erythrina

variegate L, Angle marmelos Lorr etc are very much frequent group.

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Total density of major species in this zone has been observed to be 726.67 per

ha and it ranges from 20 to 60 per ha. Terminalia chebula Retz , Bauhinia racemosa

Lam, Anogeiaaua latifolia Wall etc are found in more than at least 3 quadrates.

The vegetation surveys conducted in the study area during the periods of dry

months. It has been observed that, on the lower part of the hills i.e. zone I only few

large trees were observed. Among these Amba, Vad, Sag, Pimple, were the dominant.

Grass like Partheriur histerephus (Gajargavat), Andropogon monticola (Dongari

Gavat) were also seen.

5.4 Summary of the vegetation surveys conducted in the field

It is clear from the above discussion, that in the present study area some of the

species are spread over the entire area. These species are Mangifera indica 16 species

(7 quadrate), Tectona grandis L 22 species (10 quadrate), Anogeiaaua latifolia Wall

21 species (9 quadrate), Terminalia alata Heyne 18 species (9 quadrates), Grewia

tillaefolia Valln 16 species (9 quadrate), Terminalia chebula Retz 20 species (8

quadrate), Acacia catechu,12 (8 quadrate).

Below the altitude of 700 m, total 8 quadrates were laid and the hierarchy of

the plants is observed as: Mangifera indica, Tectona grandis L, Anogeiaaua latifolia

Wall, Bombax insigne, Hardwickia binata Roxb, Terminalia alata Heyne, Lasiosiphon

ericephalus Dene. The maximum occurrence of Mangifera indica is observed near the

settlements. Tectona grandis L is well distributed in the entire study area, as during

the plantation programmes conducted by forest departments, Tectona grandis L was

given the priority. Tectona grandis L plantation is also a very suitable and adoptive

species in the region and it is economically important plant species.

Between 700 to 900 m altitude zone, individual species according to number

of quadrate are Terminalia alata Heyne, Terminalia chebula Retz, Grewia tillaefolia

Valln, Tectona grandis L. These plants are observed plenty throughout the study area

in plenty numbers. Flacourtia sepaiaria Roxb, Acacia catechu, Ficus glomerata Roxb

Flacourtia sepaiaria Roxb, Dendrocalamus structus etc are satisfactorily observed in

this altitudinal zone.

Above the 900 m the area under the forest is very low and the density and

distribution of the vegetation became very sparse. Hence all the five quadrate were

taken above the margins of 900 m. In this zone, Anogeiaaua latifolia Wall, Terminalia

chebula Retz are mainly observed followed by Terminalia alata Heyne,Grewia

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tillaefolia Vall, Eleodendron glaucum,Pers, Bombax ceiba L, Albizzia lebbeck, and

Lasiosiphon ericephalus Dene.

Table 5.5 shows the major tree species along with various herbs, and shrubs

observed in the study area during vegetation survey. Carissa congesta wigesto

(Karvand), Vitex negundo L. (Nirgudi), Carvia callosa Bremek (Karvi), Adhatoda

vasica Nees (Adulasa), Lasiosiphon eliocephalus Dene (Rametha), dysoxylum

binectariferum (Yerandi), Lantana camera L (Tantani), Gridia glaucagilg (Datpadi) ,

Metarpegeon Centestus (Kusali), Cassia tora Bak (Tarota) zizyphus rugosa Lam

(Turan) etc are found abundantly. Carissa congesta wigesto (Karvand), is one of the

native plant and found luxuriously in entire study area. Vitex negundo L. (Nirgudi),

and Keynea Laxiflora Robyns (Aloo) species are mainly observed along the

settlements. Rest of the shrubs is dispersed in the study area.

Various edible plants were also identified in the study area, during vegetation

survey. Carissa congesta (Karvand), Smilax zeylanica (Ghotwel), Meynea laxiflora

(aloo), Portulaca oleracea (Gholu), Phaseolus khandalensis (Ran-shevga), Ceropegia

lawii (Kharpudi), and Phaseolus khandalensis (Ranmug) etc.

5.5 Sacred groves in the study area

Traditional conservation practices in the form of nature worship have played

an important role in protection and conservation of biodiversity in India (Bhagwat and

Rutte 2006). In many hilly parts of Maharashtra, especially in western parts, local

tribal communities have traditionally protected forest patches which are dedicated to

the local deity. Such forest patches reserved in the name of God (Local deity) are

called as Sacred Groves. Sacred groves, also known as ‘Dev-rai’ or Dev-rahati’, are

important ecological centers to study the potential vegetation in any region. In India,

Gadgil and Vartak (1975) are the pioneers of scientific study in the field of sacred

groves and they have studied floristic and ethno-botanical aspects of sacred groves.

Gadgil and Vartak (1981) documented 233 sacred groves in Maharashtra. A recent

study by ‘Bombay Natural History Society’ shows existence of about 1600 in

Maharashtra (Deshmukh et al., 1981). The sacred groves exhibits rich floristic

diversity and are more or less pockets of climax vegetation. These are relicts of

conserved natural forests, generally composed of tress. These groves are associated

with religious beliefs. It is supposed to be the abode of ‘Forest God’, generally

goddess and is known for a long. There were more than 950 sacred groves in various

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Table 5.5 List of plants with their local and botanical names

Sr. No. Botanical name Local name Type

1. Acacia auriculiformis Australian Babhul Tree

2. Acacia catechu Khair Tree

3. Acacia nilotica Babhul Tree

4. Acacia rugata Shikekai Tree

5. Acacia suma Sonkhari Tree

6. Acacia tortilis Vilayti Babhul Tree

7. Adina cordifolia Hedu Tree

8. Aegle marmelos Bel Tree

9. Albizia lebbeck Shirish Tree

10. Albizia procera Kinhai Tree

11. Anogeissus latifolia Dhavda Tree

12. Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb Kadamb Tree 13. Artocarpus heterophyllus Phanas Tree

14. Azadirachta indica Neem Tree

15. Bauhinia racemosa Apta Tree

16. Bassia Longifolia Moha Tree

17. Butea monosperma Palas Tree

18. Calotropis procera Rui Shrub

19. Carissa congesta Karvand Shrub

20. Carvia callosa Karvi Shrub

21. Cassia tora Taroti Herb

22. Ceropegia lawii Kharpudi Herb

23. Cesearia graveolens Delz Bhokada Tree

24. Dalbergia latifolia Shisam Tree

25. Dalonix regia Gulmoho Tree

26. Cynadon dactylon marli Marli Grass

27. Dendrocalamus structus Bamboo Grass

28. Dysoxylum binectariferum Yerendi Tree

29. Eatada grawis Garambi Tree

30. Emblica officinalis Awla Tree

31. Erythrina variegata Pangara Tree

32. Eucalyptus globulus Nilgiri Tree

33. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Nilgiri Tree

34. Euphorbia rothiana Dudhi Herb

35. Euphorbia antiquorum Nivdung Shrub

36. Feronia elehantum Kavath Tree

37. Ficus arnottiana Miq Paras Pipal Tree

38. Ficus religiosa Pipal Tree

39. Ficus benghalensis Vad Tree

40. Ficus glomerata Umbar Tree

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Sr. No. Botanical name Local name Type

41. Flacourtia latifolia Tambat Tree

42. Gmelina arborea Roxb Shivan Tree

43. Glyricidia maculata Glyricidia Tree

44. Grewia tiliaefolia Dhaman Tree

45. Hardwickia binata Anjani Tree

46. Hemidesmus indica Anatmul Tree

47. Heterophragma roxburgii Tambt Tree

48. Holarrhena antidysenterica Kuda Tree

49. Homonoia riparia Lour Kanher Tree

50. Impatiens balsamina Terda Herb

51. Lantana camara Tantai Shrub

52. Lasiosiphon eriocephalus Rametha Shrub

53. Leucaena leucocephala Subabul Tree

54. Mallotus philippensis Shendri Tree

55. Mangifera indica Amba Tree

56. Mapia foetida Narkya Tree

57. Memecylon umbellatum Anjan Tree

58. Mitragyna paraviflora Kunth Kadamb Tree

59. Moringa oleifera Shevga Tree

60. Olea dioica Parjambhul Tree

61. Parthenium hysterophorus Garjargavat Herb

62. Phonix sylvestris Shindi Tree

63. Pongamia pinnata Karanj Tree

64. Psidium guajava Guava Tree

65. Solanum anguivi Chichandri Herb

66. Semecarpus anacardium Bibba Tree

67. Smilax macrophylla Ghotve trailing vine

68. Syzygium cumini Jambool Tree

69. Tamarindus indica Chinch Tree

70. Tectona grandis Teak Tree

71. Terminalia alata Ain Tree

72. Terminalia bellerica Behda Tree

73. Terminalia chebula Hirda Tree

74. Vigna capensis Halunda Climber

75. Vitex negundo Nirgudi Shrub

76. Woodfordia fruticosa Dhayeti Tree

77. Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk Bor Tree

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regions of Maharashtra. Pune has nearly 179 sacred groves (Source- Deshmukh

1997). In the present research area many sacred groves have been reported (Madhav

Gadgil & V.D.vartak). The principal plant community in the sacred groves found in

the study area differs depending upon the rainfall, altitude, soil conditions and size of

sacred groves (Table 5.6) the grove. Most of the sacred groves are situated on the

middle central parts of the contours and located on the source regions of the

streamlets on which most of the villages are dependent for their water needs.

In the selected study area, during the vegetation surveys various villages were

visited where sacred groves are observed (Fig 5.2). Most of the sacred groves

although have diversity in vegetation most of them are now diminishing at fast rate. In

Panshet reservoir total twenty eight sacred groves are reported (Sulabha Tetali.P.

1986). In this catchment, Kadtai, Jarvit-shmbhu, at village Dapsare, Vardanidevi at

Kasedi, Mahadev and Jogoba at Givshi, Shirkai, and Mhasoba at Shirkoli and Somjai

at Gondekhal are important. In Warasgaon catchment, Bhairoba at Dhamanohol,

Amjaidevi at Bhoini, Kalubai, Mhasoba at Admal are some the sacred groves (Table

5.6).

The thick tree canopy cover of sacred groves helps to minimize the flow of

running water and the litter helps to retain the moisture. This vegetation cover thus

regulates the water movement and protects perennial springs. Drying up of perennial

stream with felling of forests has been reported (Gadgil and Vartak 1973). The sacred

grove at Tekpole is devoted to Waradani, a water deity- a goddess common along the

crest of the Sahyadris in the Pune district (Tetali.P 1986). The stream that adjoins the

grove is a perennial source of water. Although the removal or killing of any plant

and animal from the sacred grove is taboo, with change of time beliefs have been

breaking down and with it sacred groves are also disappearing. With the decrease in

the size of grove, many previously noted plant species are disappearing at a faster rate

from the study area. It was also observed that some of the listed sacred groves are

totally destroyed and few are reduced to a cluster of trees and climbers. The sacred

groves in the extreme parts of the study area particularly in villages like Tekpole and

Dapsare of Panshet reservoir and village Dhamanohol and Gadale of Warasgaon

reservoir are well preserved and has now became the tourist centers. The trees in these

groves now becoming thinner and diversity of plant life is much reduced now. In the

LOCATION OF SACRED GROVES IN THE STUDY AREA


Fig 5.2

Ch

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ter V : A

pp

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orest R

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104

No Village Name of Sacred Groves Census Code

1 Bhoini Amjaidevi, Somjai 3104600

2 Dasave Kalbhairai, Boreshwar, Samjai 3104700

3 Gadale Bhairoba 3105000

4 Admal Bedjai, Kalkai, Kalubai, Mhasoba 3105300

5 Palase Bhairoba, Mariai, Namjai, Sonjai, 3105400

6 Bembatmal Vadjai 3105500

7 Tav Lakshmi, Vaghrunjai 3105700

8 Mose Bk. Eknath, Kalkai, Nathmaharaj, Veerdev 3139300

9 Saiv Bk. Kalubai, 3139400

10 Dapsare Jakhinidevi, Jarvit-Shambhu 3138100

11 Gondekhal Vardanidevi 3138300

12 Gholapghar Vardanidevi 3139000

13 Ambegaon Kh. Bhiroba, Pandharfali, Talvatidevi, 3139100

14 Ambegaon Bk Jogoba, Mhasoba, 3141100

15 Givashi Mahadev 3141200

16 Shirkoli Buchoba, Mahadev, Shirkai, 3141300

17 Pole Somajai, 3141600

18 Mangaon Mangaon 3141700

19 Malkhed Sitabai 3110700

20 Sambarewadi Kalubai 3111000

Source : ENVIS center on conservation of ecological heritage and sacred sites of India

Table 5.6 List of sacred groves in the study area



105


sacred groves of Ambegaon, Kasedi and Gondekhal instead of thick cover of trees

shrubs cover is dominated by Lantana camara, and Carvia callosa.

5.6. Appraisal of forests resources in the study area

The appraisal of various available natural resources is a basic requirement in

almost all resource planning strategies and hence forest resource planning is no

exception. The purpose of appraising forests resources is to determine its source,

extent and dependability of supply and the character of forest on which an evaluation

of their future control and utilization is to be based. While apprising the forests

resources, three aspects should always be considered i.e., the quantity, the quality and

the reliability of available forest in the area. In appraising the quantity of forests, it is

important to ascertain not only the total quantity available within a certain period of

time, but also the distribution of the available quantity with respect to both location

and time. Quality of forests is important especially for uses such as economical,

ecological as well as domestic and industrial use. Reliability of supply is an

important aspect in deciding the value of forests. For a reliable appraisal of forests

resources spatial and temporal data regarding types of species and its characteristics is

desirable. A very common constraint encountered in the context of forests resources

planning is inadequacy of the previous forests records, but in case of short records

various techniques like remotely sensed data can be used as a suitable technique.

Analysis derived from altitudinal characteristics of vegetation cover and

species observed in sacred groves of the entire study area shows that many species are

economically as well as ecologically important. The livelihoods of local villagers,

particularly in the western part of the study area is largely depends on the forests

products particularly fodder, fuel and timber. Most of the species reported has a

medicinal and ayurvedic values and mainly includes Albizzia procera, Aegle

marmelos, Semecarpus anacardium, Hollarhena anitidysenterica, Hardwickia binata

etc. Leaves, flowers, seeds, roots and flower buds of these plant species are highly

used by villagers. Plants like Mangifera indica Zizyphus mauritiana Syzygium cumini

Aegle marmelos provides food. Acacia catechu, Butea monosperma, Aegle marmelos,

Semecarpus anacardium and Terminalia chebula are useful for tanning in industries.

The forest species that provides a variety of non-timber products which are also know

as known as non-timber forests species (NTF) are recorded. According to the

106


‘Economic survey of Maharashtra- 2011’, the share of forest in GSDP of agriculture

and allied activities sector during 2009-10 was 20.6 percent.

During the conversation with villagers perceptions regarding the various uses

of plants were obtained. It was observed that most of local needs of villagers in

western parts of study area are derived from the forests and hence dependency on

forests resources is found more in this part. On the contrary villages located in the

eastern part are very close to the urban centers and shows very low dependency on

forests resources.

According to the State of environmental report Maharashtra, Pune forest circle

has produced 114 Cu.m timber worth of Rs. 134.26 lakhs and 311 cu.m of non forest

product of Rs 2.39 lakh during the year 2005. Bamboo, Tendu leaves, Grass Hirda

and Moha are some of the important forest producer. According to the district social

and economic survey, Pune-2010, the total forest cover in Pune district was 1899 km2.

during this economic year fuel wood 810000/- . Grass, shikekai, chich, and other

produces 500000 Rs. Apta and Hirda trees were auctioned by the forests department

and the contractors employ the local labour for the collection of leaves and fruits.

Since last few years this auctioned has been stopped because the prices are so low and

it is now uneconomic to collect it, hence most of the villagers collect themselves all

these forests products.

The information regarding the sale of trees for timber, charcoal making and

sale of fuel wood is very limited now in the study area, and very few merchants are

dealing with this business and refused to provide the information. Timber from trees

like Terminalia chebula Terminalia alata, Hardwickia binata, is suited for making

agricultural equipments as well as timber from trees like Terminalia alata, Anogeissus

latifolia, Syzygium cumini and bamboo is used for house construction. In some parts

grasses like karvi are also used to thatched roof. For fuel shrubs like Carissa congesta,

Carvia callosa Lantana camara, and Lasiosiphon eriocephalus are the common shrub

species. These are also sold in the local market or surrounding villages.

The marginal farmers or peasants also sell products like bamboo and other

economically valued trees. The merchants or contractors from the Pune city usually

bye clumps of bamboo or trees and arrange for felling the trees and its transportation.

The value of trees depends upon species and the size. Farmers also get good return on

a full grown mature Mangifera indica trees as well as trees like Terminalia chebula

107


Terminalia alata. Up to the last decade, coal merchants operated in the region often

buy the plots which were cleared-felled for shifting cultivation and the payment were

made on the basis of amount of charcoal produced. From the forests lands many

forests products are collected and carried out to the local market as well as to the

wholesale market in Pune. Weeds are naturally grown in the hilly tracks of western

parts of study area which is used to feed the domestic livestock during the monsoon.

Weeding is the labour intensive activity performed during the monsoon particularly in

August and September. Harvesting is done manually at end of year with the

traditional equipments like a sickle and plants are left to dry.

5.7 Degradation of forests cover in the study area

Change in forest cover in Maharashtra state and Pune district shows different

rates. According to the forest survey of India’s state of forest report 1991,

Maharashtra had 20.30% area under forest which drops down up to 16.46% in 2011.

On the other hand, during the same years Pune district has 5.82% and 11.07%

geographical area under forest. All though the district Pune shows the positive

growth, there is significant loss of area under very dense forest and moderately dense

forest. In 1991 there was 442 km2 area under very dense forest which shows 100%

loss in 2011. The growth in open forest from 499 km2 in 1991 to 975 km

2 in 2011 is

responsible to represent the overall growth in the area under forest of Pune district.

Most of the natural forests and some of the plantation in the study area have faced

threats from the growing human population. Forests in the study area have been

disturbed significantly through logging, clear felling, grazing, fire and the collection

of fuel wood, fodder and non-timber forests products. These forests are now gradually

losing their quality in terms of species mainly due to illegal harvesting and clearing

for agricultural and constructional activities. The rate of degradation of forests has

been calculated. Table 5.7 shows that during the period of 1997 to 2012 area under

the moderately forests cover decreased by the rate of 68.09%. It is clear that the

pressure on the moderately dense forests has been increased. Since last fifteen years

this forest area is decreasing by the annual rate of 4.54%. As far as area under open

forest cover is concern, it has shown slight increase from 26.15% in 1997 to 29.77%

in 2012, which is the result of thinning of dense forest. In entire span of fifteen years

this growth rate is very less and it is only 13.84%. Annual growth rate of the area

under open forests is only 0.92%. In all the forests classes taken into consideration,

108


scrub and degraded forests shows highest rate of growth. It can be clearly observed

that this growth rate was 171.04% of the total period of observation. Among all,

annual degradation rate of forest is more and it is 11.40% per annual (Fig 5.3).

Table 5.7 Degradation of forest (%)

No Forest type

LULC LULC Change between Average rate

1997 2012 1997 & 2012 of change

Area

(km2)

Area

(%)

Area

(km2)

Area

(%)

Area

(km2)

Area

(%)

(km2)/ (%)/

Yr Yr

1 Moderately Dense forest 168.56 37.27 53.79 11.89 -114.77 -68.09 -7.65 -4.54

2 Open Forests 118.24 26.15 134.61 29.77 16.37 13.84 1.09 0.92

3 Scrub/ Degraded forest 21.06 4.66 57.08 12.62 36.02 171.04 2.4 11.4

Source : IRS LISS III data (1997 & 2012) Fig 5.3 degradation of forest in 15 years

Thus most remaining forests in the entire study area are secondary, primarily

post extraction secondary forests arising after significant disturbances through large

scale and small scale forest extractive activities. Post extraction forest are defined as

‘forest regenerating largely through natural processes after significant reduction if the

original forest vegetation through trees extraction at a single time or over an extended

period, and displaying the major difference in forests structure and species

composition with respect to nearby primary forests on similar sites (Chokkalingam et

al. 2000).

Secondary forests are important for the supply of fuel wood, manure, raw

materials for rural communities. They are potentially very important for their

environmental functioning including soil and watershed conservation, flood control

and carbon storage. After the passing of the Forests Conservation Act of 1980, forests

clearing, forests conversion pressures for agriculture and other infrastructural facilities

109


were reduced. However remaining natural forests mostly secondary continue to be

subject to increasing local extraction pressure with growing populations demand for

forest product, hence large areas of forest are degraded and converted into barren

lands.(Ravindranath & Hall 1994)

5.8 Deforestation in catchments

An attempt has also been made to study the deforestation in all three

catchments of Khadakwasala irrigation project division. The land use land cover data

for the year of 1997 and 2012 has been obtained by unsupervised classification of

LISS III satellite data. Average rate of change in forest lands are calculated for

geographical area as well as percent per year for the all three catchments.

It can be clearly observed that, among all three catchments, Khadakwasala

reservoir is facing more severe problem of deforestation. Here area under moderately

dense forest is decreasing by 6.40% per year. Whereas in Panshet and Warasgaon

catchment this annual rate of change in moderately dense forests is 3.77% and 2.10%

respectively. Furthermore the annual increasing rate of scrub or degraded forest is

also high in Khadakwasala catchment and it is about 18.04% per year. During the

same period of span this rate of change in Panshet and Warasgaon is 12.66% and

2.71% respectively. Deforestation in Khadakwasala has been resulted in increase of

barren land and it can be observed form the table 5.8. In the year 1997 proportion of

barren land was only 0.15% to the total surface area of the catchment which is

increased up to 7.47% in the year 2012. It is increasing by 0.66 km2 per year. The

growth in built up seems slow in this catchment and4.93% per year. Within the span

of 15 years it has been increased by 74%.

Open forest in the study area are the result of decrease in canopy or

moderately dense forest cover. One of the most important and noticeable aspect is

that, open forest is also decreasing in Warasgaon catchment by 0.67% per year. On

the contrary, area under open forest is increasing in Khadakwasala by 2.87% and in

Panshet by 0.20% per year.

5.9 Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) analysis

There are various methodologies for studying seasonal changes in vegetation

through satellite images, one method of which is to apply vegetation indices relating

to the quantity of greenness is the NDVI (Chuvieco, 1998). The Normalized

Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is the most commonly used satellite derived

Khadakwasala

LULC 1997 LULC 2012

Change between Average rate

Catchment 1997 & 2012 of change

No Land cover class Area (km2) Area (%) Area (km2) Area (%) Area (km2) Area (%) km2/yr %/yr

1 Reservoir and rivers 7.7 5.68 9.55 7.05 1.86 24.12 0.12 1.61

2 Dry river bed 0.17 0.12 0.93 0.69 0.77 459.47 0.05 30.63

3 Cultivated land 2.43 1.8 4.3 3.18 1.87 76.92 0.12 5.13

4 Agricultural fallow 26.13 19.29 25.86 19.09 -0.28 -1.06 -0.02 -0.07


6 Open Forests 21.04 15.53 30.11 22.23 9.07 43.11 0.6 2.87


8 Barren Land 0.21 0.15 10.11 7.47 9.9 4747.21 0.66 316.48

9 Rocky waste lands 14.41 10.64 18.56 13.7 4.15 28.79 0.28 1.92

10 Built up area 9.04 6.68 15.73 11.62 6.69 74 0.45 4.93

TOTAL 135.46 100 135.46 100

Panshet

LULC 1997 LULC 2012




1 Reservoir and rivers 10.75 9 9.32 7.81 -1.43 -13.28 -0.1 -0.89

2 Dry river bed 2.06 1.73 2.85 2.39 0.78 38 0.05 2.53

3 Cultivated land 0.06 0.05 0.4 0.33 0.34 620.91 0.02 41.39

4 Agricultural fallow 8.41 7.04 1.38 1.16 -7.03 -83.59 -0.47 -5.57


6 Open Forests 35.92 30.08 37.01 31 1.09 3.03 0.07 0.2


8 Barren Land 1.17 0.98 7.55 6.33 6.38 543.11 0.43 36.21

9 Rocky waste lands 1.79 1.5 12.78 10.71 10.99 614.23 0.73 40.95

10 Built up area 1.63 1.37 8.76 7.34 7.13 436.44 0.48 29.1

TOTAL 119.39 100 119.39 100

Warasgaon

LULC 1997 LULC 2012




1 Reservoir and rivers 15.14 11.35 6.93 5.19 8.21 -54.25 0.55 -3.62

2 Dry river bed 2.58 1.94 10.1 7.57 -7.51 290.73 -0.5 19.38

3 Cultivated land 0.23 0.17 0.42 0.32 -0.19 83.6 -0.01 5.57

4 Agricultural fallow 4.86 3.64 5.15 3.86 -0.29 6.01 -0.02 0.4

5 Moderately Dense forest 45.79 34.31 31.33 23.48 14.46 -31.57 0.96 -2.1

6 Open Forests 46.97 35.19 42.27 31.67 4.7 -10.01 0.31 -0.67

7 Scrub/ Degraded forest 8.53 6.39 11.99 8.99 -3.46 40.6 -0.23 2.71

8 Barren Land 3.94 2.95 3.59 2.69 0.35 -8.92 0.02 -0.59

9 Rocky waste lands 2.48 1.86 11.42 8.55 -8.93 359.98 -0.6 24

10 Built up area 2.93 2.19 10.25 7.68 -7.32 250.11 -0.49 16.67

TOTAL 133.46 100 133.46 100

110

Table 5.8 Trend of deforestation in three catchments



111


index of vegetation health and density. The premise is that NDVI is an indicator of

vegetation health, (Table 5.8) because degradation of ecosystem vegetation, or a

decrease in green, would be reflected in a decrease in NDVI value (C.L. Meneses-

Tovar). The NDVI is a measurement of the balance between energy received and

energy emitted by objects on Earth surface. When applied to plant communities, this

index establishes a value for how green the area is, that is, the quantity of vegetation

present in a given area and its state of health or vigor of growth. The NDVI is a

dimensionless index, so its values range from –1 to +1. In a practical sense, the values

that are approaching -1 indicates water surface, -0.1 to 0.1 correspond to barren areas

of rock or snow while higher values more than 0.2 are the indicators of high

photosynthetic activity linked to scrub land, temperate forest, rain forest and

agricultural activity.

Various atmospheric effects cause absorption and scattering of the solar

radiation. Reflected or emitted radiation from an object and path radiance

(atmospheric scattering) should be corrected for further analysis of land use and land

cover. Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) is a method of atmospheric correction.

Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) method is a type of Relative radiometric

correction. In an ideal situation, a radiometrically ‘‘dark’’ object produces zero

radiance in all wavelengths. In the Dark Object Subtraction (DOS) method, it is

assumed that any radiance received at the sensor for a dark object pixel is due to

atmospheric path radiance (Chavez, 1996). Thus, for dark objects, the pixels

containing the lowest DN values are selected from the image and their representative

value is subtracted from the DNs across the whole scene to reduce scattering

influences. The dark objects need to be carefully chosen from the scene; clear water

bodies and dark vegetation under shadows are traditionally selected as dark objects

(e.g. Chavez, 1996; Song et al., 2001). DOS is a simple method and has been widely

used in many applications.

In both the image i.e. 1997 and 2012 DOS method has been applied and then

NDVI analysis has been done.

Fig 5.4 shows NDVI images for the year 1997 and 2012 respectively. It can be

observed that for the year 1997oveall range of values was 0.95 to -0.01 which shows

the presence of healthy vegetation. It can be well marked towards the western parts of

NDVI Image 1997

Fig 5.4


Ch

ap

ter V : A

pp

raisa

l of F

orest R

esou

rces112

NDVI Image 2012

113

Fig 5.5


Ch

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ter V : A

pp

raisa

l of F

orest R

esou

rces

114


the study area, where NDVI values are ranging from 0.4 to 0.95. Values below the 0.2

indicated the proportion of barren land which is present towards the eastern part of the

study area. However NDVI value below the -0.81 indicates the water surfaces in the

study area.

In the year 2012 (Fig 5.5), there is drastic change in NDVI values where

greenness is decreased which is indicated by 0.6 to 0.66 values. During this year

vegetation is present only in few pockets of extreme western parts of the study area.

Increase in the NDVI values from 0.2 to -0.01 indicates the increase in the barren

land. Entire eastern part of the study i.e. particularly Khadakwasala catchment has

been turned almost into barren region.

The minimum NDVI values occur between February and mid June as these are

the driest periods in India. By considering the ratio of red and infrared bands an image

of vegetation ‘greenness’ can be defined.

5.10 Threat to the forests in the study area

Over and irrational use, technological and industrial growth, expansion of city

and increasing consumption levels are major factors causing depletion of forests

resources in entire Pune district. Land use and land cover changes, forests degradation

and infrastructural development for the period between 1997 to 2012 indicates that

forests degradation is much more severe and its shows strong relationship with

infrastructural development.

5.10.1 Unscientific methods of agriculture

Although area under agriculture is very low in the entire study area, farmers in

the have neither the knowledge nor the proper means for correct agriculture practices

and soil conservation. In addition shifting cultivation is practiced in mostly in the hilly

tract. Slash and burn type of agriculture is the clearing of forested land for raising or

growing the crops until the soil is exhausted of nutrients and site is overtaken by

weeds and then moving on to clear more forest. Along the banks of reservoir where

area under cultivation is more, strip cropping, contour farming, mulching, crop

rotation, cover cropping etc are not generally practiced. Elementary field preparation

measures like land leveling, channel grading contour trenching etc are also not seen in

the entire study area. On the slopes where farmers break virgin hill slopes, fell and

burn forests and cultivate these areas for mere two to three years before moving to

new areas is common.

115


5.10.2 Commercial encroachment

Expanding cities and towns require land to establish the infrastructures

necessary to support growing population which is done by clearing the forested land

(Mather, 1991; Sands 2005). Most of the places in the study area are becoming

concrete jungles only because the tendency of building of private farm houses,

bungalow along with lodges and hotels for the weekend or for vacations is increasing

rapidly. Whether supported or not by the governmental programmes and planners, this

encroachment have usually colonized forest by using logging trials or new roads to

access the forest for new land. According to the census data for the year, 1991 to

2001, population growth in entire part of the study area has not increased up to the

greater extent. But still the developmental activities have risen up at greater extent.

There is also a noticeable migration of the rural working population from other states.

The entire study area s affected by demographic and development pressure.

5.10.3 Tourism

Tourism is now changing from nature and adventure seeking activity to a

luxury consumption exercise which is exploiting more natural resources. Uncautioned

and improper opening of the areas to the public for tourism is damaging the

vegetation cover in entire study area. When the frequency of visitors or tourist

becomes excessive problems along with land degradation increases. Unfortunately the

government is adopting the tourism for easy way of making money sacrificing the

stringent management strategies. Many companies and resorts who are advertising

themselves as eco-tourist establishments are in fact exploiting the forest profits. The

sites of sacred groves in the study area have become a popular eco-tourism

destination. But due to the repeated injuries caused to the sacred groves by the curious

tourist is responsible in decreasing the total numbers of sacred groves in the entire

study area. Now very few sacred groves are found and some of them are on the edge

of vicinity. In fact in the name of eco-tourism, infrastructure development is taking

place mostly by the private players in these wilderness areas which are further

detrimental in terms of attracting people other than tourist also, causing deforestation

especially deep in the forest. Deforestation, fragmentation and degradation destroy the

biodiversity as a whole and habitat for migratory species including the endangered

ones. The biodiversity loss and associated large changes in forest cover could trigger

abrupt, irreversible and harmful changes.

116


5.10.4 Livestock management system

A majority of rural households depends on livestock and forest resources to

supplement their livelihood. Livestock in western part of study area is still a source of

food, of income and a means of non-cash exchange. It also provides draught power,

organic manure for crop production and is used for short term transportation purpose.

The entire study area falls under peculiar seasons. During the dry seasons there is

severe shortage of grazing lands relative to the needs of livestock population. During

the dry season due to shortage of fodder this livestock moves up hills and on the bare

soil due these animals soils begins to degrade. The distribution of tree species depends

not only on the ecology of area but also on anthropogenic pressure. Forests that are far

away from the human settlements and on difficult terrain contained large areas under

moderately dense and closed forests. Rural villagers in the study area, as in many

other parts are economically poor and backward and highly dependent on nearby

forests. Non-timber forests products (NTFP’s) including fuel wood, forests fruits and

vegetables, forests medicinal plants play key role in livelihood, consumption and

income generation particularly for the rural people. People along with grazing animals

have direct access in the reserved and protected forests of the study area due to which

forest along with soils in the study area is also degrading.

5.10.5 Forests fires

Fires are a major tool used in clearing the forest for shifting and permanent

agriculture. Fire used responsibly can be a valuable tool in agriculture and forest

management but if abused it can be a significant cause of deforestation (Repetto,

1988; Rowe et al. 1992). In the present study area, with the arrival of summers, hill

and forest ecosystems in the study area are always under threat of forests fires.

Summer season is the peak time for breakout of forests fires. Particularly the dried

grass and flowing wind increase the chances and intensity of spreading the fire at a

faster rate. Forest fire triggered by nature are now very rare and most of the times it is

due to the human negligence or intentional. Sometimes local people believe that

burning of grasses enhances growth of new grass next season for cattle grazing.

Sometimes forests are also set a fire by the forest department to clear it of dry

vegetation in order to avoid the risk of huge fire. During this season along with other

dry vegetations, kusal type of grass becomes very dry due to the scarcity of water.

There were more than 24 forests fire incidence in the year 2011 which was

117


responsible to the forests loss over 132 hectares, compared to the loss of 800 hectares

of forest loss in 2012. In the entire tract February to May are the months of forests

fires. Although forests department runs awareness programmes to make people

understand the effect of setting fire to forests, not much success has been achieved yet

in this context.

In forest fires, all fuel undergoes various stages of burning: pre-heating, fuel

break down, and combustion. It spread by means of radiation, convection, and

conduction. Fire occurs as a result of certain circumstances which constitutes its

environment which when conducive, triggers off a conflagration (Sharma and Hussin,

1995 et al). The rate of fire spread is governed by the velocity of wind, direction,

atmospheric temperature, vegetation types, combustibility, ground and duff moisture

and steepness of the terrain (Ambrosia and Brass, 1988). The knowledge of behavior

and dynamics of fire is essential to combat the same. In India, about 2-3% of the

forest area is annually affected by fire causing great losses to the forest resources.

Some fire is the incidental but majority of fires are deliberately caused.

5.10.6 Lack of environmental planning

The lack of environmental consideration in the planning of forest resources

has created severe impacts of irreversible nature on the environment, resulting in

ecological destruction in the study area. The production capacity of forests could not

keep pace with the exponential growth rate of human and livestock population in the

study area. In the last decade or so, wide recognition has been given to the existence

of ecological problems associated with forest resources development schemes. A very

few efforts are being done to protect the forest in the study area are seen. Non

government organizations (NGO’s) and institutions like Ecological Society of India,

Pune are working to minimize the degradation in the catchments. For sustainable

development, environmental protection should be an integral part of the development

process. The adverse impacts if any, on the environment, should be minimized and

offset by adequate measures. To ensure that the environmental concerns are dealt

within the planning phase of project, procedures have been established in many

countries which are called Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs). The

government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forest has formulated a National

Environment Policy in 2006. The policy is intended to mainstream environmental

concerns in all developmental activities.

appraisal of forest resources -...

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