Appraisal and Its Application to Counseling

COUN 550Saint Joseph College

Ability, Intelligence, Aptitude and Achievement Testing

For Class #8

Copyright © 2005 by R. Halstead. All rights reserved.

Class Objectives

Overview of Ability and Intelligence TestingTheories of Intelligence and the Binet Scale

The Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Other Individual Tests of Ability

Aptitude Tests

Achievement Tests

Alternative and Authentic Assessment

Overview

One of the most controversial areas of testing is the measurement of intelligence.

Consider the following factors:

The nature vs. nurture debate

Overall validity of these tests

Cultural bias

Models of Intelligence

It is important to remember that the concept of intelligence is just that – a concept that we have constructed and given meaning.

Another way to think about this is as a mental model for something that we believe to exist.

Psychological researchers often have differing opinions about such things and therefore different models for intelligence have been put forth.

Models of Intelligence

Hierarchical Theory – VernonConceptualizes intelligence as existing operationally in a

stepwise fashion

Guilford’s Model of Intelligence

Multifactor model – that looks at six different operations, five types of content, and six products

This results in a three dimensional cube that contains 180 cells reflecting the interplay of these factors.

Models of Intelligence

Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized IntelligenceThis is also a two factor theory.

Fluid Intelligence involves tasks of adaptation

Sequential reasoning, induction, quantitative reasoning

Crystallized Intelligence is specific to content knowledge in a specific area

Information coding and recoding processes

Models of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Cognitive ApproachesFocus of this model is on a theory of information

processing – metacomponents, performance components, performance components, and knowledge acquisitions components.

Models of Intelligence

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentStages

Sensoimotor PreoperationalConcrete operational

Formal operational Function Factors

maturationexperience transmission equilibration

Models of Intelligence

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence - Combines Analytical and Information ProcessingSeven Forms of Intelligence

Verbal/Linguistic

Logical/Mathematical

Visual/Spatial

Body/Kinesthetic Musical/Rhythmic

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal/Environmental

Types of Intelligence Tests

Individual Intelligence ScalesStanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Five FactorsCrystalized KnowledgeFluid Reasoning Quantitative ReasoningVisual Spacial ProcessingWorking Memory

Types of Intelligence Tests

The Wechsler Scales (WISC-IV)Index Scales

Verbal comprehensionPerceptual ReasoningWorking MemoryProcessing Speed

Full Scale IQ

Group Intelligence Tests - various Paper Pencil - Less complex to administer and score

Aptitude Testing

Aptitude is defined as an individual’s ability to learn certain skills or tasks if given the opportunity

Aptitude tests are used to provide an estimate of future performance on tasks that may or may not be similar to the tasks measures on test

Differences

The content of intelligence, achievement, and aptitude tests overlap.

The primary difference is HOW the tests are used. Generally, aptitude and abilities tests are used for

PREDICTIVE purposes.

Achievement and intelligence tests measure are used for DESCRIPTIVE purposes.

Multiaptitude Batteries

Used in business and educational contexts

Measure a number of relatively broad ability areasi.e. verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning,

mechanical reasoning, and abstract reasoning

permit INTRAINDIVIDUAL comparisons

Characteristics

Multiaptitude battery subscales ideally should have low-intercorrelations

Predictive validity has been determined by longitudinal studies

Fundamental component of comprehensive career counseling program Results help students assess aptitudes, predict academic +

occupational performance, select career exploration activities + make tentative career choices.

Most widely used Multiaptitude batteries:

Armed Services Vocational Apt. Battery (ASVAB)

Differential Aptitude Test Battery (DAT)Useful in exploring academic and vocational possibilities

General Aptitude Battery (GATB) one of most widely used batteries for assessment in

vocational counseling

Career Ability Placement Survey (CAPS)assess abilities for a majority of jobs in 14 occupational

clusters

Career Ability Tests

Career Ability TestsAbility tests assess the maximum performance of

individuals and their present ability to perform a task. Aptitude tests assess the future level of the individual to perform a task.

Admission Tests (SAT/ACT)

Graduate School Admission Tests (GRE/MAT)

Specialized Batteries

MCT Minnesota Clerical Test

Bennett Mechanical Comprehension TestClerical Ability

Mechanical Ability

Psychomotor Ability (fine and gross motor skills and manual dexterity)

Artistic

Musical

Computer

Issues and Problem Areas with Aptitude Tests

The trait and factor approach has been an esteemed theme in career guidance, rooted in psychology of individual differences, applied psych., and differential psych.

Aptitude, achievement, personality, and interest dimensions are identified through objective psychological testing and can be profiled to represent the individual’s potential.

Emphasis now focusing more on decision-making and career and educational choice (less focus on solely using aptitude testing)

Achievement Testing

Achievement Tests - Measure the degree or extent of the knowledge, info, skills, and the competencies that a person has acquired thru training, instruction, or experiences.

Types of Achievement Tests

Survey Batteries / Ach. Tests – most widely used ach. tests, the survey battery is part of most school testing programs. # of subtests and measures the objectives that are typically addressed in grades K-12. Provides a picture of what student has learned. Coordinated w/ standardized admin. + scoring procedures, common format. CAT ITBS SAT9

Criterion-Referenced Tests – domain-referenced tests, measure specific objectives and skills. Differ from norm-referenced + survey in that they FOCUS on MASTERY of given objective or skill, usually include many items on obj. Used to evaluate curriculum, identify topics

Types of Achievement Tests cont.

Item Banks – commercial and public domain test item banks are available for educational purposes. Allow school districts to custom-design achievement tests for specific objectives

Minimum-Level Tests – Require mastery for a student to pass to next grade level. Absolute standards often 75% Criterion-referenced

State Assessment Tests – administered in selected grades. Sometimes focus on essential skills, survey student knowledge, skills, and understanding in given subject. Purpose to help districts identify problem areas and evaluate curriculum.

Types of Achievement Tests cont.

NAEP – National Assessment of Educational Progress assess knowledge, skills, and attitudes of 4th, 8th + 12th graders

Subject Area Tests – provide more reliable and valid info. Performance compared against national norms. ACT

Individual Achievement Tests – used to assess a client’s achievement and cog. processes. Useful info on attitudes and motivation BASIS, PIAT, Woodcock-Johnson

Use of Achievement Test Results

(1) instructional

(2) selection and placement decisions

(3) growth

(4) criteria to evaluation curriculum

Authentic and Alternate Assessment

Major trend replacing traditional norm-referenced testing that relies on multiple-choice questions. Alternative Assessment involves assessing performance

through portfolios, interviews, observations, work samples, etc. Ex: Woodcock-Johnson

Authentic/Performance Assessment - involves assessment of individual on particular work tasks, no inferences are made, directly related to on the job. Ex: firefighters

Applications

Curriculum-Based Measurement – CBM alternate approach to monitoring stud. progress in academic areas. Screening, referrals, identification.

Adult Achievement Tests - GRE

Diagnostic Tests – One major purpose of achievement testing is to diagnose strengths and weaknesses. Diagnostic tests are based on essential skills + competencies needed for success and use numerous items to measure skill.

Alternative & Authentic Assessment

Growing dissatisfaction with traditional testing procedures and movement toward alternative and authentic assessment techniques

Qualitative, alternative assessment Observations

Interviews

Observational Approaches

Test Behavior Observational Scales

Clinical Observations

Unstructured (open-ended) versus unstructured (deliberately systematic)

Participant Observer versus Unobtrusive

Problems in ObservationLack of clarity, problems tracking and coding

Methods of Data Collection

Anecdotal Recordsbrief accounts of behavior recorded in a log, written

description of an observed event

Behavior tallying and charting

Checklists

Rating Scales

(Note: the above are methods of collecting data and not testing procedures)

Interviewing

Standardized interviewsStructured and unstructured interviews can be useful in

assessment and diagnosis (Bio-Psycho-Social Intake Assessment or Use of DSM-IV-TR Assessment)

Other Structured Interviews - Children’s Assessment Schedule (CAS), Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA)

One needs to be well-trained in the procedures.

Cautionary Note: The “Halo-effect” can cause the rater to rate examinee high on dimension not clearly observed because performed well on another dimension. Therefore, one must strive for objectivity.

Authentic Assessment

Authentic assessment focuses on the development of assessment exercises that are not biased against any group of students and can be reliably scored and validly interpreted.

Involves authentic learning and emphasizes real-world experiencesEx: Portfolio assessment