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APPLYING GOFFMAN’S FRAME ANALYSIS IN NEWS DISCOURSE

SAMPAIO, Adriano de Oliveira1

Abstract This article intends to apply Erving Goffman´s frame analysis for the observation of media discourses through its products, looking for the interpretative schemas utilized in production and reception of these discourses. If this point of view was considered, the frame analysis could be a useful instrumental. What are the social frames otherwise interpretative schemas? At the end of this study, it is presented a preliminary application of frame analysis, which aim is to investigate two national Brazilian TV news’ coverage on Christmas day, December 25th, 2003. By identifying the conceptual maps, which are found between audience and producers, maybe, clues can be developed in order to understand the communicative process. Key-words: frame analysis; interpretative schemas; reception studies.

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper presents Erving Goffman´s (1974) frame analysis, associated

with discursive analysis and agenda-setting, in order to test some applications of

this Goffman´s theory that is descript by him as a word of order to the study of the

human experience (GOFFMAN, 1991, p.19).

One of the approaches at communications research identifies the mass

media as constructors of the social reality. Authors such Mauro Wolf (1993) affirms

that if one takes this premise as true, one needs to admit that subjects appropriate

these constructions through reality and give new meaning for them at their lives. In

order to make this, the subjects use interpretative schemas, which are, for Wolf, “a

compost of an acquired knowledge context” (LEVORATO apud. WOLF, 1993). If

this point of view was considered, the frame analysis could be a useful

instrumental. What are the social frames otherwise interpretative schemas?

This text is divided by three moments. At the first one, the key concepts of

frame analysis and its interests of observation are presented. Second, some 1 Master, in course, at Contemporary Communication and Culture at Federal University of Bahia (UFBA) - Brazil. At this moment, the authors works at a project named: “News and quotidian: The production of sense at local TV news’ ” This research is financed by CNPQ.

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previous applications of this theory at discursive analysis are shown, especially for

the analysis of media events. At the end of this study, it is presented a preliminary

application of frame analysis, which aim is to investigate two national Brazilian TV

news’ coverage on Christmas day, December 25th, 2003.

2. GOFFMAN AND HIS ESSAY OF THE ORGANIZATION OF EXPERIENCE

“What is going on around people’s world?” This question concerns one of

the principal Goffman´s (1974) work, named “Frame Analysis”. The interest of

Goffman at this study is to observe the forms that people do to organize their

experience and to assimilate or give significations for their practices at everyday

life. It would be chaotic if it was necessary to elaborate a new classificatory system

for each social practice. So, the frames are this kind of auxiliary interpretative

schemas for people.

2.1. Preliminary suggestions for frame analysis.

It is necessary for Goffman´s frame analysis; first of all, isolate some frames

of reference to understand particular events. In a second way, it should be

analyzed the vulnerability of these frames of reference. The author assumes that

something, gives as real, could be also a joke, a fantasy, a misunderstanding or an

acting performance. Goffman wants to understand, also, the connections in theses

circumstances, in which, one could have several agreements (GOFFMAN, 1991,

p.18). In this case the author intends to observe some artificial events, such

cheats, where one can observe diversified representations.

Thus, Goffman does not make divergences in his study about real or fiction,

but not at a methodological point of view. Such position broadens his object of

studying about the organization of human’s experience, not only at the

experimented everyday life, but also at different kinds of fictional representations,

such as novels, movies and plays, because all of them are also parts of human’s

experience.

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Another important characteristic of Goffman´s study is not to increase in

value a “good” and a wonderful novel or make distinctions about a classical drama

and a contemporary play. Thus, he is interested in common factors that all of them

have: they are both used to understand and organize everyday life experience

(GOFFMAN, 1991, p.24). So, the author does not make distinctions between

“high” and “popular” culture, and his particular attention to fictional representations

may establish links with the study of mass communication products, such TV

news’, magazines and movies, because they are important to make constructions

of images or discourses about reality.

2.2. Frame analysis, but what are frames?

As it was presented, frame analysis is a word of order to the study of the

organization of human’s experience, but what are frames? Goffman affirms that at

the occidental society, one makes distinctions about an event of the other by

generally rules that have relations with one or several frames, which could be also

understood as interpretative schemas. These schemas are nominated by Goffman

(1991) as “primary frameworks” because they do not permit only one original

interpretation, but they give subjects bases to connect, in a particular situation,

events with primary frameworks.

Practices of everyday life would not have a meaning without such schemas.

These schemas utilized by subjects through primary frameworks make them fight

for a ball at a soccer game, or in a simple conversation look at their partner while

they talk. Goffman subdivides primary frameworks in two categories: the natural

frameworks and the social frameworks. The first one, are not oriented, they are

merely physics, such a Weather forecast. On the other side, the social frameworks

gives them the bases to other events that are guided by a purpose or a desire,

they require a control of an intelligent or a social agent. For Goffman, these social

agents are oriented by what he calls “drive actions” (actions pilotées), they use the

drive actions to understand a social frameworks that they are engaged in.

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According to Goffman, social life is organized and based on these primary

frameworks, because it is through them that everyday life events can be

understood. The frames are the central elements for the constitution of a particular

culture at a specific social group. Thus, frames are parts of their system beliefs.

2.3. Analyzing frames or “what is going one here?”

The central concept for frame analysis is named “keyi” by Goffman. After the

subject identifies the connection of a specific event, he or she uses a group of

rules in which an activity changes to another one that takes the first as a mode, but

the subjects consider them almost different (GOFFMAN, 1991, p.52). The combat,

for example, can be the primary schema of many sports events, which the fight

between teams and two players, such boxing, can be seen as this mode.

With the concept of key, the primary frameworks can be changed in two

specifics ways: the “modalization” and “fabrication”. It will be given more attention

to the first one, because it proposes to answer the central question for Goffman´s

work: what is going one here? The author identifies that the process of

“modalization” is characterized by transpositions between original frames to

copies. A real crime and a movie crime can be examples of original and copy

respectively. But, it is not the intention of Goffman´s work to observe some kind of

real implications at the representations of a crime and the creations of news stiles

or languages at the real crimes.

As it was presented, Goffman names these changes between original and

copy: “modalization”. Although, his interest with this concept is not to observe how

a copy can be produced based on the original one, but how two similar copies can

be produced by a common mode (GOFFMAN, 1991, p. 88). For example, a

“modalization” can occur between two copies as in a situation where there are two

versions, one in English and the other in French, of an original text wrote in

Portuguese. At this example, the interest is to observe that both of the versions

can serve as a base from one to the other.

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As it was shown, the primary frameworks are centrals for the

comprehension of a specific social circumstance, but the interest at frame analysis

is to observe the “retransformations”, a copy in relation to another one that has in

common the same original key. This assertion makes Goffman affirms that “the

frame analysis is better applied in cases of “retransformations” instead of “transformations”

(GOFFMAN, 1991, P.89). Thus, the primary frameworks will be there, and without

it the “retransformations” would not make sense, but one should never forget that it

is the “modalization” of this frame that is transformed in a copy.

3. FRAME ANALYSIS, DISCURSIVE ANALYSIS, AGENDA-SETTING.

At the last topic some concepts used to the frame analyses were presented.

In short, they are concerned on understanding how things can be meaningful for

the social agents. For Goffman, it happens when one realizes comparatives

process taking the primary frameworks as previous structures. For Klaus B. Jensen

(2002, p.149), the concept of frame suggests also that an informative presented by

media or others ways such as humans perceptions, only make sense if it would be

located in a context. The notion of frame maybe can be close to a concept that it is

very useful for the discursive analysis: the notion of “context”. Dominique

Maingueneau (2001) affirms that in a contemporary reflection about language,

sense can not be mentioned in a statement out of context , observe the next

example.

Text A: - Last night, before sleeping I looked at the sky and there were no

clouds, perhaps it will not rain tomorrow. If it is sunny, will you go to the

beach with me?

- I would enjoy it too much, but I am at the end of the academic term and I

am very busy.

Text B: Last night, John does not know if it was day or night, then she

realized that he was looking at him and thought. If “x” is between the

segment A and B, with a horse I will ride in the afternoon. It is dark.

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If the frame analysis was applied to understand these two texts A and B,

one should first identify at which primary frameworks they are involved. Maybe, at

discursive analysis, first, it should be identified the genre of discourse of the text.

At the text “A” it is easy to identify some things that make the text understandable.

First of all, the primary frameworks is the dialogue; second, the subject 1 uses

logical propositions (deductions) such “there were no clouds; perhaps it will not

rain tomorrow.” Respecting the rules of dialogue, the subject 1 intends to persuade

the subject 2 for whom the conversation is directed. The subject 2 does not accept

the persuasion of 1, but for it, 2 must convince 1, also, with logical proposes, as: “I

am at the end of the academic term and I am very busy.”

But at the situation created at text B, no primary frameworks can be used. It

begins like a narrative story, and one specific sentence could be at a mathematics

exam “If “x” is between the segment A and B”. One could affirm that there are not

meanings in this text, because it does not present a frame.

But the relations between frame analysis and discursive analysis are not too

simple to be done, it was presented some intersection at the concepts of frame

and context, however it should be questioned: which context is it talking about? As

it was presented, the “context” that the concept of frame suggests is next to what

Kimberly Fisher (1997) named “cultural frame”, for the reason that intends to

comprehend the sense of the social representations in everyday life. In order to

gain precision at the moment of analysis, it is necessary to make distinctions about

the “structures frames of discourse” and the “cultural frames”. For FISCHER

(1997), van Dijk and Donati are the ones who make this distinction. For van Dijk

the structure of the discourse is divided by four tasks, and the receptor uses them

to understand the meaning of a text.

“1) enabling the receiver of a language message to select some elements for interpretation and to delete others as not relevant to the global meaning of that message;[6] 2) enabling receivers to organise elements of messages hierarchically, and to mark those elements requiring 'strong' or 'weak' deletion or selection; 3) allowing receivers to generalise the meaning of the message; and 4) equipping receivers to derive a global fact from the message” (VAN DIJK apud. FISCHER, 1997, 4.11).

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Both FISCHER (1997) and JENSEN (2002) affirm that the empirical

application of the frame analysis is hard to be done. However, one should not

forget to mention frame analysis contributions when applied to discursive analysis

in order to facilitate his application at analytical ways.

3.1. Frame Analysis and media events.

One kind of study that uses Goffman´s frame analysis are the works about

“media events” such the works of Eliseo Verón (1981), Daniel Dayan and Elihu

Katz (1996), that are based in the social construction of reality paradigm. In terms

of analysis, the work of Dayan & Katz (1996) utilizes categories that are inspired

on Goffman`s frame analysis. They study the direct broadcast of social events on

TV. The authors divide the events in three categories: 1. Conquests, 2.

Competition and Crowning.

Conquests contemplate the direct events that represent big steps for human

lives, they also serves to affirm the superiority of one nation in relation to another

one. The human’s conquest of space, during the period of cold war and the recent

conflict between EUA versus Iraqi, broadcasted in direct for the whole world, may

be engaged in this category.

Competitions as frame can be applied to TV broadcast of sports events,

such as World cups, Olympic Games, politics disputes. According to Goffman’s

theory this kind of event are “modalizations” of combat. As frames, TV’s

transmissions can be analyzed since world-wide championships until Olympics

games, and still politicians disputes. Finally, in the Crowns the authors bring, as

examples, direct exhibition of funerals, marriages, etc of state heads and other

personalities, as well as the annual ceremonies of Oscar.

The common element between these three classifications of the media

events is the base of the applied postulates of Goffman to media discourses.

According to Dayan and Katz (1996) the analysis of the media events, such

discursive genres, can be subdivided in three other subgenres (conquest,

competition and crown). They serve as examples of general frames at the moment

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of construction of the media event by the professionals of media, and also for the

reception when they are involved in these kinds of direct broadcasts. In Brazil, for

example, the success of national commotion in relation to soccer world-cup

broadcast by TV is incontestable. However, in each one of those three subgenera

have themselves particulars rhetorical that assist the interpretation of the audience

in order to know "what is going on here?"

3.2. Frame Analysis and agenda-setting

In the beginning of this article it was admitted that mass media builds

images about “real”, on the other side, citizens have to re-elaborate these images

in order to deal with their daily lives. Not only science and common sense, but also

mass media engage one of the systems of knowledge and discursive production

that the society makes use to deal with the "Real". One of the approaches in the

theories of the communication that presents this idea is the agenda-setting. The

central idea in the initial formularization of the agenda-setting theory for Maxwell E.

McCombs and Donald L. Shaw (1972) is that “Mass media may not tell people how

to think, but what they should think about” (TRAQUINA, 2000, p. 31). This

affirmation supports that great part of the social reality is suggested by media. In

short, in the theory of the agenda-setting the mass media do not say the people

what to think, but what they should think about.

According to this theory, the media has the daily task of suggesting subjects

that must be discussed in daily conversation, so in the agenda-setting media works

as other mediators for the social life. According to this theory there is a politics

agenda block and a public one, which is present in people’s everyday

conversations. A third agenda is the journalistic one which intermediates the first

with the second ones. The interest of the agenda-setting, in its initial approach,

was directed to themes related to politics. Content analysesii were used in order to

identify the topics suggested by media, mainly, at politician campaigns.

When the theory was twenty years, in relation to the publication of the initial

text of agenda-setting written by McCombs and Shaw in 1972, during the 90s, new

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trends were incorporated, such as other themes analysis and the combination

between agenda-setting and frame analysis. In this way, news is understood as

narratives or histories that are produced from a structure which are already known

by the public (TRAQUINA, 2000, p. 28). Those that manipulate the framing of

news are the manipulators of symbols, as journalists, who act in order to guide the

interpretation of the news from a specific framing.

Another consequence of this way as the concept of framing was considered

by the agenda-setting is a magnifying of the proper initial postulate of this theory "

media does not only say what people must think about, but they also say how

people must think "(MCCOMBS & SHAW, 2000).

Analyses of this type combine frame analysis and the theory of agenda-

setting, use content analysis’ techniques added to the comment of the framing of

specific news. W. Lance Bennett and Jarol B. Manheim, at their study on the

covering of the Gulf War by New York Times, affirm that the framing given by the

media made symbolic references between Saddam Hussein and Adolf Hitler.

However, mass media did not provide framing or a signal that would call attention and would give an extensive meaning to the notified facts. Thus, the most important information did not call much attention and then, it was not so noticed by the observer. (BENNETT & MANHEIM, 2000, p. 101)

4. SEACHING AN APPLICATION FOR GOFFMAN´S FRAME ANALYSIS IN BRAZILIAN NATIONAL TV NEWS. It would not be amazing if somebody in somewhere in the occident was

asked in an informal talk "what it is going one?" here in December 25th, maybe the

answer could be it is Christmas Day. Getting the presupposition that the journalistic

discourse works to give another source for everyday life, and it constructs images

for the everyday life taking the quotidian as mockup, then Christmas should be the

principal theme for TV news that day. However, this theme was not only the one

treated by the TV news analyzed, other ones had also gotten prominence, such

the disappearance of the European space sounding which was sent to Mars. The

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theme of the day could be Christmas, but other news also had prominence by the

TV journalistic programs. By the way, what it is going one?

This brief exercise can not be characterized as a study of media events, as

was presented at topic 3, because it is not a direct broadcast of an specific

Christmas Day, but the object is a journalistic covering, of two Brazilian TV News,

on Christmas day. This celebration is not exclusively constructed by the media

and its “existence”, it is not only because the mass media decided to broadcast it

in base with news-criteria. The opposite happened with the accident in the nuclear

central office of Three Mille Island (TMI) U.S.A. studied by Verón (1981) which had

medias’ coverage. Christmas’ celebrations, however, as everybody knows, is part

of the occidental public agenda in the month of December and it is present in daily

conversations. So, this preliminary study observes the broadcast of two Brazilian

TV News, “Jornal Nacional” of TV Globo and “Jornal da Record” of Record in

Christmas on December 25th 2003. These TV programs are competitors in

Brazilian TV schedule at 08:00 pm.

In order to observe the subjects that had been shown by these TV news, at

the table 1 (attached), it is presented the head lines of the news which were shown

in that day, respecting its order of presentation and its distribution between the

blocks. Initially, this news which was shown by the two TV news programs was

classified in two categories “Christmas” and "Others". This comparison considered

first the number of news that could be fit in "Christmas’ " type in opposition to the

category "Others". Second, it was quantified the times destined by theses TV news

"Christmas " versus "Others" as it can been seen at table 2 (attached).Third, the

“Christmas’” news are subdivided in other categories in order to observe different

schemas of presentation into this topic and the schemas utilized by “Jornal

Nacional” and “Jornal da Record” are compared. Finally, it is identified a central

schema, or a primary frameworks, that appears along these subcategories.

Possibly, it serves to assist the production of sense, both at production and

reception, of media discourses.

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4.1. Christmas in 2003 by Jornal Nacional and Jornal da Record TV news

4.1.1 Jornal da Record (JR) The transmission of “Jornal da Record” in December, 25th 2003, had 45

minutes and the theme Christmas’ day lasted only part of the first block, the

program was subdivided in four of them. The presenter declared in the beginning

of the TV news: "Good night, this is “Jornal da Record” and this is the most

important news of the day". After this sentence, he presented the titles of the news

that would be transmitted along the program. None of them could be put into the

category "Christmas", only one of them referred to Brazil. The “most important

news”, like said the presenter of Jornal da Record (JR) were in the majority

international (table 1). With exception of the news of the Queen Elizabeth and the

Pope’s Christmas message, the news about Christmas was centered in the first

block of the program. They were subdivided in three subcategories: ."Solidary Brazilian Christmas ", "Santa Claus around the world" and” “State heads’ Christmas ".

JR and the Solidary Brazilian Christmas The first news of the first block of the program brings news report that if it

would be fit in the "Solidary Brazilian Christmas” category, and presented in the

following "head": "Frames of Brazilian Christmas. The reporter Gilberto Smaniotto

shows that how few things can bring happiness for the ones who have almost nothing." The news report goes on presenting a group of motorcyclists who distributes gifts

to people "who have almost nothing" in Osasco, São Paulo.

JR and the Santa Claus around the world

Later, some news, which was fit in “Santa Claus around the world” group,

had the following headline: "Santa Claus in high speed. Red and white clothes has

already been casual ones at least in the USA." Five news reports bring Santa

Claus as an athlete; in the United States Santa Claus is shown when he is skiing

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and more specifically in Florida, when he dives into the ocean to get a letter from a

girl who is also a diver. In the list of gifts there are: digital camera and international

trips. In an aerial graphical animation made by the command of defense American

space, Santa Claus is escorted by two F-16 hunting and he passes over the

congress, while in the “real” Washington, according to the presenter, Santa Claus

is found next to his reindeers in a aquatic ski. Finally, in Australia Santa Claus

tries to surf, but soon the false Santa Claus is discovered , also in the words of the

presenter, therefore he was an English tourist. The presenter, while enunciating

the heads of the news about Christmas (shown in the first block), had behind him,

a computerized Christmas tree image.

JR and the State heads’ Christmas The subcategory “State heads’ Christmas” contemplates the others news

about Christmas. The first one of them talked about the summary of Brazilian´s

president plans to the ceremony of the New Year. The others two last news report

about Christmas had been shown in the third block of the program, between the

international news, and had as an emphasis the peace message, not for

Christmas, proffered by the Pope in 62 languages in Rome. The news report ends

with the greeting done by the Pope, in Portuguese: "Feliz Natal para todos” (Happy

Christmas). After this a news report is presented about the message of the queen

Elizabeth destined to the families of the English soldiers whom are in Iraq. The 29

news report shown in that day by these TV news, 11 (eleven) of them had

Christmas thematic, while the time destined to the subject was 6 minutes and 42

seconds, that represents 22% of the duration of the program in that day.

4.1.2 Jornal Nacional (JN)

Compared with Jornal da Record (JR), Jornal Nacional (JN) offered more

attention to news, which Christmas was the thematic. The 27 news reports

transmitted in the day observed, 15 of them had Christmas as topic and had

occupied a total of 53% of the duration of the program. The Christmas news had

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not been concentrated in a particular block, but they were distributed along almost

all blocks. The covering of Christmas day by Jornal Nacional was also subdivided

in categories: "Solidary Christmas in Brazil and around the world", ““fait-divers” in Christmas"," Christmas myths (re)manipulated" and " “The State heads’ Christmas ".

JN and the " Solidary Christmas in Brazil and around the world" The focusing of the solidary Christmas news presented by Jornal Nacional

is not too much different compared with the category "Solidary Brazilian Christmas"

identified in Jornal da Record. However, the distinction between these two groups

is the geographic reach of this solidary Christmas. In Jornal da Record it is

observed only in Brazil, while in Jornal Nacional solidarity for "the ones who have

almost nothing" can be witnessed also in New York. It can be seen in the head of

the news reports: N1:"Thousands of Brazilians had been gone in the streets to

give gifts to poor children. In many cities the Solidary Christmas started early

morning.

In this news report there are people who go to the streets to help

unfortunate ones. In the City of Rio de Janeiro a lawyer wears Santa Claus

clothes, while in São Paulo is also presented that group of motorcyclists, the same

ones mentioned at Record’s news, who distributed gifts to some children in

Osasco. This news report was shown in the first block. The fourth block had two

news reports that could also be fitted in this group, although they deal with

"different realities": Brazil and U.S.A. N2:"In New York one of the most

sophisticated restaurants of the city had a special supper today." In this news an owner of a restaurant in New York offers a Christmas

supper to some children who had never been served by a waiter before. The trader

in his interview mentions that all the restaurant owners should do the same. Just

after that, in the studio, the presenter of the National Periodical says: N 3:"Here in

Brazil solidarity motivated many Christmas lunches. "In this news report three

examples of Solidarity actions were shown, which distributed Christmas supper,

the first one takes care of 5,000 children, another one a thousand of people and

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finally the line of restaurant in Belo Horizonte which offers meals for R$ 1,00 in

exchange.

JN and “fait-divers” in Christmas In the group "fait-divers in Christmas" There is some news that probably

could be shown in a different day, but was notified because of Christmas day. The

first news report of this group was the news report opening of Jornal Nacional

about an abandoned child in Belo Horizonte city. N 1:"Good night. In Christmas’

Eve while Christian family celebrate the birth of Jesus boy, another child touched

people in Belo Horizonte city. He was abandoned in the street one day after being

born”.

Perhaps the abandoned child case could be shown as a simple news report

in Belo Horizonte local TV news, but once it was Christmas it had a special focus

and a national coverage. The connection with Jesus boy and the abandoned boy is

evident in the head of the news report. Abandonment like this is not in tuning with

Christmas day culture and constrains this social context. Perhaps it was possible

to approach this type of news, such which the others two following ones, in a

category called by Goffman as “détournements”. In this category, the citizen

carries through the opposite of that he was waited for a social group in a certain

context.

The following news shows this type of “détournements”, It works as

someone was saying; it is Christmas and people are still afraid of terrorism, or it is

Christmas and people are murdered. N2:"In the United States Christmas was

marked by misfortunes and delays in the airports in the great cities of the country.

It is the fear of terrorism. "; N3: presenter: "a man was murdered when he was

taken care by a rescue team in Belo Horizonte. The group invaded the firefighters’

ambulance, when the help was being given. "Reporter:" Christmas supper was in

this simple house of the suburbs the last guest left the party in the dawn, after

some minutes, he came wounded with a shot in his belly …"

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JN and Christmas (re) manipulated myths The category Christmas (re) manipulated myths presents the uses of

symbolic elements such as Santa Claus, Jesus Christ birth and children’s wish to

Santa Claus.

JN and the “State heads’ Christmas”

This category resembles the one identified at Jornal da Record. Here two

things can be seen. First, thematic of the three news reports broadcasted by

Jornal Nacional were also presented by Jornal da Record (Pope´s and Queen

Elizabeth´s Christmas´ greeting and the Christmas’ for the Brazilian president Luís

Inácio Lula da Silva (Lula). Second, they have in common the fact that they are at

a “mise en scène” where the three state heads assume their role of speakers of

theirs states, so the state heads can use their legitimacy.

Pope prays for peace in the world, and celebrates the birth of Christ, while

the queen Elizabeth, sovereign of England, goes in front of the cameras to show

that the “Royal Family” shares the suffering of England families whose relatives

are in Iraq. The absence of Yasser Arafat at the principal mass of Christmas is

exhibited by both TV news programs. The cameras show an empty chair at the

mass that represents and remembers his absence because of the conflicts in

Palestine. News1: "At the traditional Christmas’ greeting, Pope prays for God to

save the world and banish terrorism, wars and any other forms of violence."; News 2: The camera films in Israel the empty chair at Christmas mass destined to Arafat

who was barred to participate of the ceremony because of the conflicts. News 3: The Christmas´s greeting of the Queen Elizabeth was recorded in a military base

and it was destined to England families whose relatives were in Iraq.

4.2 Distinct frames about Christmas? Christmas day can be seen from different perspectives by both TV news

programs, even the length of the news varied. Jornal Nacional reserved 53% of its

time for subjects about Christmas or referring to it, while Jornal da Record talked

about it during 22% of its program’s length, vide table 2. The distribution of the

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news between the blocks of the program points out the different treatment that

both TV news programs reserved for the same topic. while Jornal da Record talked

about Christmas only in its first block, Jornal Nacional mentioned about it during

entire program. There is also a kind of “daily agenda”, news that were given by

both programs and “could not be forgotten”, such as state heads Christmas

message and especially, Pope’s “Happy Christmas” in 62 languages. In table 1 the

headlines in boldface point out this daily agenda.

However, it cannot be affirmed that there is uniformity in the covering of the

same day, because some peculiar aspects of each TV news program were not

mentioned in this study because they go beyond its interest. An example of this

distinction between these two programs is Jornal da Record’s international

coverage, while Jornal Nacional focused more its attention on national news. The

different approach they give to the same news is also an example of this

distinction; observe how they talked about Pope’s Christmas message. In Jornal

da Record it is shown as a peace request from the greatest representative of

catholic community. However, in Jornal Nacional, this same news is presented as

Pope’s Christmas message in different languages.

Perhaps, a “text” analyze could be extended and it could be affirmed that

certain ideological point of view from Record and Globo TV stations may interfere

in the way they treat the same topic in their coverage, especially in the length of

Christmas news. It could be assumed that, once TV Record is managed by a

Protestant group, Christmas news can be focused according to their beliefs. It is

because the level of importance given to Christmas celebrations between

Protestant and Catholic communities is not the same.

It should be mentioned that this kind of observation goes beyond this

study’s interest and they are assumptions which have difficult empirical proof. This

study focuses on the analysis of something that can be called permanent or that

serves as a base to Christmas news exhibition in both TV news programs. Is there

a social frame directed to Christmas night coverage in both TV news programs?

The answer to the previous question is yes. It is assumed that in both TV

news there is a general frame to the news approach, independently of the

17

classifications that had been given before, as an example, the categories: Brazilian

supportive Christmas or State heads’ Christmas. This frame helps the one who

does the news in the same way it helps the one who must interpret it, such frame

will be called as a mean for this analysis as charity.

4.3. Charity as a social framework

“Charity”, in its denotative sense, is next to Christian ethics. It is a good

action in direction to the other, love is its base. At Christian ethics, when one offers

love to another, through charity, one loves God too. Charity when is understood as

a social frame, stabilize an initial unevenness between the one who makes the

good action to the other that is benefited. Thus it was presented by the two TV

news observed, since the news about motorcyclists from São Paulo, until the

owner of a restaurant in New York, showed by Jornal Nacional. This frame was

also observed in the news about the Christmas of the State heads (the Pope’s

Christmas message and the solidarity of the queen Elizabeth addressed to the

families of the English soldiers that were in Iraq). This frame suggests, in

synthesis, a welfare situation, for both persons involved, the offer and the receiver.

An act that shows how they belong to the same interpretative community

(occidental Christian) shares this sense.

There were, as it was mentioned, distinct presentations of charity by the two

TV news programs. In Jornal da Record, the solidarity to the unfortunate ones is

only seen in Brazil, where people distribute lunches, gifts and they dress Santa

Claus’ clothes. In the international news, Santa Claus character can make fancy

things: ski, dive in order to get a letter of a rich child, who desires a digital camera,

could be a dream for Brazilian starving children. In Brazil poor people, as it was

shown by Jornal da Record, are satisfied by a lunch, and simple dolls, while

American children ask for international trips.

At Jornal Nacional the Charity can be seen such in Brazil, as in other

countries, in São Paulo or in New York. At this TV news there are samples of

unfair Christmas in Brazil, because of its several realities. While children at the

18

state of Pernambuco receive Christmas’ gifs and clean a mangrove, with a tourist

guide dressed as Santa Claus, in the city of São Paulo, children of high-society

dream with the Christmas’ myth, putting their shoes next to the window, no matter

that Santa Claus will not find a chimney to enter into their houses, and even with

all the troubles of a metropolis, such traffic jam and windows protected by grilles

because of the urban violence.

CONCLUSION

The application of Goffman´s postulates in this article had an experimental

character. At the first moment, some content analysis techniques’ were used in

order to aim the discursive object. However, in the stage of interpretation, the

frame analysis of Goffman was utilized to give meaning for the corpus. As it was

presented, the frame analysis gives possibilities to understand the general

interpretative schemas that assist the organization of human experience.

The guide line of this work admits that the media discourse could be also

analyzed through these frames because they are constituent of the interactions of

the occidental modernity society such other discursive process at everyday life.

However, it is only possible because the subjects share meanings and previous

knowledge that organize the human experience both at interactions face to face

and the ones that utilizes mass media. The effort carried through this stage of

application of the present text follows in this direction; even so, the way to search

this approach is just beginning.

19

NEWS SHOWN BY TV NEWS IN 12/25th/2003 Table 1

RECORD TV NEWS WITH BORIS CASOY (DECEMBER 25, 2003) BLOCK 1 BLOCK 2 3 BLOCK 4 Pictures of Brazilian Christmas (r) Dictator Pakistan escape from

attempted Explosion in natural gas field, China

Unfortunate Young transgressors have the right of free defense, how to proceed. Brazil

Santa Claus as a skier, U.S.A. (NC) Bomb reaches office of ONU, Afghanistan.

Air accident, Africa. public rebellions end in 02 jails in the state of SP, Brazil (N C)

Santa Claus as a diver, Florida.(NC) Iranian resistance sends missiles against building in Baghdad without victims.

European spaceship sent to Mars has not been in contact yet, Germany.

Weather Forecast

Santa Claus in activity, Washington.(NC)

Israeli missile kills Islamic state head, Gaza.

Illness of insane cow arrives in the United States.

- - -

Santa Claus aquatic skier, Washington. (NC)

Terrorist commits suicide, Israel Gilberto and Gilmar, country group, are better, Brazil.

- - -

Santa Claus as a surfer, Australia (NC)

Tourists in Cisjordania celebrate Christmas, Belen.

- - - - - -

President Lula’s Christmas (NS) Arafat is absent in Nativities Church.

- - - - - -

Government Federal resources of “Fome Zero” has not been used yet (NS)

Pope asks for peace - - - - - -

Fireworks in Rio De Janeiro (r) Christians attend a mass, Pequim - - - - - - Exposition of Sculptures in São Paulo (r)

Royal English family greets English army in Christmas.

- - - - - -

- - - Crossed words in Brazil (r) - - - - - -

JORNAL NACIONAL (25 OF DECEMBER OF 2003)

BLOCK 1 BLOCK 2 3 BLOCK 4 Abandoned child in Christmas, Brazil (r)

Murder attempted against President, Pakistan

Murder in Belo Horizonte, Brazil (r) Magic of Christmas night is still in the urban centers, Brazil (R).

Solidary Christmas, Brazil (r) Palestinian man bomb bush, Israel

Air accident, Africa (NC) Ecological Christmas in PE, Brazil (R).

Christmas in Catholic churches, Brazil (r)

Offensive actions against American, Iraq

Natural Explosion gas, China (NC) Solidary Christmas in New York, U.S.A. (r)

- - - Christmas full of delays in airports, U.S.A.

Insane cow illness, U.S.A. (NC) Christmas motivates free lunches (r)

- - - Pope’s Christmas message Vatican

European Space Sounding lead (NC)

Charge - President wearing Santa Claus’s clothes

- - - Arafat is absent in Rooster Mass

American rocket of the private initiative, U.S.A.

- - -

- - - War tank turns into sleigh, Afghanistan

Weather forecast BLOCK 5

- - - Royal Family’s Christmas message for the army, England

Rain in Paraná Victory in pair, couple whose dreams came true, Brazil. (RE)

- - - Santa Claus dives in aquarium, Pequim

- - - - - -

- - - Santa Claus dives in a frozen lake, ALE

- - - - - -

- - - Santa Claus as a surfer, Australia

- - - - - -

20

NEWS ON CHRISTMAS x OTHERS Table 2

TV News NUMBER NEWS DURATION

Christmas Others Christmas Others News Duration 11 18 6:42 ' 24:12 ' 29 31:54 '

JORNAL DA RECORD

37,93% 62,07% 22% 78% 100%

Christmas Others Christmas Others News Duration 15 12 15:17 ' 13:40 ' 27 28:57 '

JORNAL NACIONAL

55,5 % 4 4, 5 % 53% 4 7 % 100% NOTES i In French this concept is called “mode” (GOFFMAN, 1991, p. 82). ii According to ROBERT & BOUILLAGUET (1997), the analysis of content in general way is divided in 04 stages daily pay-analysis, categorization, codification and counting of items and interpretation. REFERENCES BENNETT W. Lance & MANHEIM, Jarol B. Conquistar o público. Informação, orientação e processo democrático no conflito do Golfo. In: TRAQUINA, Nelson. O poder do jornalismo. Análise e textos da teoria do agendamento. Coimbra: Minerva, 2000 DAYAN, Daniel & KATZ, Elihu. La télevision cérémonielle. Paris: PUF, 1996. (Tradução em português: A história em directo. Os acontecimentos mediáticos na televisão. Coimbra: Minerva, 1999.) FISHER, Kimberly. Locating Frames in the Discursive Universe In: Sociological Research Online, vol. 2, no. 3, 1997 http://www.socresonline.org.uk/socreson line/2/3/4.html. GOFFMAN, Erving. Les cadres de l´expérience. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit, 1991. JENSEN, Klaus-Bruhn. Media effects. In: JENSEN, Klaus-Bruhn (Ed.). A handbook of media and communication research. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies, Londres: Routledge, 2002; MCCOMBS, Maxwell E. & SHAW, Donald L. A evolução da pesquisa sobre o agendamento. Vinte e cinco anos no mercado das idéias. In: TRAQUINA, Nelson. O poder do jornalismo. Análise e textos da teoria do agendamento. Coimbra: Minerva, 2000 MAINGUENEAU, Dominique. Análise de textos de comunicação. Trad. Cecília P. de Souza – e – Silva, Décio Rocha. São Paulo: Cortez, 2001.

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ROBERT, André D. & BOUILLAGUET, Annick (1997). L’ analyse de contenu. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1997. TRAQUINA, Nelson. O poder do jornalismo. Análise e textos da teoria do agendamento. Coimbra: Minerva, 2000 VERÓN, Eliséo. Construire l'événement. Les médias et l'accident de three mile island. Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1981. WOLF, Mauro. Teorias da comunicação. Lisboa: Editorial Presença, 1987. ___________. L´analyse de la reception et la recherche sur les médias, In : Hermès, no 11 -12, Paris, CNRS Editions, 1993, pp. 275-279.