Technical Report 669

Application of Transfer Forecast Methods

to Armor Training DevicesN

f%. James H. Harris and Patrick FordHuman Resources Research Organization

Daniel R. Tufano and Cheri Wiggs

Army Research Institute

J

Training and Simulation Technical Area

Training Research Laboratory

ELEC T ESEP 2 4 86 :

B

U. S. Army

LL Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences

C..* February 1985

Fm

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

86 9 24 018

U. S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

A Field Operating Agency under the Jurisdiction of the

Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel

L. NEALE COSBYEDGAR M. JOHNSON Colonel, INTechnical Director Commander

Research accomplished under contractfor the Department of the Army

Human Resources Research Organization

Technical review by

John BoldoviciRay Perez

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DISTRIBUTION: Primary distribution of this report has been made by ARI.Please address correspondence concerning distribution of reports to: U.$.Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, ATTN:PERI-TST, 5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333.

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NOTE: The findings In this report are not to be construed as an officialDepartment of the Army position, unless so designated by other authorized

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Final ReportAPPLICATION OF TRANSFER FORECAST METHODS August 1981 - January 1983TO ARMOR TRAINING DEVICES 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

FR-TRD(VA)83-37. AUTHOR(s) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(o)

James H. Harris and Patrick Ford (HumRRO);Daniel R. Tufano and Cheri Wiggs (ARI) MDA903-81-C-0345

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IS. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverse side If necessma end identify by block numbe,)

TRAINVICE PredictorsTransfer ValidationTransfer forecast RatingsModelsPrediction

20. AES"WACT (CtAwes- .enwem eI N sm, md Idtailly by block nombet)

The research described in this report was performed as part of the ARIprogram to validate and refine TRAINVICE methodology. The specific objectiveswere as follows:

1. Determine how reliably subject matter experts can make judgmentsneeded to compute TRAI1VICE estimates.

2. Determine how valid the estimates are.3. Recommend how TRAINVICE judgments and estimates can be made more

valid, reliable, and efficient.

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Technical Report 669

Application of Transfer Forecast Methodsto Armor Training Devices

James H. Harris and Patrick FordHuman Resources Research Organization

Daniel R. Tufano and Cheri WiggsArmy Research Institute

Training and Simulation Technical AreaRobert J. Seidel, Chief

Training Research LaboratoryHarold F. O'Neil, Jr., Director

U.S. ARMY RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR THE BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES5001 Eisenhower Avenue, Alexandria, Virginia 22333-5600

Office, Deputy Chief of Staff for PersonnelDepartment of the Army

February 1985

Army Project Number Training and Simulation20263744A795

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

ARI Research Reports and Technical Reports are intended for sponsors ofR&D tasks and for other research and military agencies. Any findings readyfor implementation at the time of publication are presented in the last partof the Brief. Upon completion of a major phase of the task, formal recom-mendations for official action normally are conveyed to appropriate militaryagencies by briefing or Disposition Form.

Accession For

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FOREWORD

This report is part of a research .ram by the Army Research Institutefor the Behavioral and Social Sciences'(ARI) to develop analytic tools for es-timating training device effectiveness. To date, four analytic models underthe heading "TRAINVICE&have been developed, but their validity is still inquestion because predictor and criterion measurements available for validationstudies are few. The authors of this report were able to get these measure-ments from transfer-of-training data gathered on four training devices duringthe operational testing of an MK-60 gunnery trainer, the Videodisc IntegratedGunnery Simulator (VIGS). The findings indicate that TRAINVICE scores werereasonably consistent for each particular model between raters. However, par-ticular components variables of each model showed low agreement between raters.The authors suggest that future research on transfer forecast models increasethe reliability of the predictor measures, improve the criterion measurementenvironment, and determine the scale properties of the models.

EDGrN. JOHNS NTechnical Director

4v4,

4V

APPLICATION OF TRANSFER FORECAST METHODS TO ARMOR TRAINING~ DEVICES

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Requi remnent:

Forecasting transfer from examinations of device and other training-systemcharacteristics has been the subject of ARE-sponsored research for severalyears. This report is part of an ARI program to develop analytic tools forestimating training device effectiveness.

Procedure:

Research was performed to assess the reliability and validity of a set oftools called TRAINVICE. TRAINVICE workbooks were prepared, and the procedureswere applied to four training devices. Empirical data were collected in orderto relate the predictor estimates from TRAINVICE to the criterion measures(transfer data).

Findings:

The overall TRAINVICE scores were reasonably consistent between raters foreach particular model. However, examining the component variables of eachmodel shows low agreement for particular classes of variables within models.These variables require the more subjective judgments.

The results of the data collection indicate the difficulties inherent incollecting criterion data. The lack of control over the collection yieldeddata without variance.

Utilization of Findings:

Future research on transfer forecast models must increase the reliabilityof the predictor measures, improve the criterion measurement environment, anddetermine the scale properties of the models.

vii

6&AI

APPLICATION OF TRANSFER FORECAST METHODS TO ARMOR TRAINING DEVICES

CONTENTS

Page

Background . . . . . ...... .. .. .... ..... ... .. ..... ... ...... 1

Rationale . . . . . .. ...... .. ... . ..... ... ... .. ......... 3

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... ... ... .. ... ....... 4

METHOD-PREDICTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Select Devices . . . . ... . . . .. ............ . . . . . . 5Select Gunnery Engagement . . ................................ . . . . . 6Prepare Workbooks . . . ......................................... . . . . . 8Perform Ratings . . . . .. .............................. 18

REUTainIngMTOdS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

MEHDTes A MOEthodION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

REPlTaTA.C.L.LE.TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ReconMmetions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

BEHAVIORAL CATEGORY DEFINITIONS . . . . . ................ . . . 164

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Summary of classes of variables and variables used by theTrainvice models ............................... 14

2. Tralnvice scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*............ 21

3. Percentage of rater agreement . . . . . . . ............. 25

ix

CONTENTS (Continued)

PageTable 4. Target characteristics and ammunition in the 20 VIGS

engagements . . . . ....................... 28

5. Raw data for all behavioral elements .... .............. ... 33

6. Raw data for selected behavioral elements, both companies(D21, B41) combined......... . . . . . ....... . 34

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Gunnery engagement . . ...................... 7

2. Controls (C), displays (D), knowledges (K), and skills (S) . 9

3. Controls (C), displays (0), knowledges (K), and skills (S)for behavioral elements . ................... 10

4. Rating design for TRAINVICE workbooks . . . ........... 19

5. TRAINVICE scores in relation to each other (by rater)by device) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 22

6. Comparison of TRAINVICE score patterns by raters . . . . . . . 23

7. Sample training module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

8. Score sheet for Tables II and III (night) . . . . . . . . . . . 31

9. Percent YES for selected behavioral elements, both companies(021, B41) combined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . . . 35

10. Possible outcomes of transfer forecasting as functions ofsimilarity between compared devices, and compared devices,and whether predictions match observations . . . . . . . . . . 39

x

APPLICATION OF TRANSFER FORECAST METHODSTO ARMOR TRAINING DEVICES

This report is part of an Army Research Institute program to develop

analytic tools for estimating training device effectiveness. Research was

performed to assess the reliability and validity of a set of tools called

TRAINVICE. TRAINVICE workbooks were prepared and the procedures applied to

four training devices. Empirical data were collected in order to relate the

predictor estimates from TRAINVICE to the criterion measures. Extensive

information was gathered on how consistently each TRAINVICE version and

sub-scale of each version is applied. Problems were uncovered with

application and improved procedures suggested for using the methods.

Background

The training device acquisition process begins when a training need is

identified to support a new weapon system or to solve a training deficiency

for an existing system. During the phase of concept formulation, developers

consider tasks to be trained, trainee characteristics, alternative hardware

configurations, simulation technology, and costs. Several alternative device

concepts may be considered. The acquisition process depends on the cost

level, existence of commercially available devices, developmental risks, and,

for a developing weapon system, the progress of the parent system through its

acquisition process.

In general, data available early in the device acquisition process are

subjective (e.g., judgments of subject matter experts), low in resolution,

and qualitative. These low-quality data are all that are available at the

very time that the technological risks are high (e.g., early decisions may

guide the device to or from high cost alternatives that do or do not use the

technological state of the art). Data available later in the device

acquisition process are more objective, quantitative, and empirical.

1

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However, even after the production of a device, empirical testing may be

omitted because of prohibitive costs.

The combined cost of empirical research and scarcity of objective data

during the acquisition process press the need for structured, quantifiable

algorithms for predicting the degree to which training on devices and simu-

lators transfers to the actual equipment. Forecasting transfer from examina-

tions of device and other training-system characteristics has been the

subject of ARI-sponsored research for several years. The Army has developed

a family of predictive models known collectively as TRAINVICE. As Tufano and

Evans indicate (1982), these four model- represent "the most ambitious steps

taken to date in the field of analytic evaluation" '(p. 2). The original

TRAINVICE model resulted from a review by Wheaton, Rose, Fingerman, Korotkin,

and Holding (1976) of several methods for estimating the effectiveness ofproposed training devices. They found the estimation procedure's generally

inadequate. A new forecast method was proposed (Wheaton, Fingerman, Rose,

and Leonard, 1976) that predicted transfer of training based on the training

variables (tasks, behaviors) and device variables (appropriateness,

efficiency, effectiveness). This model is TRAINVICE I (TVI). As part of an

effort to develop detailed guidance for user application, TVI was modified

(PM-TRADE, 1979) and is referred to as TRAINVICE II (TVII).

Narva (1979) tried to make the transfer prediction more procedural and

easier for Army analysts to use. He divided the procedures into those that

answered three questions about the proposed training device. First, what is

to be represented in the training device? "What" refers to the units of

activity to be trained. Second, why is the unit of activity included? The

reasons are training criticality and training difficulty. Third, how are the

activities to be conveyed by the device, and how are they to be taught? The

ways cover the physical and functional characteristics of the device. The

functional characteristics were adapted from the Training Effectiveness and

Cost Effectiveness Prediction (TECEP) procedure developed by the Navy's

Training and Evaluation Group (Braby, Henry, Parris, and Swope, 1975).

Narva s model is TRAINVICE III (TVIII). In an effort to develop a user

2

del

guidebook for applying TVIII, Swezey and Evans made additional revisions

(1980). This approach is referred to as TRAINVICE IV (TVIV).

The four models share a common data collection method. As summarized by

Tufano and Evans (1982),

This method consists of a structured interrogation of asubject matter expert. As such, the models place a veryhigh premium on the judgment of an expert. The methodfocuses decision-making on a specific set of issues foreach task or part of a task. In the first of the TRAIN-VICE models, for example, one of the issues consideredis the similarity between the equipment on a trainingdevice and that on the operational equipment to performa particular subtask. This issue is further delineated

*. into physical similarity (appearance, location, etc.)and functional similarity (amount of information flowbetween the human operator and the controls anddisplays) .... The judgments of the subject matterexpert and the index of effectiveness rely on manyassumptions, both theoretical and mathematical innature. The theoretical assumptions include: (a) whatis being predicted (e.g., a particular measure oftransfer of training); and (b) which task and equipmentvariables have the predictive power to generate such ameasure of effectiveness. The mathematical assumptionsconcern: (a) the manner in which all the values arecombined; and (b) the numerical properties of the ratingscales used to estimate those values (1982, p. 2)

Differences in assumptions are manifested in the models in several

important ways. For example, the mathematical weight of each of the

variables considered in the calculation of the indices are given different

degrees of emphasis in each model. The procedures used to estimate the

values for each component vary considerably from model to model. Moreover,

the procedures used to calculate an index of effectiveness from the variable

values are also very different in each model (Tufano and Evans, 1982, p. 1).

Rationale

Opportunities to try out the models, and to use tryout results to revise

the models for improved prediction have, unfortunately, been limited. In

some cases (Wheaton, et. al., 1976), predictor values were reliably estimated

3

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but the opportunity for criterion data collection was absent. In other cases(H~olman, 1979). the original model was revised without benefit of eitherpredictor estimation or criterion measurement.

Mainly because of practical. constraints (i.e., cost, availability ofdevices, parent equipment, subjects, and subject matter experts), the casesin which predictor and criterion measurement occur are few. Investigatorshave been forced by practical constraints to await opportunities in whichboth prediction and criterion measurement could be accomplished. Anopportunity arose recently during the operational testing of an MK-60 gunnerytrainer, the Videodisc Integrated Gunnery Simulator (VIGS).

Data were to be collected on transfer as a function of training whichused the VIGS, as well as three alternative training devices. Sincecriterion and transfer data were to be collected in any event for trainingthat used the devices, all that is required to test transfer-forecast modelsis to generate reliable estimates of predictor dimensions, and combine theestimates as prescribed by the models to generate transfer forecasts.

Objectives

* The research described in this report was performed as part of the ARIprogram to validate and refine TRAINVICE methodology. The specific

objectives were to:

(1) Determine how reliably subject matter experts (514E) can make thejudgments needed to compute TRAINVICE estimates.

*(2) Determine how valid the estimates are.

(3) Recommend how TRAINVICE judgments and estimates can be made morereliable, valid, and efficient.

4

METHOD-PREDICTORS

Four tasks were performed to determine how reliably SME make judgments

needed to compute TRAINVICE estimates. The four tasks were (1) select

devices, (2) select gunnery engagement, (3) prepare workbooks, and (4)

perform ratings.

Select Devices

Four Armor gunnery training devices were selected and each model was

applied. The devices were the MK-60 Gunnery Trainer (VIGS), the

burst-on-target (BOT) trainer; the M55 laser tank gunnery trainer; and the

subcaliber 5.56mm Brewster device (BRW).

MK-60 Gunnery Trainer (VIGS)

The MK-60 is a portable electronic training device designed to provide

soldiers with realistic and effective target engagement skills training for

both novice and experienced gunners. The trainer combines video disc and

microcomputer technologies. The gunner sees targets through an optical

system that combines the image with a projected reticle, tracks the target

and fires. Computer generated graphics display hits, misses, and tracers in

the gunner's sight-picture and an external monitor. Performance is assessed

by the microcomputer and feedback given to the gunner on a black and white

scorecard CRT at the gunner's console.

Burst-on-Target-Trainer (BOT)

The BOT uses simulated tank turret controls and a gunner's sight for

operation. The trainer provides a target and reticle which move with respect

to each other when the controls are actuated. The targets are various 35mm

color slide transparencies of enemy tanks or vehicles and projected into the

sight picture by a standard carousel projector mounted within the trainer.

When the gunner is on target and fires the main gun, a flash of laser light

simulates the round burst. The instructor can view the scene and has

independent control of the burst position to simulate various trajectories.

5!

M55 Laser Tank Gunnery Trainer

The M55 trainer is installed in the M6OAI's M73/M219 machine gun mount.

Each time the main gun is fired, the simulator provides a single burst of red

light, visible through the optics. This lets the gunner accurately determine

how well he is laying his gun sights and tracking the target. In addition, a

supervising scorer can observe how accurately and proficiently the gunner is

operating the tank's main weapon system. The trainer is used specifically to

train on the proper techniques of:

o laying sights on a target

o tracking a target

o firing the gun

o visually adjusting the lay of the weapon on a target.

Subcaliber 5.56mm Brewster Device (BRW)

The BRW is a mounting device which permits use of the M16 rifle or M55laser for subcaliber firing at reduced range. The device is used in

conjunction with the scaled range target system and is wired to the control

firing circuit and fired by the gunner's firing trigger.

Select Gunnery Engagement

A primary consideration during the planning phase of this project was to

prevent the amount of material to be rated from overshadowing the issue of

interest--the validity of the TRAINVICE models. For this reason, only one

gunnery engagement task with its appropriate subtasks, controls, displays,

knowledges, and skills was selected to be rated-for each TRAINVICE model.

A stationary firing tank, moving target tank, precision-periscope

engagement was selected. Four behaviors for a direct fire engagement using

BOT were added to the eight gunner behaviors for that engagement. These four

behaviors were derived from FM17-12, Tank Gunnery. Thus, the criterion

gunnery engagement contains 12 analytically derived behavioral elements which

are the subtasks in TVI and the task elements in TVII. The gunnery

engagement with behavioral elements is shown at Figure

6-..

,* j b* * S.

IDOC JOB OBJECTIVE 561PLUS BOT

Precision, periscope, stationary firing tank, moving tank target(1200-1600) meters), SABOT, direct fire adjustment (BOT)

GUNNER BEHAVIORAL ELEMENTS

1. Gunner indexes ammunition.2. Gunner turns on main gun switch.3. Gunner announces IDENTIFIED.4. Gunner applies lead in direction of target apparent

motion.5. Gunner lays crosshair leadline at center of target

vulnerability.6. Gunner makes final precise lay.7. Gunner announces ON THE WAY.8. Gunner fires main gun.9. Gunner announces sensing and BOT.10. Gunner relays (BOT).11. Gunner announces ON THE WAY (BOT).12. Gunner fires main gun (BOT).

The gunnery engagement and gunner behaviors come from two sources.

1. Boldovici, J.A. (HumRRO), Boycan, G.G. (ARI), Fingerman andWheaton (AIR). M6OAIAOS Tankr Gunnery Data Handbook, ARITechnical Report TR-Tg-A7, March, 1979.

2. US Army, FM17-12, Tank Gunnery. March, 1977.

Figure 1. Gunnery Engagement

7

The controls and displays were derived for each behavioral element using

the following basic guidelines: A control is something the operator acts on;

a display is something that provides information to the operator so that he

can act on a control. The analysis yielded six controls (e.g.. main gun

switch, Gunner's control handles).and seven displays (e.g., main gun switch

light, reticle). The set of controls and displays is presented in Figure 2.

The knowledge and skills were derived for each behavioral element as

follows: Knowledges and skills are the mental and motor components of the

behavioral elements that have special requirements for minimum performance.

Any knowledge or skill that could be learned or performed simply in response

to verbal or written instructions was not identified is a knowledge or skill

here. For example, "knows location of ammunition selector handle" is not a

knowledge component for the behavioral element "Gunner indexes ammunition,"

since soldiers would remember the location after a single showilg. Eleven

knowledges (e.g., knows number of lead lines for ammunition types) and four

skills (e.g., is able to estimate speed of target) were identified. They are

listed in Figure 2. The controls, displays, knowledges, and skills

associated with each behavioral element are given in Figure 3.

Prepare Workbooks

In preparing to apply the various models, procedures were extracted from

reports describing TVI (Wheaton, et al., 1976), TVII (PM-TRADE, 1979), and

TVIV (Swezey and Evans, 1980) for rating devices. Three workbooks were

prepared from the extracted procedures. The intent of the workbooks was to

enable raters to make judgments about a device in terms of the model

component without being distracted by other material presented in the

descriptive reports.

The TVIII (Narva, 1979) model is almost identical with TVIV regarding

the variables or model components considered and in the procedures used to

estimate these variables. For that reason, a workbook was prepared and

ratings made for TVIV; these data were then used to calculate TRAINVICE

scores for both TVIZI and TVIV. The three models for which workbooks were

8

CONTROLS

C1 Ammunition selector handle.C2 Main gun switch.C3 MicrophoneC4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.C6 Firing triggers.

DISPLAYS

D1 Earphones.D2 Ammunition display window.D3 Main gun switch light.D4 M-32 sight (eyepiece, headrest, 8X magnification).D5 Moving target.D6 Reticle.D7 Burst of main gun round.

KNOWLEDGES

K1 Knows procedure to index ammunition (including when to index ammunition).K2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED is response to TC saying GUNNER, (AMMO TYPE),

(TARGET TYPE) and Gunner seeing the target.K3 Knows number of leadlines for ammunition types.K4 Knows number of leadlines for speed of target.K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target's center of mass (with lead

applied).K6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response to crosshair leadline being on

target's center of mass, TC saying FIRE, and Loader saying UP.K7 Knows that sensing is mental notation of the point in the sight reticle

where burst of round appears as it passes, strikes short of, or hits thetarget.

K8 Knows there are three deflection sensings (LEFT, RIGHT, LINE) and fourrange sensings (SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL, TARGET).

Kg Knows that saying BOT is response to sensing round.KjOKnows to move point of sight reticle by most direct route from where burst

of round appears to target's center of mass.KllKnows that saying ON THE WAY is response to point of sight reticle where

burst of round appears being on target's cenfter of mass and Loader sayingUP.

SKILLS

S Is able to distinguish between targets and friendlies.S2 Is able to estimate speed of target.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.S4 Is able to sense rounds.

Figure 2. Controls (C), Displays (D), Knowledges (D), and Skills (S)

9t_,N--------

1. GUNNER INDEXES AMMUNITIONC1 Ammunition selector handle.D1 Earphones (GUNNER, SABOT, MOVING TANK).D2 Ammunition display window.K1 Knows procedure to index ammunition (including when to index

ammunition).

2. GUNNER TURNS ON MAIN GUN SWITCHC2 Main gun switch.D1 Earphones (GUNNER, SABOT, MOVING TANK).D3 Main gun switch light.

3. GUNNER ANNOUNCES IDENTIFIEDC3 Microphone (IDENTIFIED).D1 Earphones (GUNNER, SABOT, MOVING TANK)D4 M-32 sight (eyepiece, headrest, 8X magnifi/cation).D5 Moving target.K2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED is response to TC saying GUNNER, (AMMO

TYPE), (TARGET TYPE) and Gunner seeing the target.S1 Is able to distinguish between targets and friendlies.

4. GUNNER APPLIES LEADC4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.D4 M-32 sight.D6 Reticle.D5 Moving target.K3 Knows number of leadlines for ammunition types.K4 Knows number of leadlines for speed of target.

S2 Is able to estimate speed of target.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

S. GUNNER LAYS CROSSHAIR LEADLINEC4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.D4 M-32 sight.D6 Reticle.D5 Moving target.K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target's center of mass (with

lead applied).S3 Is able to maintain smooth track

Figure 3. Controls (C), Displays (D), Knowledges (K), and Skills (S) forBehavioral Elements.

10

,.

6. GUNNER MAKES FINAL PRECISE LAYC4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.D4 M-32 sight.D6 Reticle.DS Moving target.K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target's center of mass (with

lead applied).S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

7. GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAYC3 Microphone (ON THE WAY).C4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.Di Earphones (UP, FIRE).04 M-32 sight.D5 Moving target.D6 Reticle.K6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response to crosshair leadline being

on target's center of mass, TC saying FIRE, and Loader saying UP.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

8. GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUNC4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.C6 Firing triggers.D4 M-32 sight.D. Moving target.D6 Reticle.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

9. GUNNER ANNOUNCES SENSING AND BOTD4 M-32 sight.C4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.C3 Microphone (ON THE WAY).D6 Reticle.05 Moving target.D7 Burst of main gun round.K7 Knows that sensing is mental notation of the point in the sight

reticle where burst of round appears as it passes, strikes short of,or hits the target.

K8 Knows there are three deflection sensings (LEFT, RIGHT, LINE) andfour range sensings (SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL, TARGET).

K9 Knows that saying BOT is response to sensing round.S4 Is able to sense rounds.

Figure 3. Controls (C), Displays (D), Knowledges (K), and Skills (S) forBehavioral Elements (Conti rtued).

11

10. GUNNER RELAYS (BOT)C4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.D4 M-32 sight.D5 Moving target.D6 Reticle.D7 Burst of main gun round.KloKnows to move point of sight reticle by most direct route from where

burst of round appears to target's center of mass.S2 Is able to estimate speed of target.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

11. GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY (BOT)C3 Microphone (ON THE WAY).C4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.D1 Earphones (UP, FIRE).D4 M-32 sight.D5 Moving target.D6 Reticle.K1 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response to point of sight reticle

where burst of round appears being on target's center of m~ass andLoader saying UP.

S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

12. GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN (BOT)C4 Gunner's control handles.C5 Magnetic brake palm switches.C6 Firing triggers.D4 M-32 sight.D5 Moving target.D6 Reticle.S3 Is able to maintain smooth track.

Figure 3. Controls (C), Displays (D), Knowledges (K). and Skills (S) forBehavioral Elements (Continued).

12

prepared involve several general types of preparatory analyses; these

analyses are shown in Table 1. The reader is referred to Tufano and Evans

(1982) for a thorough discussion of the preparatory analyses and model

variables. A description of the preparation of the workbooks follows.

Prepare Workbook for TVI

The details for procedures and assumptions were increased and the rating

procedures and instructions were geared to military raters. The workbook

with subtasks, controls, displays, skills, and knowledges appropriately

entered is presented in Appendix A. Following are the specific revisions or

recommended revisions.

Physical similarity analysis (PSA). The PSA judges how well displays

and controls are represented in the training device. The instructoon to base

the assessment on physical similarity and ignore amount and quality of infor-

mation was moved from the definition of rating scale value 3 to the general

instructions since it seemed to apply to all ratings. Also, the reference to

"jnd" was deleted.

Functional similarity analysis (FSA). The FSA determines the informa-

tion processes of the operator (type, amount, and direction of information)

for each display and control and then compares the information requirements

in the device to those in the operational equipment. The approach recom-

mended for this analysis is considerably different from the Wheaton, et al.

(1976) procedures. The-revision was driven by the requirement for the rater

to understand how to estimate the number of alternatives for a control or

display. This seemed essential to enable later examination of the reli-

ability of the analysis. The instructions were modified so that the rater

determined the number of alternatives that the display or control under

consideration could assume. This procedure was further modified by requiring

the rater to determine whether the operator acts on the same amount of

information for a control or display in the same way for both the operational

and the training situation.

13

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Learning deficit analysis (LDA). In TVI, the LDA determines the dif-

ference between the trainees' repertory of skills and knowledges and the

level required to perform a subtask. In TVII, the LDA estimates how much the

trainees have to learn, weighted by the time required to train them.

TRAINVICE IV assesses the degree of proficiency required and the learning

difficulty of each skill. The definitions for Repertory Scale appeared to

refer too much to amount and type of training. The typical soldier described

for the raters was a high school graduate in Armor OSUT who has completed the

common soldier and tank driver blocks of instruction and was about to enter

the gunnery phase of training. In this case, soldiers will not have received

any training on any of the knowledges or skills, but they may have various

levels of proficiency on the skills. For example, the typical soldier would

probably be able to estimate one second "completely and accurately without

supervision" (part of the definition for a score of 4). But he would not

have received skill training on estimating (the remainder of tlat defini-

tion). Raters then could logically assign anything from a 0 to a 4 depending

on whether they focus on level of proficiency or amount and type of train-

ing. The amount and type of training received was deleted from the

defi ni ti ons.

The Criterion Scale definitions seemed to be oriented toward describing

the status of an imperfectly trained solider. Again, the focus needed to be

on the requirements of the criterion task (hit moving target) rather than on

the type of training received or the amount of further training required.

For example, statements such as "needs more practice under supervision" may

divert raters from the task requirements to the quality of an unspecified

training program. The scale value defintions were revised to focus on

knowledge or skill requirements of the criterion task.

Training techniques analysis (TTA). The purpose of the TTA is to

establish how well a device implements established learning principles. This

is done by using TECEP categories to determine task categories and rate how

well the device Implements the associated TECEP learning guidelines (from a

"-3* which infers violation of a principle to a "3" which infers optimal

implementation). The rater identifies the lowest rating of each task

'.1i. S4 . . . . . .- "- . . ,-" . . .- , .' ", , .- ',"",", ".,. ".',," " " " ,- , ,,

category and then averages and scales these scores to yield a "T" scorebetween "0" and"1.

The procedures associated with this analysis were not clear in

specifying when the rater should rate the principles for each task category.That is, should the rater rate every category or should the rater firstdetermine which principles are relevant to the subtasks being rated.Determining the relevant principles before rating appeared to be morereasonable in that a principle may be more relevant to some subtasks but notothers. For instance, the mnemonic to apply to adjusting lead to compensatefor motion in the firing tank is not apparent. But the lack of apparentrelevance does not affect the comparative effectiveness of a device. This

can be a problem because the model only incorporates the lowest rating in acell. An irrelevant principle would wash out any positive applications oflearning principles.I

Despite this theoretical drawback, the instructions call for rating eachprinciple in each cell. The main reason for that instruction is the defini-

tion of zero in the scale. One reason for a zero is that the principle isirrelevant. That implies that there is no screening for relevance. A more

basic problem relates to the purpose of the analysis. Research Memorandum76-16 (Wheaton, et al.) states that the purpose is to tell the incrementedtraining value that a specific device possesses over operational equipment(p. 39). However, the procedure makes no reference to operational equip-ment. The Memorandum later recommends an approach which assigns the zeropoint to the operational equipment and rates each device in terms of gain ordecrease compared with that equipment (p.'43). Such a modification wouldalso resolve the relevance problem. This approach, if adopted, would

* probably require use of the average score rather than the lowest score.

Two recommendations are presented for revisions to the training

techniques analysis procedure. They are:

1. Rework the scale to compare devices' application ofprinciples with operational equipment's application ofprinciples; or,

16

2. Continue with current procedures but have raters screenprinciples in each relevant cell1 to i denti fy theprinciples that apply to the subtask. Eliminate"inapplicable or irrelevant" from the definition forzero.

Prepare Workbook for TVII

The main confusion with TVII instructions related to unique elements and

controls. A device is supposed to be penalized for task elements and-controls that are "unique to the device but not needed." The materials (PM-* TRADE, 1979) give no examples. Since the analysis proceeds by task, the most

likely interpretation is to penalize features that are unrelated to the task

being considered. By a strict interpretation, the ability to show motion,for example, would be unique for the task "engage stationary targets." But

the scope of a task is often arbitrary. In this case the task could just as

easily be "fire main gun" in which case the ability to show motiob' would not*be a unique element. The instructions therefore call for considering an

element unique if it is unrelated to entry-level gunnery. The rating sheets

were modified so that raters would list what they considered to be unique

elements. The TVII Workbook is in Appendix 0.

Prepare Workbook for TVIV

The problems with TVIV related to the definitions for Training Profi-

ciency and Learning Difficulty. The confusion stemmed from the definitionsfor the scale values. Training Proficiency is supposed to describe the

ability of the soldier that the system requires. But the definitions refer

primarily to the amount or quality of training received. When the system

requirements are mentioned, the context is illogical: A rater gives a 1 when

the system would require only a limited knowledge and would be seriouslydegraded by limited knowledge. Raters with a criterion referenced attitudewould have trouble telling the difference between a minimally competent andan adequate skill, particularly when system requirements are being asked

17

for. Similarly, the definition of expert-level skill is also not consonant

with the purpose. The following scale value definitions are recommended:

Rating Definition

1 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing onknowledge or one performance of skill. System willtolerate frequent errors.

2 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefingand some practice, but does not need to be able toapply knowledge or skill without error. System willtolerate occasional- errors.

3 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under mostconditions without hesitation. System will tolerateinfrequent errors.

4 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under allconditions without hesitation. System will not to1 rateerrors.

The Learning Difficulty definitions may depend too much on maintaining

rather than acquiring proficiency. Also it is not clear whether

"instruction" in 2, 3, and 4 iS intended to be limited to description or

includes hands-on practice. Appendix C is the TVIV Workbook.

Perform Ratings

The ratings were made by two Independent raters. The first rater

applied each TRAINVICE model to all four devices; the second rater applied

TRAINVICE II, 111, and IV to all four devices and TVI to the VIGS only. The

rating design is shown in Figure 4. Each rater familiarized himself with the

VIGS device by practicing a prescribed sequence of engagements until each

felt confident enough to do the ratings. The two raters were familiar with

the remaining three devices through other projects and refreshed their

memories by reviewing the particular descriptions in DA Pam 310-12 (1976).

18

Device Model VIGS BOT M55 BRW

TV-I Rater 1 Rater I Rater 1 Rater IRater2 ......

TV-1I Rater I Rater I Rater 1 Rater IRater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2

1

TV-111 Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater I Rater IRater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2

TV-IV Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 1Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2 Rater 2

Figure 4. Rating design for TRAINVICE Workbooks

19

p fl, S fl~~~~~W M -WW~ r W W ~ ll n sw s

RESULTS-PREDICTORS

The overall TRAINVICE scores computed for raters 1 and 2 are in

Table 2. The scores that each model assigns vary greatly. This generates

questions concerning what relationship a value for a particular model haswhen compared to a second model on the same training device. For example,

rater 1 applying TVI awards the VIGS device .34, but the same rater using

TVII awards the VIGS .90. Of particular concern is the difference between

TVIII and TVIV. The scores assigned by each of the models are quite dif-

ferent from one another (e.g., where the two raters using TVIII assign a .38and .41 for the VIGS device, the TYIV scores are .67 and .74). However, the

data recorded in the workbooks for these two devices are identical. The only

difference between the two models is in the equation each one uses. Further-

more, the TVIV scores for the last two devices (M55 and BRW) differ greatly

between the raters whereas for TVIII both raters' scores are alniost Identi-

cal. Again, since the only difference between the two models is the equation

each uses, these results raise some interesting questions about the equations

each of the four models uses to produce a "prediction value." The issue of

the relationships of values from one model compared to another model is

presented in the Discussion section.

Although the actual scores which each TRAINVICE model assigns are dif-

ferent, the rank order of these scores produces a fairly consistent pattern.Figure 5 illustrates this by displaying each of the TRAINVICE scores in

relation to one another for each rater. Figure 6 compares the pattern of the

TRAINVICE scores for each rater (with the exception of TVI in which only

rater 1 completed the analysis). In general, the patterns of the scores are

similar between the raters. In fact, the actual TRAINVICE scores (presented

in Table 2) are not considerably different between raters (with the exception

of TVIV on the M55 and BRW devices).

There was a high degree of agreement among the predictions generated by

the four TRAINVICE models, for each of the raters. The statistic used to re-

flect this multiple correlation was Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance (W)

20

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Figure &. TRAIN VICE Scores In Relation to Each Other(By Rotor By Device)

22

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(Siegel, 1956) which took into account the rank ordering of each model's

predictions across the four training devices in question. For rater 1, W =.85 (p < .01). Since rater 2 had only applied TVII, TVIII, and TVIV to all

four devices, his coefficient of concordance (.63) was less reliable; p <

.15. The immediate implication of these results is that perhaps the simplest

prediction method (TVII) is the one to use since its predictions agree with

the more complicated methods.

Since inter-rater agreement was high for the TRAINVICE indices, we

wanted to see if the raters agreed consistently throughout the rating

procedure. There are two reasons for this: (1) If the raters are not

agreeing, then an analysis of rater-agreement will pinpoint areas in the

model that need to be more specific in defining their rating criteria; and

(2) If the raters are not agreeing, then one must question whether the

TRAINVICE model is producing an accurate measure.

To indicate the extent to which raters produced similar ratings, a

simple "percent-agreement" score was computed for each of the component

. variables of each TRAINVICE model. These are displayed in Table 3. Tufano

and Evans (1982) designed the framework of this table to show the4%

commonalities among the four models in terms of their various analyses. In

*" observing the rater agreement within these variables, particular areas have

produced consistent degrees of rater agreement across all of the TRAINVICE

models. Specifically, in the coverage of commonality analysis, raterS'

agreements are generally 80-100%. In the learning and training technique

analysis, rater agreements are generally below 50%.

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2.5. i.

METHOD-DATA COLLECTION

Plan

The data collection plan was to give a set of Armor OSUT soldiers

specific opportunities to practice gunnery tasks on the VIGS rather than the

normal OSUT gunnery training. Their subsequent dry fire performance with the

M55 laser on two engagements each from Tank Tables II (night) and III (night)

would be compared with the performance of another set of Armor OSUT soldiers

who had normal OSUT gunnery training and no practice on the VIGS. Perform-

ance of each group would also be compared with performance predicted by

TRAINVICE ratings. The VIGS training was presented at two levels of

intensity, a high and low level.

Subjects

Twenty-nine soldiers from one OSUT company and 28 from another partici-

pated. They were represented in three groups, as follows:

Normal OSUTCompany Gunnery Low VIGS High VIGS

B41 10 10 9D21 9 10 9

Training Method

Subjects in the high and low level training groups were given training

as described in Hoffman and Melching (1982). Essentially, the two levels of

VIGS training were substituted for a portion of regular OSUT training on the

M55 laser. The high group was administered two VIGS training modules; the

low group, was administered one module.

Module 1 training on the MK60 for both high and low level groups

occurred during week ten of training. It was substituted for approximately

eight hours of the time normally devoted to training on Tank Tables I, I,

and III (Day Fire) using the M55 laser mounted on turret trainers. Subjects

who were assigned to high level training returned two weeks later for Module

2 training. The training module was scheduled for five hours and occurred

26

..........

immediately after subjects had received their .22 caliber Brewster device

exercises. All groups had training on the burst-on-target (BOT) trainer.

A list of the engagements on the VIGS is shown in Table 4. A sample

training module used by Hoffman and Melching (1982) is presented as Figure 7.

Testing Method

All subjects fired Tank Tables II (night) and III (night). The

description of Tank Table II (night) is as follows:

Task: Employ BOT method of adjustment (Engagements I and 4)

Conditions: Using a sub-caliber (laser) device, the Gunner willadjust fire from a first round miss, using BOT method of adjustment.Gunner fire at stationary targets from a stationary tank under hitelight or IR.

p Standards: Gunner must hit target with second round and use correctadjustment techniques to qualify on Table II (night).

Equipment Set-up: An elevation error is induced into the computerto cause a first round miss requiring fire adjustment.

The description of Tank Table III (night) is as follows:

Task: Employ BOT method of adjustment (Engagements 1 and 3).

Conditions: Using a sub-caliber (laser) device, the Gunner willadjust fire from a first round miss, using BOT method of adjustment.Gunner will fire at moving targets from a stationary tank under whitelight or IR.

Standards: Gunner must hit targets with second round and use correctadjustment techniques to qualify on Table III (night).

Equipment Set-up: An elevation error is induced into the computertocause a first round miss requiring fire adjustment.

27

', °. ..

TABLE 4

TARGET CHARACTERISTICS AND AMMUNITION IN THE 20 VIGS ENGAGEMENTS

Target Target Target TargetType Range Movement Cover Ammo

Tank 456 Closing No HEAT

Tank 500 Closing No HEAT

Tank 1000 Closing No HEAT

Tank 1030 Closing No APDS

APC 800 Closing No HEP

Tank 500 Crossing No HEAT

Tank 1000 Crossing No APDS

Tank 406 Closing Yes APDS

Tank 588 Closing Yes APDS

2 Tanks 456 Closing No HEAT

APCk 1326 Crossing No HEAT

2 Tanks 1400 Closing No APDS

APCk 1130 Crossing No HEP

Tank 1200 Crossing No HEAT

Tank 1130 Closing Yes HEAT

Tank 500 Crossing Yes APDS

Tank 1430 Crossing No APDS

2 Tanks 1230 Crossing No HEAT

Tank 1300 Crossing Yes HEAT

2 Tanks 1230 Crossing No HEAT

28

Li L Z. ~~ -~ -~

BATModule 1

MK60 VIDEODISC SIMULATORGUNNERY TRAINING

Partial Substitute for Lesson Plan GC050

MK60 Training in Lieu of TANK TABLES I, II, and III (Day)

A. Administrative Instructions:

1. When training will be given: During time Tank Tables I, II, and III(Day) training is normally given.

2. Training location: SK Hall

3. Who will be trained: Sixteen (16) men, 8 from 2 platoons. List ofselected personnel will be provided by ARI R&D Coordinator.

4. Instructors: Four (4) Assistant Instructors/Tank Commanders(AI/TC), one for each MK6O device.

5. Training Aids:

(a) Four MK60 simulators, regular and BOT floppy discs, andvideodisc.

(b) Practice Monitor Forms.

6. References:

(a) FM 17-12 w/changes 1 and 2(b) FM 17-12-2 w/changes 1 and 2(c) Lesson Plan GCO5O(d) MK60 Gunnery Trainer Operator's Manual(e) Training Objectives and Videodisc Specifications for use with

the Perceptrontcs Videodisc Gunnery Simulator, ARI/HumRRO,January 1982.

B. Training Objectives:,

TASK: Perform the steps required of the M6OAI tank gunner using theMK60 simulator.

CONDITIONS: Given a functioning MK6O simulator, standard and BOT floppydiscs, MK60 kill zone set at 100%, and the twenty-problemvideodisc.

STANDARDS: Achieve the level of performance stated below for eachintermediate objective.

Figure 7. Sample Training odule

29

Each soldier was permitted two rounds for each engagement. As noted,

the lesson plan requires the Tank Commander to induce an elevation error into

the computer. The purpose of inducing the error is to cause a first-round

miss so the soldier will be required to apply the BOT method of adjustment

for the second round.

Tank Commanders scored for each engagement YES or NO for the following

behavioral elements corresponding to the task "hit moving target":

1. Correct ammunition indexed.

2. Main gun switch on.

3. Announces identified.

4. Correct lead (only for the two Table III moving target engagements).

5. Announces on the way.

6. Hits.

7. Senses - BOT.

8. Re-lays.

9. Announces on the way.

10. Hits.

Figure 8 is a sample score sheet.

~30

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RESULTS-DATA COLLECTION

Table 5 is the raw data for all behavioral elements for each Company

(B41 and D21). "Lead" scores were not collected on tank gunnery Table II

since stationary tank-stationary target engagements require no lead. The raw

data for selected behavioral elements were combined by companies (but kept

separate by gunnery Table) and converted to percents (Table 6). The percent

YES for these behavioral elements is shown on the graph at Figure 9. Other

behavioral elements were not examined as they appear on inspection of the raw

data to be successfully performed by all three groups. The elements examined

and not examined are:

Examined Not Examined

Leads Index ammo

Hits Main gun on

Senses-BOT Say "Identified"

Re-lays Say "On the Way"

Hits Say "On the Way"

The TRAINVICE scores computed earlier for rater 1 are below. Since TVI

ratings were incomplete for rater 2, his ratings were not used in the

comparison. One would expect the normal OSUT gunnery group, with the benefit

of M55 laser day firing, to do better on the M55 laser night firing than

either the low VIGS or high VIGS which did not have M55 laser day firing.

That, at least, is what the TRAINVICE scores predict. That did not happen

across the board (see Figure 9). Only on "Leads," did the normal OSUT

training group perform more successfully than the High- and Low-VIGS groups.

VIGS BOT M55 BRW

TVI .34 .21 .51 .51

TVIII .90 .82 .98 .98

TVIV .67 .58 1.00 1.00

32

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0 o ,us NOO) = r=S.

S HDIH Q

Z19 .tK03

at 0 en eNe D4

SZA LN3~LU

ZE mol 35S....~IMO *5 .. ..

5* 5 ~V ~*% v

HDI

In all other cases, except Re-Lays (Tank Gunner Table II) and Hits

(first round, Tank Gunnery Table Ill), the normal OSUT training group did

better than only one of the VIGS groups (usually the High group). On Re-Lays

(Tank Gunnery Table II) and Hits (first tround, Tank Gunnery Table III), both

the high and low-VIGS groups did better than the normal OSUT training group.

The low-VIGS group tended to perform better than the high-VIGS group.

An exception to this is that the high group did better than the low group on

both first and second round hits on Tank Gunnery Table III.

.o'

36

*f%

DISCUSSION

With the exception of TVIV scores on M55 and BRW the TRAINVICE scores

were not considerably different between raters 1 and 2 (see Table 2). Since

two independent raters produced s-imilar results, one could assume that the

TRAINVICE indices are reliable measures. However, in observing the component

variables of each TRAINVICE model it was found that inter-rater agreement was

actually low for particular classes of variables within each of the models;

specifically, the learning and training technique variables (see Table 3).

These classes of variables require the rater to use more subjective judgment

than the coverage requirement, commonality, and physical/functional

4i similarity variables (which all produced high inter-rater reliability).

Thus, increased subjectivity required by the analysis results in decreased

reliability of the ratings.

Empirical data were collected in order to relate the predictor estimates

to the criterion measures (transfer data). The challenge in relating the

predicted transfer of the criterion measures lies in the nature of the

transfer index. TRAINVICE (in its various forms) produces an index that

ranges between 0 and 1; higher index values within a model predict higher

transfer. The values "look like" percentages and if they were one could

hypothesize that criterion scores would produce significant differences in

the same direction as the transfer values. Unfortunately, the transfer

scores are not percentages of any other measure for which the distribution is

known. Thus, one would be hard-pressed to design a statistical test for

transfer indexes.

What one gets from the repeated applications by a number of users to a

number of training devices is the start of data that ultimately will show the

distribution of the index. Then, one can rank order the indices and the

criterion results and apply distribution-free tests such as rank correlation

coefficients. Then, one can determine whether apparent differences in

transfer index values are assocti ?d with practical differences (in the same

direction) in the criterion scores.

37

AL ' .- . ..

The results of the data collection indicate the difficulties inherent in

collecting criterion data when one does not have nearly absolute control of

the data collection. Personnel in charge of inducing elevation error into

the computer routinely failed to do so. The data, uniformly for each

behavioral element, are without variance. One is hard-pressed to imagine

OSUT gunners who would perform as well if conditions were better controlled

and scorers were more objective.

Recomndations

Problems remain. Some are practical and reasonably easy to solve. For

example, consider the problem of increasing the reliability of the predictor

measurement. Boldovici, Osborn, and Harris (1977) assert that one can

increase measurement reliability by manipulating systematic variations

introduced in the variables. In this case, variations are apparently present

in the kinds of instructions given to the raters, i.e., the specificity of

the instructions and, perhaps, the amount of practice given to the raters for

using the procedure.

By increasing the specificity of the instructions, one can increase the

measurement reliability. Furthermore, by giving the rater a well defined

standard stimulus for rating and requiring the rater to make a comparative

rather than an absolute judgment, performance will be more reliable.

Criterion measurement is another problem which is reasonably easy to

solve. Criterion data can be improved if collected in laboratories using

simple devices rather than in field settings using complex weapon systems.

Other problems are more conceptual at this point and require more

thought. As an example, consider the issue of intuitive versus

counterintuitive predictions. 1 Figure 10 shows possible outcomes of

IThe authors wish to thank Dr. John A. Boldovici for the conceptualframework described here.

38.,

0.

DII. No DII.PREDICTED

Figure 10. PossIble Outcomes of Transfer Forecasting asFunctions of Similarity Between Compared Devices, andCompared Devices, and Whether Predictions MatchObservations (Ilmprovement Required In Model orMeasurement, NS=-No Surprise, S--Surprlse).

39

transfer forecasting of similarity between compared devices, and whether

predictions match observations.

The four cases in which predictions and observations do not match (I inthe figure) are not particularly Instructive. They show something is wrong

with the model or the measurement, but not which one. The no surprise (NS)cases, one (low/dif/dif) of which is hidden in the figure, are those in which

(a) a difference in transfer is both predicted and observed for dissimilardevices, and (b) no difference in transfer is both predicted and observed for

similar devices. One could argue that models are not needed to predict thosekinds of results (i.e., no surprise). The two S (surprise) cases are the

interesting ones, in which (a) a difference in transfer is both predicted andobserved for similar devices, and (b) no difference in transfer is both

predicted and observed for dissimilar devices. How do we get models capableof predicting those kinds of outcomes? One way is to find lillerature in

which (a) similar devices (or treatments) produced dissimilar transfer, and(b) dissimilar devices (or treatments) produced similar transfer (research on

procedures learning, for example). Then ask, "What characteristics would a

model have to have to produce those results?"

40

REFERENCES

Boldovici, H.A., Boycan, G.G., Fingerman, P.W., & Wheaton, G.R. (1979). TankGunnery Data Handbook (ARI Technical Report TR-79-A7). Alexandria, VA:Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Boldovici, J.A., Osborn, W.C., & Harris, J.H. (1977). Reliability inMeasuring Unit Performance. In W.C. Osborn, J.P. Ford, C.H. Campbell, R.C.Campbell, J.H. Harris, i J.A. Boldovici Military Testing: Knowledge andSkills; Criticality and Reliability (HumRRO PP-4-78). Alexandria, VA: HumanResources Research Organization.

Braby, R., Henry, J.M., Parris, W.F., Jr., & Swope, W.M. (1975). A Techniquefor Choosing Cost-Effectlve Instructional Delivery Systems (TAEG Report No.16). Orlando, FL: Department of Navy, Training Analysis and EvaluationGroup.

Hoffman, R.G., & Melching, W.G. (1982). Field Trials of the MK60 GunnerySimulator in Armor Institutional Training Courses. Volume I: Final Report.Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and SocialSciences.

Narva, M.A. (1979). Development of a Systematic Methodology for the Applica-tion of Judgmental Data to the Assessment of Training Device Concepts.Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and SocialSciences.

PM-TRADE (1979). Training Device Requirements Documents Guide. Orlando, FL:Naval Training Equipment Center.

Seigel, S. (1956). Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. NewYork: McGraw Hill.

Swezey, R.W., & Evans, R.A. (1980). Guidebook for Users of TRAINVICE III.Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and SocialSciences.

Tufano, D.R., & Evans, R.A. (1982). The Prediction of Training DeviceEffectiveness: A Review of Army Models (ARI PB 3114). Alexandria, VA: U.S.Amy Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

U.S. Army (1976). Hq Department of the Army, Index and Description of ArmyTraining Devices (DA Pam 310-12). Washington, DC: Author.

Wheaton, G.R., Fingerman, P.W., Rose, A.M., & Leonard, R.L., Jr. (1976).Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Training Devices: Elaboration and Applica-tion of the Predictive Model (ARI Research Memorandum 76-16). Alexandria, VA:U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Wheaton, G.R., Rose, A.M., Fingerman, P.W., Korotkin, A.L., & Holding, D.H.(1976). Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Training Devices: LiteratureReview and Preliminary Model. Alexandria, VA: U.S. Army Research Institutefor the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

41

APPENDIX A

TVI WORKBOOK

44

Task st'7.:,i

The purpose of the task communalit" analysis is to describe the overlapin training content between the operational situation and the training device.

Communality is said to exist when a subtask can be performed and practiced

in the training situation (device) and in the operational situation.

Rate each subtask on the following two-point scale:

Rating Definition

1 Training deice permits practice of the subtask.

0 Training device does not permit practice of the subtask.

.451' 45..-4 .,r " . . . " .''' "" "." ''.'"- ." "''t,. ."'¢ ."," "" ""-' -", -"" " ' "....' " "

TASK COM UNALITY M' ALYSIS

Name of Task: HIT MOVING TARGET

SUBTASKS VIGS BOT M55 BRW V/BRW '160A1

1. Gunner indexes ammunition.

2. Gunner turns on main gun switch

3. Gunner announces IDENTIFIED.

Gunner applies lead in directionof target apparent motion.

5. Gunner lays crosshair leadlineat center of target vulnerabili y

6. Gunner makes final precise lay.

7. Gunner announces ON THE WAY.

8. Gunner fires main gun.

9. Gunner announces sensing andBOT.

V%-0. Gunner relays (BOT).

L1. Gunner announces ON THE WAY(BOT).

12. Gunner fires main gun,,(BOT).

Total Number of l's

Task Communality Index

46

-V * .. . . 0~

Physical Similarity Analysis

The physical similarity analysis deals with the similarity between

physical characteristics of the training device and those of the operational

situation. The assessment is based on the physical similarity (such as

location, appearance, and feel). Ignore, for now, the amount and quality

of information.

For each subtask, rate each relevant control and display to describe

how well the control or display is represented in the training device.

Base your physical similarity ratings on the following four-point scale:

PHYSICAL SIMILARITY RATING SCALE

Rating Definition

3 Identical. The trainee would not notice a difference between

the training device control or display and the operational

control or display at the time of transfer. Note that they

need not be absolutely identical, but there must be no notice-

able difference for the trainee.

2 Similar. The trainee would notice a difference at the time

of transfer, but he would be able to perform the task. Theremight be a decrement iA performance at transfer, but any such

decrement would be readily overcome. 7z-

1 Dissimilar. There would be a large noticeable difference,quite apparent to the trainee at transfer, and a large per-formance decrement, given that the trainee could perform atall. Specific instruction and practice would be requiredon the operational equipment after transfer to overcome the

*. decrement.

0 The control or display is not represented at all in the train-ing device.

The ratings will be averaged for each subtask. Leave the columns for

subtask means empty.

47

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Functional Similarity Analysis

The functional similarity analysis is based on the numbers of alternativeswhich each display or control may assume. The alternatives in the device arecompared with the alternatives in the operational system.

For each display and control, first determine the number of alternativesin the operational environment. This is often a straight-forward decision.For example, the ammunition index handle on the computer of an operational tankhas six positions. You should enter a "6" on the worksheet. But sometimesthere are an indeterminant number of alternatives. For example, a target maybe moving in any of 360 directions at up to 35 different speeds. In thesecases use your expertise to identify the number of states (direction by speed)that change the procedure (in this case, initial sight picture) for the task.

Next determine the number of alternatives in the training device. Donot consider the similarity between the device and the operational environment.Even if the computer on the device has buttons instead of a handle, enter thenumber of alternatives presented by the buttons. Try to base your estimateof indeterminant cases on the known alternatives the devices present. If thealternatives for the device are unknown, consider the number of aleernativespossible within the inherent constraints of the device.

Repeat the process for each display and control for each subtask. Thenumber of alternatives for a given control or display may vary depending on thesubtask.

51

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154

Learning Deficit Analysis

The benefits of a training deIice depends in part on the level of perform-ance the trainee would probably have before formal training and the level he

would need to perform the task in the operational environment. The learningdeficit analysis addresses that relationship. This analysis requires you toperform three procedures:

• Rate the level of the skills and knowledge related to thetask that the trainee would probably have prior totraining.

. Determine the level of skills and knowledges the traineewould need to perform the task.

. Estimate the amount of time required to train the skillsand knowledges to the level required by the task.

First estimate the amount of'each skill or knowledge the average traineewould have upon his first exposure to the training system. In this case theaverage trainee is a high school graduate in Armor OSUT. He has completedthe common soldier and the tank driver blocks of instruction. Rats his likelylevel of proficiency on each skill and knowledge on the following five pointRepertory Scale (RS):

REPERTORY SCALE

.Rating Definition

4 Has a complete understanding of the skill or knowledge. Cando the steps in this subtask that require the skill or know-ledge completely and accurately without supervision.

3 Understands this skill or knowledge but may require super-vision to do the steps in this subtask that require the skillor knowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would beexpected after several practice trials of the step.

2 Is familiar with this skill or knowledge, but would requireassistance on the steps in this subtask that require the skillor knowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would beexpected from a complete briefing and one performance of thetask step.

1 Has a limited experience or familiarity with this skill orknowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would be expectedfrom an orientation.

0 No experience or familiarity with this skill or knowledge.Cannot perform a task step requiring this skill or knowledge.

*55tAA

Next, determine the armount of each skill and knowledge requirud to nerfor-

the task. In this case the task requires hitting moving targets from s~ationar.

and moving tanks, within 10 seconds, 70% of the time. Base your ratings on the

following five-point Criterion Scale (CS):

CRITERION SCALE

Rating Definition

4 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under all conditionswithout hesitation. System will not tolerate errors.

3 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under most conditionswithout hesitation. System will not tolerate infrequent errors.

2 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing and somepractice but does not need to be able to apply knowledge or

skill without error. System will tolerate occasional errors.

1 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing onknowledge or on performance of skill. System will toleratefrequent errors.

The last factor for the Learning Deficit Analysis is the amount of time

that would be required to train a person to the required CS level for eachsubtask. Assume that all training will be performed dry-fire on a tank.

Targets will be 8' x 8' panels on a track. For each subtask list the number

of minutes required under those conditions to take a trainee from his entry

(RS) level to the required (CS) level.

56

KNOWLEDGES AND SKILLS MinL:esBY SUBTASK lRepertory Criterion To Train

1. GUNNER INDEXES AMMUNITION.K1 Knows procedure to index ammunition (includingIen to index ammunition)

2. GUNNER TURNS ON MAIN GUN SWITCH(None)

3. GUNNER ANNOUNCES IDENTIFIEDK2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED is response to TCsaying GUNNER, (AMMO TYPE), (TARGET TYPE) andGunner seeing the targetS1 Is able to distinguish between targets andfriendlies

4. GUNNER APPLIES LEADK3 Knows number of lead lines for ammunitiontypesK4 Knows number of lead lines for speed of targetS2 Is able to estimate speed of targetS3 Is able to maintain smooth track

5. GUNNER LAYS CROSSNAIR LEADLINEK5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target'scenter of mass (with lead applied)S3 Is able to maintain smooth track ,_

6. GUNNER MAKES FINAL PRECISE LAYK5 Knows croashair leadli is placed on target'scenter of mass (with lead applied)S3 Is able to mkintain smooth track

7. GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAYK6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response tocroashair leadline being on target's center ofmass, TC saying FIRE, and Loader saying UPS3 Is able to maintain smooth track ,_

8. GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUNS3 Is able to maintain smooth track

9. GUNNER ANNOUNCES SENSING AND BOTK7 Knows that sensing is mental notation of thepoint in the sight reticle where burst of roundappears as--it pa.ses,.strikes short of, or hitsthe target.KR Knows there are three deflection sensings(LEFT, RIGHT, LINE) and four range sensings(SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL, TARGET)K9 Knows that saying BOT is response to sensingroundS4 Is able to sense rounds

57

LEARNING DEFICIT ANALYSIS(Continued)

KNOWLEDGES AND SKILLS MinutesBY SUBTASK Repertory Criterion To Train

10. GUNNER RELAYS (BOT)K1 0 Knows to move point of sight reticle bymost direct route from where burst of roundappears to target's center of massS2 Is able to estimate speed of targetS3 Is able to maintain smooth track

11. GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY (BOT)K1 1 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is responseto point of sight reticle where burst of roundappears being on target's center of mass andLoader saying UPS3 Is able to maintain smooth track

12. GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN (BOT)S3 Is able to maintain smooth track

58

Training Techniques Analysis

This part of the analysis considers the adequacy of the trainingtechniques possible on the training device. Complete a worksheet for eachsubtask. First, decide which taxonomic categories apply to the subtask. Thecategories are defined and illustrated in Table I of this appendix. Severalcategories may apply to a subtask.

Next rate the extent to which the principles relevant to the categorieshave been incorporated in the device. The principles relevant to each categoryhave already been identified on each worksheet. Rate each principle in eachcategory. The principles are defined and illustrated in each category. Theprinciples are defined and illustrated in Appendix A of this workbook. Baseyour ratings on the following seven-point scale:

*TRAINING TECHNIQUE SCALE

Rating Definition

3 Optimal implementation of this technique; in completeaccord with this principle.

2 Good implementation of this technique; in excellentaccord with this principle.

I Fair implementation of this technique; good accordwith this principle.

0 This priinciple or technique was inapplicable orirrelevant.

or

The device neither implemented this technique nor

violated this principle.

-1 Mild violation of this training Principls;implementation of a mildly opposing technqiue.

-2 Serious violation of this principle or technique.

-3 Complete violation of this principle; implementationof a strongly contraindicated technique.

59

Trainins Technioues Analy-sis

This part of the analysis considers the adequacy of the trainingtechniques possible on the training device. Complete a worksheet foreach subtask. First, decide which taxonomic categories apply to thesubtask. The categories are defined and illustrated in Table 1.Several categories may apply to a subtask.

Next rate the extent to which the principles relevant to thecategories have been incorporated in the device. Rate each principlein each category. The principles are defined and illustrated inAppendix A. Base your ratings on the following seven-point scale:

TRAINING TECHNIQUE SCALE

Rating Definition

3 Optimal implementation of this technique; in complete accordwith this principle.

2 Good implementation of this technique; in excellent accordwith this principle.

1 Fair implementation of this technique; good accord with thisprinciple.

0 This principle or technique was inapplicable or irrelevant.

or

The device neither implemented this technique nor violatedthis principle.

-l Mild violation of this training principle; implementationof a mildly opposing technique.

-2 Serious violation of this principle or technique.

-3 Complete violation of this principle; implementation of astrongly contraindicated technique.

60

.'::ING TECHNIQUES ANAILYSIS

Subtask: GUNNER INDEXES AMMUNITION

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus / Rating Response , Rating Feedback V Ratine

1 l. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 30

V 8 319

[3. Non-verbal 10 4 1L-J identifi- 11 5 4

cation 12 26 535 27

2930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6LJ detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7

principles 16 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

61

Subtask: GUNNER INDEXES AZIUNITION

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus # Rating Response 1 Rating Feedback # Rating

W 7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

62.

* d

62

1 . TZC'-::I1Q U-.HS ANALYSIS

Subtask: GUNNER INDEXES AMMUNITION

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus I# Rating Response ,i Rating Feedback i Rating

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

~63

1%

d6

Subrask: GUNNER TURNS ON MAIN GUN SWITCH

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus P! Rating Response It Rating Feedback I RatingeI

I] 1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

f4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

-I5. Using 15 7 7principles 16" 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

--I6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

64

.5.,. -* .s %'.

Subtask: GUNNER TURNS ON MAIN GUN SWITCH

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel A

Label Stimulus #I Ratingi Response u; Rating Feedback Ii Rating

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

18. Verbal 2 1 11• detection 4 12 29

and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 20

31 212223242627282930

465

"C., ~ *.';..\.C..*.. S%. . :1 -54-.*. ~06,.

Subtask: GUNNER TURNS ON MAIN GUN SWITCH

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECH4IQLUESLabel Stimulus # Rating Resoonse I Rating Feedback P Rating

I

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

6

~66

5u:.jL-,:: GUNNER ANNOUNCES IDENTIFIED

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHN IQUES .Label Stimulus V. Rating Response P Rating Feedback # Rarint

1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4

cation 12 26 535 27

2930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16 17 27inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

6. Making 17 1 8

decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

67

L. . i ' : .. 7 - : .• •: . .. . . . .... * -: . - - -t .Z - - -i'k

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES IDENTIFIED

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus Ii Raing I Response (0 Rating Feedback ' a

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27I282930

[]8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication- 26

-]9. Position- 27 1" 9.0 ing and 28 13 12

serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 19

28 2031 21

2223242627282930

68

, l m l "lS',. .,. , ., , :'', -.,. ., -,,',' ','':,

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES IDENTIFIED

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus ( Ratin_ Response 0 Rating Feedback # Rating

U 10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

n113. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

69

}_

Subtask GUNNER APPLIES LEAD

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHMIQUESLabel Stimulus V Rating Response P; Rating Feedback Rating

1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

U"3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

S-] 4. Non-verbal 13 6 6L_- detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7

principles 16" 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

6. laking 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

70

*,,, , *,..*,.,...,... , . .4....,,, * ~ ... o.. %.... ...%

Subtask: GUNNER APPLIES LEAD

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECNIQUESLabel Stimulus i Rating Response ,V Rating Feedback , Rating

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428. 2531 26

27282930

n 8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

"-i9. Position- 27 1ing and 28 13 12

serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

22- 23

242627282930

71

.- :; T ± :CQ~ . .... SIS

Subtask: GUNNER APPLIES LEAD

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus P Rating Response 0 Rating Feedback 0 Rating

I

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

2324262728

29 130

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14

verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

72

Subtask: GUNNER LAYS CROSSHAIR LEADLINE

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus 0 Rating Response ; Rating Feedback P Raing

L11. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 2729

. 30.4

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6"i detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16 17 27inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

-l.6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

73

Subtask: GUNNER LAYS CROSSHAIR LEADLINE

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TEC:1i1OUESLabel Stimulus i Ratin Response i Rating Feedback Vi Rating

] 7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27.° 28

2930

f8. Verbal 2 1 11

detection 4 12 29

and identi- 5 30fication 26

--]9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

* 74- J ._ * S k- .~ -a

S ubas,: GUNNER LAYS CROSSHAIR LEADLINE

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus ' Rating Response ,; Rating Feedback 1' Rating

I

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13

verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

'75

Subtasik: GUNNER MAKES FINAL PRECISE LAY

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel.. Stimulus I! Rating Response P Rating Feedback P Ratin_

E l. Recalling I 1 1facts and 2 2 2

principles 3 3 27

4 26 29

5 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 , 2

5 3 36. 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1- identifi- 11 5 4

cation 12 26 5

35 27

2930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detectiun 14 29

30

5. Using 15. 7 7principles 16 17 27inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

* 0

6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

76

7 .;. ... -1C ,

Subtask: GUNNER MAKES FINAL PRECISE LAY

Task-Taxonomic 'I'NCIPLES - TECHNIOUESLabel Stimulus 6 Ratinl Response ,0 Rating Feedback #! Rating

-- 7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

77

Subtask: GUNNER MAKES FINAL PRECISE LAY

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHIUIOUES

Label Stimulus i Rating Response P/ Rating Feedback P' Rating

I

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

2324

2627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation. 30

12. Oral 29 14 14

verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14l verbali- 34 9 29

zation, 18 30includingsigns

78

,; I ,. . ., . • " " ' "" " "" " "" . . . . " " ' " ' ." - . . ., • ' " - " ". , -" - ." . ," " "

T .'I:'-;G TFCi'; 01-75 .:-';'L:,"Z C

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus 4! Rating Response , Rating Feedback .: Ra::"

1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

. 7A la5 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 29

7 29 308 31

9

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4

cation 12 26 535 27

2930

14. Non-verbal 13 6 6

detection 14 2930

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16" 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

79*' .. . ..r*.-. --*...*- .- . .. ,... ..-.-.-.. ........-. .-... .-... -. . .. -.... .. .-. . : -., ,- -,, .- ... ,.... .,-

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel iStimulus # Pating Response ,, Rating Feedback 6 Rating

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

.27282930

-.8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

D 9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13' 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

-- 80

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus # Rating Response # Rating Feedback (' Rating

- 10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 10

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11i. Written 32 1 13

verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

1112. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

81S.

Su*ot ask: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TEC1IMOUES

Label Stimulus . Rating Response 1 Rating Feedback 0 Ra:inz

1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 25 3 3

6 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16 17 27inter- 36 18 29

preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

82

Subtzis,:: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN

Task-Taxonomic PRIN;CIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus i PRating Response , _Rating Feedback V. Rating

7. Continuous 22 10 9

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

--8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

83

. :,:: IOUES A"ALS! ,

Subtask: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TEChnIQUESLabel Stimulus # Rating Response 0 Rating Feedback P Rating

F] 10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29

zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14

verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

84". ". *. . *, . "., "."."."..* ". -- "~ . * . -. - --. .... . "..,' - -. w - .... .. ,

Subt ask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES SENSING AND BOT

Task-Taxonomic PRISNCIPLES - TECHWIQUESLabel Stimulus P! Rating ResDonse (; Rating Feedback P Ratint

I R ecalling 1 i lEl' facts and 2 2 2

principles 3 3 274 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1

identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6_ detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7L principles 16" 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

* 6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 17

36 18192930

85

"]"S rU U w W UWVWjWy'. IrS '' .;'.- UM

Su-task: GUNNER ANNOUNCES SENSING AND BOT

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus # Rating Response ,t Rating Feedback f; Rating

r] 7. Continuous 22 in_ 9I movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

0 9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

86

%- .... . . . . . . .

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES SENSING AND BOT

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUES

Label Stimulus V Rating Response ,I Rating Feedback Ratin&

M -in V 4 - L

movement 30 20 1531 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

il. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

E112. Oral 29 14 14l verbali- 15 29

zation 16 3022

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

87

Subrask: GUNNER RELAYS (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHMOIOUESLabel Stimulus Rating Response ,P Rating Feedback P Rarint

1 1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2

principles 3 3 274 26 295 31 30

T

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16 17 27inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

E 6. Making 17 1 8L decisions 18 7 2919 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

88

Subtask: GUNNER RELAYS (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECIC;IQUESLabel Stimulus ' Rating I Response ;, Rating Feedback ii Rating

] 7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 17

35 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

.27

2829

30

8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223242627282930

89

S.~~~~~~~~. - -Z - P -' -. . . *

Subtask: GUNNER RELAYS (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - T-Ci.2U0UESLabel Stimulus 1i Rating Response (' Rating Feedback P Rating

EI

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

1i. Written 32 1 13

verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

.9

oQgo

Subtas k: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE, WAY (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabel Stimulus I Rating Resonse I Rating Feedback" P Ra:-

1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 2 2 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

5 3 36 26 297 29 308 319

3. Non-verbal 10 4 1identifi- 11 5 4cation 12 26 5

35 272930

4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

5. Using 15 7 7principles 16" 17 27inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

U 6. Making 17 1 8decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 17

N 36 18192930

914

.t . t. o .' - . . r .*

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRI?;C1PLES - TECH;IQUESLabel Stimulus f Ratinz Response Rating Feedback # Rating

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 17

35 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 25

* 31 2641 27

282930

" j8. Verbal 2 1 11I. detection 4 12 29

and identi- 5 30fication 26

9. Position- 27 1 9ing and 28 13 12serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

222324

2627282930

92

Subtask: GUNNER ANNOUNCES ON THE WAY (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic ?RI:;CIPLES - TEChnIQUESLabel Stimulus Rating Response # Rating IFeedback f Rating,

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

1112. Oral 29 14 14verbali- 15 29zation 16 30

22

U 13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

93

,' . - - . - * . - , . . * . , . -... -. ". .,, *. . ." '.-. .,. ,. 93. . .

~u. ~sk: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES -TECHNIQUES

Label Stimulus P' Rating Response i; Rating Feedback ~R~~

S1. Recalling 1 1 1facts and 22 2principles 3 3 27

4 26 295 31 30

D 2. Recalling 2 1 1procedures 4 2 2

N5 3 36 26 29

*7 29 308 319

r3 . Non-verbal 10 4 10.. identifi- 11 5 4

4cation 12 26 535 27

29* 30

]4. Non-verbal 13 6 6detection 14 29

30

F 5. Using 15 7 7D~~ principles 16 17 27

inter- 36 18 29preting, 19 30inferring 29

30

fl6. Making 17 1 8S decisions 18 7 29

19 8 3020 921 1736 18

192930

94

9,, , - Z"

Subtask: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECHNIQUESLabelStimulus P; Rating I Response / Rating Feedback P F.:itin

7. Continuous 22 10 9movement 23 11 10

24 17 1525 20 1735 22 1936 23 22

24 2327 2428 2531 26

27282930

-8. Verbal 2 1 11detection 4 12 29and identi- 5 30fication 26

[0 9. Position- 27 1 9• ing and 28 13 12

serial 35 21 15movement 36 23 16

24 1725 1827 1928 2031 21

2223

242627282930

95

Subtask: GUNNER FIRES MAIN GUN (BOT)

Task-Taxonomic PRINCIPLES - TECnIQOUESLabel Stimulus R Rating Response f Rating IFeedback f Rating

10. Repetitive 29 18 9movement 30 20 15

31 23 1735 24 18

25 1927 2028 2131 22

23242627282930

11. Written 32 1 13verbali- 33 9 29zation 30

12. Oral 29 14 14-._I verbali- 15 29

zation 16 3022

13. Other 33 1 14verbali- 34 9 29zation, 18 30includingsigns

I96

TASK -TV':O: -0::~ -- ;; ::II

1. Recalling Facts & Principlesa. Common behavior attributes:

1. Concerns verbal or symbolic learning.2. Concerns acquisition and long term maintenance of knowledge so that

it can be recalled.b. Common examples:

1. Recalling equipment nomenclature or functions.2. Recalling system functions, such as the complex relations between

system input and output.

2. Recalling Proceduresa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Concerns verbal or symbolic behavior.2. Concerns acquisition and long term maintenance of knowledge so that

it can be recalled.3. Concerns the chaining or sequencing of events.

b. Common examples:1. Recalling equipment assembly and disassembly procedures.2. Recalling the operating or checkout procedures for a piece of

equipment (Cockpit check lists).

3. Non-Verbal Identificationa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Pattern recognition approach to identification -not problemsolving.

2. Classification by non-verbal characteristics.3. Status determination - ready to start.

b. Common examples:1. Classify a sonar target as "sub"' or "~non-sub."*2. Visual classification of flying aircraft as "friend" or "enemy"

or as an"F4

4. Non-Verbal Detectiona. Common behavior attributes:

1. Vigilance - detect a few cues embedded in a large block of time.2. Low threshold detections - early detection of very small cues.

3. Scan for wide range of possible cues._b. Common examples:

1. Detect targets in background noise on radar/sonar scopes.2. Visually detect submarine periscope at sea (snorkeling).

*5. Using Principles, Interpreting, Inferringa. Common behavior attributes:

1. Use of logic and/or natural law, and/or known relationships.2. Limited uncertainty of outcome.3. Usually little thought of other alternatives.4. Usually related to on-going tasks.

b. Common examples:1. Diagnosis of equipment malfunctions by using scientific laws or

principles.2. Dealing with the impact of natural forces in shiphandling - tides,

currents, weather, momentum.

97

7U1,1 (Cct cd. ,

:Xakirr! Decisions:. Common behavioral attributes:

I. Choosing a course of action when alternatives are given, unspecifi:Lor unknoun.

2. A successful course of action is not readily apparent.3. The penalties for unsuccessful courses of action are not readily

apparent.4. The relative value of possible decisions must be considered -

including possible trade-offs.5. Frequently involves forced decisions made in a short period of

time with soft information.b. Common examples:

1. Choosing frequencies to search in an ECM search plan.2. Choosing torpedo attack.

7. Continuous Movementa. Common Behavioral Attributes:

1. Tracking, dynamic control: a perceptual-motor skill involving con-*tinuous pursuit of a target or keeping dials at a certain reading

such as maintaining constant turn rates, etc.2. Compensatory movements based on feedback from displays.3. Skill in tracking requires smooth muscle coordination patterns -

lack of overcontrol.4. Involves estimating changes in positions, velocities, accelerations,

etc.5. Involves knowledge of display-control relationships.6. May involve scanning of complex displays to determine current

status of system, and to predict the evolving state of the system.b. Common examples:

1. Submarine bow and stern planes operators maintaining a constantcourse, or making changes in course or depth.

2. Tank driver following a road.

8. Verbal Detection And Identificationa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Involves the recognition of symbols, spoken or written language,or codes, diagrams, schematics, technical symbology, etc.

2. Symbols to be identified typically are of low meaningfulness tountrained personnel.

3. More cognitive than sensory - identification or interpretation isemphasized.

4. Involves storing queues of symoblic information and meanings andthe recognizing of these symbols and/or meanings.

5. Basic components of most tasks.b. Common examples:

1. Monitoring communication channels.2. Reading schematics symbols.

9. Positioning And Serial Movementa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Positioning switches, push buttons, knobs, levers, etc., eitherindividually or in sequence.

2. Highly coordinated motor tasks such as key board operations.3. Motor aspects of equipment set-up and operating procedures.4. Proprioceptive feedback is important.

b. Common examples:1. Following equipment turn-on procedures - emphasis on motor behavior.2. Typing or operation of computer terminal - card punch operation.

*98

TA,'LE 1 (Cc'n-,'e.)

10. Repetitive Movementa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Perceptual-motor behavior-emphasis on motor. Premium. or. manualdexterity, occasionally strength and endurance.

2. Repetitive mechAnical skill.3. Standardized behavior, little room for variation or innovation.4. Automatic behavior, low level of attention is required in skilled

operator. Kinesthetic cues dominate control of behavior.5. Fatigue or boredom may become a factor when skill is perform.ed

over an extended period of tine or at a rapid rate.6. Fine tolerances.7. Often a component of a larger task.

b. Common examples:1. Use of hand tools such as hammer, saw, wrench or power tools such

as lathes, or grinders.2. Running a drill press in an assembly line.

11. Written Verbalizationa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Creating an alpha-numeric statement.2. Frequently involves use of a formal or special language such as

used to input data into a computer.3. Less spontaneous than oral communication; more time is available

to construct verbalization.4. To translate an event into an alpha-numeric description.

b. Common examples:1. Shipboard log keeping.2. Status board updating.

12. Oral Verbalizationa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Speaking natural or specilized languages.2. Often involves the use of a specific message model. -Standard

* vocabulary and format.3. Also concerns clarity of voice, enunciation, speed, volume, etc.4. Timing of verbalization is usually critical - when to pass infor-

mation.5. Typically characterized by redundancyrin terms of information

content.6. Involves extensive use of previously overlearned verbal skills,

or overcoming overlearned interfering patterns.b. Common examples:

1. Officer giving oral orders.2. Sonar operator passing oral information over communication net.

13. Other Verbalization, Including Signsa. Common behavioral attributes:

1. Communication other than oral or written.2. Use of sign language such as hand signals.3. Special emphasis on the motor skill required to execute sign

language such as semaphore.

b. Common examples:1. LSO use of signals to communicate with pilot making carrier landinig.2. traffic police directing traffic at a busy intersection.

99-. -

4.p~*~ , .. ~ ~ .. ~ w .

APENDIX A

Ti: : .:CG TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES

Stimulus Considerations

1. Organize training around intrinsic cue components (key words, formuli,or key letters) within the fact or principle. Use these cue componentsas mediators to trigger recall of complete facts or principles.

2. Use mnemonics (associating recall of facts or principles with imagery,rhyme, rhythm, etc.).

3. Prevent decay of recall by increasing the meaningfulness of the materialto be learned by providing organization to the related facts or princi-ples.

4. Prevent decay of recall by overlearning the original material.

5. Prevent decay of recall by providing periodic refresher training.

6. Use mental rehearsal of sequential steps, if readily codable in symbolicform (mediators).

7. Maximize control of cues to ensure that the trainee if forming the properassociations, i.e., responding appropriately to the correct cues.

8. In training for recall of lengthy or difficult procedures, developreiundant cue response patters (via primary and supplementary stimuli) totrigger the sequentially next correct response.

9. Use programmed demonstration of procedures, up to but not beyond abilityof student to understand procedures.

10. Stimuli used in training should be nearly identical to job stimuli unlessthis fidelity increases problem difficulty in the initial phase oftraining to an unacceptable level.

11. Vary ratio of relevant and irrelevant (transient) stimuli according torequirements of various stages of training. Maximize relevant cues andminimize irrelevant cues in early stages of training; use a realisticmix of relevant and irrelevant cues in final stages of training.

12. Emphasize cues which elicit mediating responses, e.g., "self-instructions,""population stereotypes" and "natural associations."

13. Transfer increases as the difference between reference and generalizationstimulus decreases.

14. Decrease signal-to-noise ratio as student achieves success at a givendifficulty level.

100

"'-. .o.- -" €. '...- - '. 'o, -' ..-.- -" , -'-' -...--.- " -,- .- .-.-. - -.. .'.. ..- -, ' " - " - ' -" .' ., .. .- -,

.,IENDiX A (Cc'nt 'd.)

15. Emphasize the logical relationships which exist between the &enera;principle and the specific application. The unique or specialfeatures of each application should be minimized while the corzmonrelationships to the general principle should be emphasized.

16. Stimulus redundancy - apply principle in a large number of practicesituations, while varying the stimulus context of repetitions.

17. Trainees must have access to potentially relevant data. in finalstage of training, data should be limited to that expected in realworld situation.

18. Guiding - early in training pr'esent logical implications of alterna-tive choices.

*19. Mediators - acquisition and use of mediators such as stereotypes orself-instructions facilitate the identification of response alternativesand the probability of success of each alternative.

20. Stimulus load - toward the end of training, present trainee with arealistic data processing load (realistic number of significant signalsplus realistic noise in real time.)

21. Stimulus generalization -vary the stimulus context of repetitions.

22. Insure that the appropriate stimulus cues are available to the trainee

continually during the performance of the task.

23. Emphasis on prediction of future states (thinking ahead).

24. Expose trainee to a wide range of task difficulty.

25. In continuous control tasks, high fidelity is often required in(1) stimulus presentation, (2) operator response characteristics, and(3) dynamic system behavior, the evolving display-control relationship.

26. Contiguity -. the symbol and referent should~-be presented in close temporalN contiguity.

27. Cue development - emphasize the development and use of internal cues,such as mediators or kinesthetic cues.

28. In training for lengthy serial movements, provision should be made forprogramming demonstrations of the lengthy serial or sequential performanceaccording to the amount of demonstration which can be understood by thetrainee. Continuing a demonstration beyond the "saturation point" willresult in the association of responses with incorrect cues.

101

. (.Cont'd.)

29. Early training - use mc' eli of correct perform~ance as a basis for

trainee to perceive critical cues of good form. Use models of com-ponent parts of task.

30. Cue discrimination - perceive 4ifference between correct andincorrect form.

31. Later stages of training - the kinesthetic cues dominate (cues basedon "muscle feel").

32. Performance aids - especially in early phase of training use a perfor:nznceaid or model, such as instructions, checklists or standard exampies/forratsto aid in perceiving need for and composing of messages.

33. "In-the-head" mediators - in later stages of instruction rely on "in-the-head" instructions, models, etc., to aid in perceiving need for andcomposing required messages.

34. Static and dynamic models - in early phase of training use mcdels, such

as still and moving graphic displays (video tape recordings) to establish

the characteristics of criterion performance.

35.. Pre-training methods need to take care not to make the S dependent upon

the extra cues provided in the early stages of training and thus tohinder the changeover to more direct relations between input and outputat a later stage.

36. With very complex tasks, instruction in principles yields better resultsthan laying down a detailed drill, while with simpler tasks the drill isat least equally effective.

102

Response Considerations

1. Make an overt response indicating the recall of facts and principles,enabling measures. (Add appropriate phrase f or each behavioralcategory.)

2. Response Generalization - make job performance type responses (i.e.,high fidelity responses later in training).

3. Guide or prompt response, especially in the acquisition phase oftraining.

4. To-be-learned response should occur as soon as relevant cues areperceived (contiguous occurrences of cues and response).

5. The strength of a given response typically increases as a function ofpractice.

6. To enable reinforcement of performance, the student, upon det~cting asignal, should respond so that what is detected and time of detectioncan be recorded.

7. Performance differences which are due to individual differences inability tend to be magnified as a function of increasing task difficultyIdentical performance among given -trainees is not necessarily indicativeof identical learning, hence the need for a better measure of the extentto which trainees are profiting from the training situation.

* 8. Apply decision making in a large number of practice situations w~hilevarying the stimulus context of repetitions.

*9. Stress - when trainee will be required to perform under stress, useoverlearning of skill to minimize effects of competing responses.

10. Repetition: highly skilled performance requires extensive practice.

11. Make an objective measurement of the frequency and type of errors -changes in total error pattern - throughout the course of training.Measurement should be based on specific behavioral objectives.

12. Symbol - referent associations (pairings) are especially amenable to"in-the-head" practice.

60 13. Emphasize extensive motor response repetition or practice in orderto (1) strengthen individual or component steps of the movement series,and (2) integrate these steps into a smooth sequence.

14. Emphasize overt respondings in a social context. Practice to strengthencorrect responses.

103

"Pxi2 DIX A (Cort

15. Record responses in context'. Since the response is rypically complex:.involving subtle relations among components, the technique of nea-surement should provide for recording the total complex in a mannerthat permits analysis of such subtle relationships.

16. When skill is not regularly used, prevent decay of recall by providingperiodic refresher training.

17. The usefulness (for "lateral" transfer) of any learned capability willbe increased if it is practiced in as wide a variety of situations aspossible.

18. Ensure that relevant subordinate capabilities have been thoroughlylearned before calling on vertical (e.g., inclusion) transfer to aidthe learning of "advanced" capabilities.

19. Vertical transfer is enhanced by the variety of previous knowledge.

20. Where the whole task is a closely coordinated activity such a$ aiminga rifle or stimulated flying of an aircraft, it is better to tacklethe task as a whole. Any attempt to divide it up tends to destroythe proper coordination of action and subordination of individual actionsto the requirements of the whole, and thus outweighs any advantage theremight be in mastering different portions of the task separately.

21. Where the task involves a series of component actions which have to beperformed in the correct order but each is largely independent of theothers, there seem to be advantages in practicing the different componentsseparately.

22. Continuous practice facilitates mastery of complex, meaningful materialand the establishment of coordinated rhythmic activity (within limits offatigue).

23. Continuous practice seems to be preferred by older trainees.

24. Spaced practice is more efficient than continuous if only the actualduration of the sessions is counted and the time between sessions isignored. When the time between sessions is included, continuous practiceis usually more efficient.

25. Very brief pauses between practice sessions should be as effective aslonger ones.

26. "Mental practice" in which the S performs a task in the imagination, canoften be substituted for a substantial amount of practice involving fullperformance with little if any loss of effectiveness.

104

-* 1 ' . .% "" " ' % '' - ",' ' ," " " " ' ' " ' '. '' '

APPENDIX A (Cont'd.)

27. Relatively little learning occurs if Ss are passive spectators or even

passive performers, but that they must be involved in active decisionsand choices about what they are doing, and it is these that they willretain whether they are right or wrong.

28. If two or more tasks have to be learned, it is most beneficial to beginwith the one which elicits the greatest care and effort towards theattainment of a high standard of performance. However, if S was notallowed to continue to practice the more difficult task until a pointof reasonable mastery, he would be left with an inadequate conprehensionof the task, and transfer to a simpler task might be confused and lesssatisfactory than if he had tackled the easier task first.

29. The more sub-tasks there are in the overall task, and the more theyinteract with one another, the more opportunity there will be for improve-ment, and therefore the longer improvement will continue.

30. Transfer of skill from one task to another will depend not so much uponthe extent to which methods possible for one are applied to tqe other,but the extent to which methods which have been selected for the one areapplied to the other.

31. Effectiveness of spacing practice depends on what is done during thetimes between practice periods: (a) If they are spent in rehearsal ofthe material, learning will benefit, unless the task is fatiquing inwhich case continued practice may depress subsequent performance, (b)If time between practice periods are spent on another task, learningor later recall of the first task may be impaired, the degree ofimpairment depending on the degree of similarity between the two tasks.

105

. ..... .'* * * .. ~ .... .. w . - , ..

A.PPEN1)1X A (Cont'd.)

Feedback Considerations

1. Schedule KOR (knowledge of results) soon after response for maximuzreinforcement. Error identification function of KOR is significant.

2. Especially early in training, use KOR after the response to each step,for maximum reinforcement. Error identification function of KOR issignificant. In later stages of training, step feedback is not socritical.

3. As training progresses, gradually increase the delay in presentingKOR (present KOR in increments of 2 steps, then 3 steps, etc.) untilthe schedles of KOR approximates the operational setting.

4. Inmediate reinforcement (0.5 second delay) for non-verbal identification.

5. KOR - automatic system performance feedback (e.g., if target is identi-fied from partial cues, present the target with a full set of cues

after identification; automate if possible). I

6. Feedback omission schedule programmed according to stage of training:high feedback during initial stages, decreased to equivalent tooperational setting or lower.

7. Schedule KOR soon after response for maximum reinforcement. KOR shoulddeal with both process and solution.

8. Early in training, evaluate each alternative solution as it is identi-fied, and when a final choice among alternatives is made, evaluate theoverall choice.

9. Shaping - reinforcement should be contingent upon characteristics oftrainee's response so that by a process of 'successive approximat ions,'the final desired proficiency is produced.

10. Continuous KOR - because of the dynamic nature of the problem, thetrainer should at times be presented with an on-going evaluation of hisperformance.

11. Incorrect as well as correct symbol-referent pairing can be strengthenedby self-initiated "in-the-head" practice.

12. Extensive response repetition (overlearning) by the trainee to takeadvantage of the built-in feedback properties of these types of tasks.Simple repetitive movements may be "automatically" reinforcing(Kinesthetic feedback.)

106L

":' "DIX A (Cont'd )

13. Provide rucord of trainee's overt response to enable evaluation of

trainee performance (i.e., must know what Ss are doing in order to

provide KOR).

14. Analyze oral verbalization recqrdings to evaluate trainer/team

perform.ance and provide KOR.

15. Performance improvement in acquisition depends on knowledge of

results (KOR). The rate of improvement depends upon the precision

of KOR (within limits of meaningfulness).

16. Delay of KOR has little or no effect on acquisition (for simplemotor movements only).

17. Increasing the post-KOR interval up to a point will improve perform-ance level in acquisition (spacing during practice). The "point" iswhen recall of movement or KOR is affected.

18. The type of activity in the KOR de1~y or post-KOR delay interval doesnot influence acquisition (provided the intervening activity is notof the same type).

19. Withdrawal of KOR produces deterioration of performance when level oftraining is low or moderate.

20. When KOR is delayed in acquisition, and S engages in deliberate verbalor motor activity during the delay interval, the effect of KOR with-drawal is poorer performance than when S rests.

21. When KOR is delayed in acquisition, and S rests during the delayinterval, the effect on performance when KOR is withdrawn is no dif-ferent than when immediate KOR is used.

22. Activity in the post-KOR delay interval during acquisition worsensperformance when KOR is withdrawn.

23. After a relatively large amount of trainingr learning can continue whenKOR is withdrawn.

24. If errors could be prevented in the first few trials (e.g., guidance)mastery of the task should be very much quicker.

25. Guidance during training is beneficial when tracking movements have tobe made with an incompatible control-display relationship.

26. Guidance does not aid simple repetitive movements, but aids learningcomplex courses.

107

- . P " . " .- ,

ATPENDIX A (Co-:' ,)

27. The manner of conveying KO is important; (a) Effectiveness isgreatest when the information is clearly and simply related to theaction performed. Any distortion or equivocation in the informationfed back to the S will reduce its effectiveness. (b) Unduly fullor complex information may be partly ignored or may confuse the S.(c) The information given should indicate the discrepancy betweenwhat is required and what has been achieved rather than merely givea reminder of requirements or some broad measure of achievement.

28. Performance is best maintained when the conditions are such as toemphasize the need for S to observe the feel of his actions in orderto relate then to their results.

29. A S must have some cues to the results of his actions if he is toperform accurately at all, and training procedures will be effectivein so far as they help him to observe and use such cues as areinherent in the task for which he is being trained. They will failin so far as they provide him with extra cues on which he comes torely but which are not available when he changes from trainilg to theactual job.

30. KOR acts as an incentive.

108i .. . " * . .,*'*,' . " " . " -"" € ."

APPENDIX B

TVII WORKBOOK

109

.4 A'.

TV 1]

lask Corunonalitv AnalvsiF

The purpose of the task coimnmnality analysis is to describe the overlapin training content between the operational situation and the training device.

Commonality is said to exist when a.subtask can be performed and practicedin the training situation (with the device) and in the operational situation.

Rate each subtask on the following two-point scale:

Rating Definition

1 Training device permits practice of the subtask.

0 Training device does not permit practice of the subtask.

%I

4.

.4

~111

o . . . . - , ° • • ° • • • °" -", °'° ," " "m °

* ° " . -..

TASK COM2ON'ALITY ANALYSiS

Name of Task: HIT MOVING TARGET

REQUIRED TASK ELEMENTS VIGS BOT M55 BRW V/BRW M6OAl

1. Gunner indexes ammunition

2. Gunner turns on main gun switch

3. Gunner announces IDENTIFIEDGunner applies lead in directio

4. of target apparent motionGunner lays crosshair leadline

5.at center of target vulnerabilit

6. Gunner makes final precise lay

7. Gunner announces ON THE WAY

8. Gunner fires main gun

9. Gunner announces sensing and BO

10. Gunner relays (BOT)

11. Gunner announces ON THE WAY(BO )

12. Gunner fires main gun (BOT)

Task ComIonality Index

Task Comonality - # of l's for Device"Index # Rq'd Task Elements

112

Phvsica] Sinileritv lna]vsis

Tie physical similarity analysis deals with the similarity betweUnphysical characteristics of the training device and those of the operaitona.situation. The assessment is based on the physical similarity (such aslocation, appearance, and feel). Ignore, for now, the amount and qualityof information.

Rate relevant control and display to describe how well the control ordisplay is represented in.the training device. Base your physical similarityratings on the following four-point scale:

PHYSICAL SIMILARITY RATING SCALE

Rating Definition

3 Identical. The trainee would not notice a difference betweenthe training device control or display and the operationalcontrol or display at the time of transfer. Notelthat theyneed not be absolutely identical, but there must be no notice-able difference for the trainee.

2 Similar. The trainee would notice a difference at the timeof transfer, but he would be able to perform the task. Theremight be a decrement in performance at transfer, but any suchdecrement would be readily overcome.

1 Dissimilar. There would be a-large noticeable difference,quite apparent to the trainee at transfer, and a large per-formance decrement, given that the trainee could perform atall. Specific instruction and practice would be requiredon the operational equipment after transfer to overcome thedecrement.

0 The control or display is not represented at all in the train-ing device.

113

" C'. C- S :.1 LARITY A N'ALYSIS

Name of Task: HIT MOVING TARGET

REQUIRED TASK

CONTROLS AND DISPLAYS VIGS BOT M55 BRW V/BRW M60AI

Cl Ammunition selector handle

C2 Main gun switch

C 3 Microphone

C4 Gunner's control handles

C5 Magnetic brake palm switches

.C6 Firing, triggers

D1 Earphones

D2 Ammunition display window

D3 Main gun switch light

D4 M-32 sight (eyepiece, headrest,8X magnification)

D 5 Moving target

D 6 Reticle __

Sum of Physical SimilarityRatings

Physical Similarity Index

Physical Sum of Similarity Ratings for DeviceSimilarity = 3 (0 of Rq'd Controls & Displays)Index

4.

114

5.

Functional Similaritv Analysis

The- functional similarity anhlysis compares the operator's behavior interms of the information flow from each display to the operator, and fromthe operator to each control. The assessment is made in terms of the amountof information transmitted from each 'display to each control and the type ofinformation-processing activity performed by the operator. The issue is notthe physical fidelity of a control or display but whether the operator actson the same amount of information in the same way in both the operational andthe training situation.

a,. For each control and display estimate the number of states (or discretevalues) which the display or control may assume in the training device.Then compare the number of states in the training situation with the deviceto the corresponding number in the operational situation.

For each required task control or display, rate how well it is functionallvrepresented in each training device. Base your functional similarity ratingson the following four-point scale:

FUNCTIONAL SIMILARITY RATING SCALE

Rating Definition

-. 3 Identical. The number of states in the train 'ing situationis the same as the number of states in the operationalsetting.

2 Similar. The number of states in the training situation isat least half of the number of states in the operationalsetting.

1 Dissimilar. The number of states in the training situationis less than half of the number of states in the operationalsetting.

O Missing. The control or display is- not represented at allin the training device.

V.

115

", -....-. :, , . "ITY ANALYSIS

Name of Task: HIT MOVING TARGET

REQUIRED TASKCONTROLS AND DISPLAYS VIGS BOT M55 BRW V/BRW M6OAl

C1 Ammunition selector handle

C2 Main gun switch

~C3 Microphone

C4 Gunner's control handles

*C 5 Magnetic brake palm switches

C6 Firing triggers

Dl Earphones

• .D 2 Ammunition display window

D3 Main gun switch light

D4 M-32 sight (eyepiece, headrest,8X magnification)

D% Moving target

D6 Reticle

Sum of Functional SimilarityRatings

Functional Similarity Index

FunctionalSimilarity - Sum of Similarity Ratings for Device

Index 3 (14 of Rq'd Controls and Displays)

Si-

n16

,** ./S .% % . ''", -. '.% " . ',. " ,"'',. . "'., ' . *.. . ., *.. ". ". . . .. '"."'.- " " a"'." " " " ". . '

Skills and Knolvdges Requiretments

The skills and knowledges requirements analysis assesses the skillsand knowledges in the student's repertory before training and comparesthem to the skills and knowledges required for successful performance ofthe task.

For each skill and knowledge, estimate how much of the skill orknowledge the average trainee could be expected to have on first exposureto the training device. Assume that the average trainee is a high schoolgraduate in Armor OSUT who has completed common soldier and tank driverblocks of instruction. Base your ratings on the following scale:

RATING SCALE FOR SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGES BEFORE TRAINING

Rating Definition

4 Has a complete understanding of the skill or knowledgeL. Cando the steps in this subtask that require the skill or know-ledge completely and accurately without supervision.

3 Understands this skill or knowledge but may require super-vision to do the steps in this subtask that require the skillor knowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would beexpected after several practice trials of the step.

2 Is familiar with this skill or knowledge, but would requireassistance on the steps'in this subtask that require the skillor knowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would beexpected from a complete briefing and one performance of thetask step.

1 Has a limited experience or familiarity with this skill orknowledge. Level of proficiency equals what would be expectedfrom an orientation.

0 No experience or familiarity with this skill or knowledge.Cannot perform a task step requiring this skill or knowledge.

117. . . . ~~~ ~~. P , - ..AL e. - - , . , - ,, o - .. , . .. -, - -.. . . - - .. ., .

Next, rate the amount o.f each sk'ill v o~lid the trainee must haveto do the task (hit moving targets as a guw-:ir) in. t:"- operational situation.Base your ratings on the following scale:

RATING SCALE FOR SKILLS AND KNOWULEDGES AFTER TRAINING

Rating Definition

4 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under all condi-tions without hesitation. System will not tolerate errors.

3 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under most condi-tions without hesitation. System will not tolerate infrequenterrors.

2 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing and

some practice but does not need to be able to apply knowledgeor skill without error. System will tolerate occasionplerrors.

1 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing onknowledge or on performance of skill. System will toleratefrequent errors.

Leave the column for Difference (After-Before) blank.

118,-D

SKILL AND KNOWLEDGE REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS

Name of Task: HIT MOVING TARGET

REQUIRED TASK AFTER BEFORE DIFFERENCESKILL AND KNOWLEDGE TRAINING TRAINING (AFTER-BEFORE)

Si Is able to distinguish betweentargets and friendlies

S2 Is able to estimate speed of target

S3 Is able to maintain smooth track

S4 Is able to sense rounds

Kl Knows procedure to index amunition(including when to index ammunition)

K2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED isresponse to TC saying GUNNER, (AMMOTYPE), (TARGET TYPE) and Gunner seeingthe target

K3 Knows number of lead lines forammunition types.

K4 Knows number of lead lines forspeed of target

K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed ontarget's center of mass (with leadapplied) -

K6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY isresponse to crosshair leadline beingon target's center of mass, TC sayingFIRE, and Loader saying UP

K7 Knows that sensing is mental notationof the point in the sight reticle whereburst of round appears as it passes,strikes short of, or hits the target.

Ke Knows there are three deflection sensings(LEFT, RIGHT, LINE) and four rangesensings (SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL, TARGET)

K9 Knows that saying BOT is response tosensing round

K1O Knows to move point of sight reticleby most direct route from where burstof round appears to target's centerof mass

KII Knows that saying ON THE WAY is responseto point of sight reticle where burst ofround appears being on target's centerof mass and Loader saying UP

Total Difference Score ".*,, .. -'', , -, X... _,.___-_

skill L Knnal.adv Ragtilramionfhe Tnti ______________________

Total Difference ScoreSkill & Knowledge Requirements Index = 4(Number of Skills and Knowledges)

- 119

Task Training Difficultv

The task training difficulty analysis estimates the difficulty (in termsof training time) of training soldiers to perform the required tasks successful>.Assign ratings based on the assumption that training occurs on the operationalequipment. In this case, operational equipment is a tank, dry fire, withmoving targets (8x8 panels).

For each required task element, rate the amount of training time for sur-mounting its associated deficit relative to the most time-consuming task element.Base your task training difficulty ratings on the following five-point scale:

TASK TRAINING DIFFICULTY RATING SCALE

Rating Definition

4 Requires as much time to train as the most time-consumingtask element.

3 Requires substantial training time, but less than above.

2 Requires a moderate amount of training time relative to themost time-consuming task element.

1 Requires only minimal training time relative to the mosttime-consuming task element.

0 Requires no training time.

120

TASK TRAINING 1'1i i TY ..:AL'S1S

Name of 'Task: mTT mOVTNa TARCET

REQUIRED TASK ELEMENTS TRAINING DIFFICULTY

1. Gunner indexes-ammunition

2. Gunner turns on main gun switch

3. Gunner announces IDENTIFIED

4. Gunner applies lead in direction oftarget apparent motion

5. Gunner lays crosshair leadline atcenter of target vulnerability

6. Gunner makes final precise lay

7. Gunner announces ON THE WAY

8. Gunner fires main gun

9. Gunner announces sensing and BOT

10. Gunner relays (BOT)

1. Gunner announces ON THE WAY (BOT)

12. Gunner fires main gun (BOT)

Total Training Difficulty Score

Task Training - Total Training Difficulty ScoreDifficulty Index 4(Number of Task Elements)

121

APPENDIX C

TIV WORMlOK

Coverage Requirement Analvsi-

The purpose of the Coverage Aequirement (CR) Analysis is to determine which

skills and knowledges must be covered by a training device. The skills andknowledges for the task are listed on the worksheet. Assume that the deviceis to be used in OSUT training. Trainees will have completed driving seg-ments but will not have had any gunnery training. Rate each skill andknowledge on the following scale:

Rating Definition

1 Required in training.

0 Not required in training.

Coverage Analysis

The purpose of the Coverage (C) Analysis is to determine whether a deviceprovides training for each skill and knowledge. Rate each skill and knowledgefor each device on the following scale:

Rating Definition

1 Provides training coverage for the skill/knowledge.

0 Does not provide training coverage for the skill/knowledge.

Rate all skills and knowledges for a device before you rate any skill orknowledge for another device.

125

COVERAGE REQUIREMENT (CR) AND COVERAGE (C) WORKSHEET

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGES CR CVIGS BOT M55 BRW V/BRWIM6OAI

S1 Is able to distinguish between targets andfriendlies

S2 Is able to estimate speed of target

S3 Is able to maintain smooth track

S4 Is able to sense rounds

K1 Knows procedure to index ammunition (includingwhen to index amnunition)

K2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED is response to TCsaying GUNNER, (AMO TYPE), (TARGET TYPE) andGunner seeing the target

K3 Knows number of lead lines for ammunition types

K4 Knows number of lead lines for speed of target

K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target'scenter of mass (with lead applied)

K6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response tocrosshair leadline being on target's center ofmass, TC saying FIRE, and Loader saying UP

K7 Knows that sensing is mental notation of thepoint in the sight reticle where burst ofround appears as it passes, strikes short of,or hits the target

K8 Knows there are three deflection sensings(LEFT, RIGHT, LINE) and four range sensings(SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL, TARGET)

K9 Knows that saying BOT is response to sensinground

KlnKnows to move point of sight reticle by most"direct route from where burst of round appearsto target's center of mass

KllKnows that saying ON THE WAY is response topoint of sight reticle where burst of roundappears being on target's center of mass andLoader saying UP

126

*' -- 'p ,. . -l- ,. -. '~ j _ '_- . -.-* ." -"a ." '.,.'" % o """" "% " "" "" " "'"" "%" " '" ' ' ' .,.'. .-. ' '"" '""

T':I:; :: !'C:QFICIENCY AND LEAR:ING DIFFICULTY

Training Proficiency Analysis

The purpose of the Training Proficiency (P) Analysis is to determinethe degree of proficiency the trainee must attain at the end of training.First, cross out any skills or knowledges that you decided did not need tobe trained (CR-0). Rate each remaining skill and knowledge on the followingscale:

Rating Definition

4 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under all conditionswithout hesitation. System will not tolerate errors.

3 Should be able to apply skill or knowledge under most conditionswithout hesitation. System will not tolerate infrequent errors.

2 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing and somepractice but does not need to be able to apply knowledge orskill without error. System will tolerate occasional errors.

1 Should have skill or knowledge equivalent to briefing onknowledge or on performance of skill. System will toleratefrequent errors.

127

' .'.......................-....,....................'.........."..-....-.....-,..-..-...-......,..-,.....'....................-.-...,.........'......'.."......

Learning Difficulty Analysis

The purpose of the Learning Difficulty (D) Analysis is to determinethe degree of difficulty associated with learning each required (CR-l) skilland knowledge. Assume that the trainee is a high school graduate in ArmorOSUT. He has completed driving trai 'ning but has no experience with gunnery.The training program will consist of *classroom instruction and dry-fire withan M460Al tank and moving 8x8 panels. Rate the difficulty of training eachskill or knowledge in such a program using the following scale:

Rating Definition

1 Easy. Trainee can accomplish the activity once informed thatit exists; no practice or study is required.

2 Modestly Difficult. Trainee can accomplish most of theactivity after claqsroom instruction; some of the activityrequires minimal skill practice or study for acquiring theneeded level of proficiency.

3 Difficult. Trainee can accomplish the activity only if class-room instruction is accompanied by practice or study.

4 Highly Difficult. Trainee can accomplish the activity onlyif classroom instruction is accompanied by extensive practiceor study.

128

TRAINING P :OF]CIENCY () A D LE::]DIFFICULTY (D) WORJKSHEE1

SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGES p D

Si Is able to distinguish between targets and friendlies

S2 Is able to estimate speed of target

S3 Is able to maintain smooth track

S4 Is able to sense rounds

K1 Knows procedure to index ammunition (including whento index ammunition).

K2 Knows that saying IDENTIFIED is response to TC sayingGUNNER, (AMMO TYPE), (TARGET TYPE) and Gunner seeingthe target ..............

K3 Knows number of lead lines for ammunition types

K4 Knows number of lead lines for speed of target

K5 Knows crosshair leadline is placed on target's centerof mass (with lead applied).

K6 Knows that saying ON THE WAY is response to crosshairleadline being on target's center of mass, TC sayingFIRE. and Loader saying UP

K7 Knows that sensing is mental notation of the point in

the. sight reticle where burst of round appears as it

passes, strikes short of, or hits the target.

'K8 Knows there are three deflection sensings (LEFT, RIGHT,LINE) and four range sensings (SHORT, OVER, DOUBTFUL,'ARGET) " .... " ""

K9 Knows that saying BOT is response to sensing round

* Kl0Knows to move point of-sight reticle by most direct

route from where burst of round appears to target's

center of mass

KllKnows that saying ON THE WAY is response to point ofsight reticle where burst of round appears being ontarget's center of mass and Loader saying UP

129

. .

C",:'L i.CTERISTICS AND FUNCTiOAL ChAR.CTERISTICE

The purpose of the Physical Characteristics Analysis is to assess howwell the physical characteristics of a device support good instructionalpractice. You must complete a worksheet for each relevant skill and knowledge(CR-I) if any device being considered covers the skill or knowledge (C-I).The worksheet includes ratings for each device.

First decide which one of the following categories best describes learningfor the skill or knowledge:

BEHAVIORAL CATEGORIES

(1) Rule Learning and Using

(2) Classifying - Recognizing Patterns

(3) Identifying Symbols

(4) Detecting

(5) Making Decisions

(6) Recalling Bodies of Knowledge

(7) Performing Gross Motor Skills

(8) Steering and Guiding - Continuous Movement

(9) Positioning Movement and Recalling Procedures

(10) Voice Communications

The categories are defined and illustrated in Appendix A. List the categoryin column I.

Next determine which learning guidelines in Appendix B apply to thephysical characteristics for the generic type of device for training thebehavior. The guidelines are grouped by behavioral categories. The guide-lines that might apply to physical characteristics are labelled P or P/F.Some of the guidelines may not apply to a training device for an entry levelgunner. List the guidelines that do apply in column II of the worksheet.Include the number and an abbreviated statement of each relevant guideline.

130

r(*T cGCV1'--., list the displays and controls that contribute totrL nin, t!v Zi~ l "knowledge. If the device does not cover the sk-illor k.nowledge (C=&), enter NONE. Put these entries in column III of theworksheet.

The next step is to determine which characteristics of the relevantdisplays and controls contribute to training the skill or knowledge. Reviewthe generic stimulus characteristics that are listed in column IV of theworksheet (and defined in Table 1) to find which ones apply to the stimulus.

More than one characteristic may apply. Cross out the characteristics that

do not apply. Also determine which response mode is required by the device.The response modes are listed and defined in Table 1. Only one responsemode may apply. List the best description of the response mode in column IV.

Next rate each relevant characteristic for each device that covers theskill or knowledge on how well it incorporates the learning guidelines youlisted in column II. Rate each applicable characteristic on the followingscale:

I.I

Rating Definition

0 Extremely deficient implementation of guidelines (or) noimplementation at all.

1 Partially proficient implementation of guidelines; at leastminimal implementation is achieved.

2 Proficient implementation of guidelines; implementation L"adequate to good instructional quality.

3 Highly proficient implementation of guidelines; implementationis of exceptional quality (or) is identical with guidelines.

When you assign a rating to a characteristic, calculate an approximate averageof how well the characteristic implements the'complete set of guidelines in

column II. Leave the blocks for PC Score blank.

Functional Characteristics Analysis

The Functional Characteristics Analysis is an extension of the PhysicalCharacteristics Analysis.

The first step in this analysis is to extract the learning guidelines

related to functional characteristics from Appendix B. The candidate guide-lines are in Appendix B under the behavioral category you entered in column 1.This time you are concerned with the guidelines labelled P/F or F. List theguidelines that apply to a training device for entry level gunners incolumn VI of the worksheet.

.-

131"° "~~~ "tL'',''"""7 '"'""" -' '"-" ,"" ""'"'."""" , " -,''

Then rate each device that covers the skill or kno:,'led :e (C=l) orl !:C'

well it applies each guideline. Rate the device for each. guid3elin- or th.following scale:

Rating Definition

0 Extremely deficient implementation of guideline (or) noimplementation at all.

1 Partially proficient implementation of guideline; at leastminimal implementation is achieved.

2 Proficient implementation of guideline; implementation isadequate to good in quality.

3 Highly proficient implementation of guideline; implementation

4is of high exceptional quality (or) identical with guideline.

Enter your ratings in column VII. Leave the FC Score boxes blank.

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TABLE 1

GENERIC 'STIMULUS CHAPACTERISTICS A':

CORRESPONDING TRAINEE RESPONSE IMODLS

STINULUS CAPABIL!TfS 1

|1% v-UL 000S.2 FU Sound enoc - a uality of sOuna reprOductiOn,.,t COntins all the significant elements of tnt

1.I ViSUal AlphanueriC - words. numpert *nd other Sound and is suitee tO the Cemanding lask of sauna

syrnOol "resentea grmohically. recogntion exercises.

I.Z Visual Pictorial, Plane - a to-dimensional S.3 Ambien. Saunos - c tolea Soune envirCn.ent -. t%image, a representatiOn in the form of a saunas effanating fr.m'various source% Ine 'rc0

onotograoh or orowing. various oirections. including bacagrounc noistand task sinificant souncs.

1.3 Visual Line ConstruCtion. Plane - a two-aimensional figure race o ions. SuCh is (6) rLCTlLE-KINESTHETIC41 mthema~tical curve or grapoh. 6.1 aCt icle Cues - signals received tnrough the Sense :"

1.4 Visual ObjeCt. Soli - a three-dimensional image touch. inacuoing sensations related to texture.or reality th is viewed from eaterior size or Shaot.

* perspecti ve$.. - heedmnsoa iae6.2 Internal Sticilus Motion Cues - tne sensations fe!:

1.5 ViSual fnvironatnt - Athree-dinsional image by a person when ne vaves nis art, leg, fingers. t-..or reaity tnat is viewed from Inside. . -6.3 External Stimulus moti n Cues - the sensations felt :.; a

12) VISUAL MOvEMENT person -ne ne is moved oy some outside fotte tn S%.*c Iway that qiS body exoeriences roll. ditch. yew. ettat.

Z., Visual Still - a static visual field, as with a sway andior surge.

stilTTonoiograpn. drawing, or printed page. 7It]HME RESMMS! .1

2.2 Visual Limited movement - a basically staticv2Vuma fi eo wItn asements that can be made to (1) Covert iesoonste a response hicn the trainee createmove, as with an animated transparency or simOle in nis mind out does not express in an •oseroabie -,epanel wth swtches that. ove. o ,

(2) Multiole Choice - a response mode in which a trainee* 2.3 Visual Full Movement - a visual field in which selects a response from a limited set of responses.

aIm eSements can move, as with a motion picture.fnignt simulator, or operational Aircraft. (3) Pre*orooramid Verbal Performance . a response % 'e"

which a trainee creates a snort anser to a cuest-¢,.2.4 Visual Cyclic nove ment - a visual field which having a limited set of cbrrect answerff "

roves through a fixed sequence and then repeatstn sequence in a repetitive manner, as with a (4) Free-Style Written Perfor.ance - a response mace iefile loop. which a trainee writes a response in his own worcs.

(3) VISUAL SPECTRIU. (5) Decision Indicator - a verbal or perceptual modto

response in wnicn the trainte indicates that he nos

3.1 $lack and vlhite - a visual field composed of made a divergent type decision.tither Black Or white elements, as with theprinted page or line dravings. (6) Voice Performance - a response moet in wnicn a trainee

spess. inciuding conversation.3.2 Gray Scale - a visual field composed of black.

white ano continuous gradations of gray, as (7) Fine movement Maniulative Acts a a response mooe irwith a black ano wnite photograph or which a trainee makes discrete dnO Sv-ll Mo-ee*:stelevision picture. of dials, switches, keys or maces sefsitive acius.'e*.t

to insturments. Act -ay involve use of s.al4

3.3 Color - a visual field composed of various instruments.stghs of the visual spectrin. Is with

color televisio or motia on pctures. (6) ar0ad Movement Manioulative Acts - a response macewich a trainee maes arge movements of levers o'(4) SCALE wheels on large pieces of equioment or Oy the use c4

equipment or by. te use of hand held tools.4.1 Exa1ct SCSI@ - OctuSI visual field Or & •h-to-

qh* rg~iCation of that field as with a full- ($ Trackina - a response mode in which a trainee

siZed mock-up, simulator, or operational continuously controls a constantly changing systett.

syste41. such as steering an automooile or noloing a coitassbearing in steering a snip.

4.2 PopotiOnl Scale - a representation ofritmy ih Oter then full scale, such as a (10) Procedural anioulative Acts - a response moet in r*-

scaled model mao or onotogrboo1. a trainee performs the seouence of steps in 4 procecJ-s,

such as in the carrying out of the items on the

(S) AUDIO checklist for pre-flignting an aircraft or turning c% £rada1r systert.

5.1 voice Sound Ranp - a limited quality of sound

wni¢n enableS sooen words to oe used as themedium of cou unications. but not suited tomore demanding tasks, such as music Or Sound

recognition exercises.

frWft jus% a few to many of these capabilities may Apply to tnt device/control being characterizee.

23nlv c. t.' e O rspontse will bt mode bv tnt trainee to tet corresoonding Sti.ulut.

163

Behavioral Category Definitions

(Adapted From TRADOC Pam. 350-30)

164

r,., " ~~ ~~ .4m. . . :* . : .:-.:-;. .: ? .

Behavioral Category Definitions

(Types of Learning)

Behavioral Category #1 -- Rule Learning and Using

0 SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Choosing a course of action based on applying known rules.

2. Frequently involves "If--then" situations.

3. The rules are not questioned, the decision focuses on whether

the correct rule is being applied.

* EXAMPLES

1. Apply the "rules of the road";

2. Solve mathematical equations (both choosing correct equations

and the mechanics of solving the equation).

3. Carrying out military protocol.

4. Selection of proper fire extinguisher for different types of

fires.

5. Choosing correct grammar in novel situations covered by rules.

Behavioral Category #2 -- Classifying-Recognizing Patterns

# SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Pattern recognition approach to identification -- not problem

solving.

2. Classification by non-verbal characteristics.

3. Status determination -- ready to start.

4. Object to be classified can be viewed from many perspectives

or in many forms.

165

" '= ,'- .. , . ,' • -- 9-." . "* " " "* -" - - ", * ".. ", l. -". - .- .' .. .. . . , ..

1. Classify a sonar target as "sub" or "non-sub".

2. Visual classification of flying aircraft as "friend" or K. c

"enemy" or as an "F-4".

3. Determining that an identified noise is a wheel bearing

failure not a water pump failure by rating the quality of the 0

noise--not by the problem solving approach.

Behavioral Category #3 -- Identifying Symbols

a SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES 0

1. Involves the recognition of symbols such as in codes, diagrams,

schematics, etc.

2. Symbols to be identified typically are of low meaningfulness 0

to untrained persons.

3. Identification, not interpretation, is emphasized.

0 EXAMPLES

1. Reading electronic symbols on a schematic drawing.

2. Identifying map symbols.

3. Reading and transcribing symbols on a tactical status board. 0

4. Identifying symbols on a weather map.

Behavioral Category #4 -- Detecting

* SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Vigilance--detect a few cues embedded in a large block of time.

2. Low threshold cues; signal to noise ratio may be very low;

early awareness of small cues.

3. Scan for a wide range of cues for a given "target" and for

different types of "targets". o

0166

1. Early sonar detection of a sumbmarine target.

2. Visually detecting the periscope of a snorkeling submarine

during daytime.

3. Detect, through a slight change in sound, a bearing starting

to burn out in a power generator.

Behavioral Category #5 -- Making Decisions

* SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Choosing a course of action when alternatives are unspecified

or unknown.

2. A successful course of action is not readily apparent.

3. The penalties for unsuccessful course of action are not

readily apparent.

4. The relative value of possible decisions must be considered --

including possible trade-offs.

e EXAMPLES

1. Choosing torpedo settings during a torpedo attack.

2. Threat evaluation and weapon assignment.

3. Choice of tactics in combat--wide range of options.

4. Choosing a diagnostic strategy in dealing with a malfunction

in a complex piece of equipment.

5. Choosing to abort or commit oneself to'land upon reaching the

critical point in the glidepath.

Behavioral Category #6 -- Recalling Bodies of Knowledge

* SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Concerns verbal or symbolic learning.

2. Concerns acquisition and long-term maintenance of knowledge

so that it can be recalled.

167

S fl :,Is - . m s w w w E-S - -

1. Recalling equipment nomenclature or functions. 0

2. Recalling system functions, such as the complex relations

between system input and output.

3. Recalling physical laws, such as Ohm's Law. C

4. Recalling specific radio frequencies and other discrete facts.

Behavioral Category #7 -- Performing Gross Motor Skills

* SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES 0

1. Perceptual motor behavior; emphasis on motor. Premium on

manual dexterity, occasionally strength and endurance.0

2. Repetitive mechanical skills.

3. Standardized behavior, little room for variation or innovation.

4. Automatic behavior--low level of attention is required in

skilled operator. Kinesthetic cues dominate control of 0

behavior.

S. Fatigue or boredom may become a factor when skill is performed.* 0

over an extended period of time or at a rapid rate.

6. Fine tolerances.

4; * 7. Often a component of a larger task.

* EXAMPLES

1. Use of hand tools such as hammer, saw, wrench, or power tools

such as lathes or. grinders.

2. Running a drill press in an assembly line.

3. Loading ammunition into artillery pieces of 5" guns.

4. Drafting--use of drafting instruments. C

5. Painting--house painting or preserving ship hull, etc.

6. Marching--close order drill.

C1~168

.~', - :.eccry =8 -- Steering and Guiding-Continuous Povement

SAMPLE AT-RIUTES

1. Tracking, dynamit control--a perceptual motor skill involving

continuous pursuit. of a target or keeping dials at a certain

reading such as maintaining constant turn rates, etc.

2. Compensatory movements based on feedback from displays.

3. Skill in tracking requires smooth muscle coordination patterns--

lack of overcontrol.

4. Involves estimating changes in positions, velocities,

accelerations, etc.

5. Involves knowlidge of display-control relationships.

EXAMPLES

1. Submarine bow and stern planes operators maintaining a constant

course, or making changes in course or depth.

2. Tank driver following a road.

3. Sonar operator keeping the cursor on a sonar target.

4. Air-to-air gunnery--target tracking.

5. Aircraft piloting such as visually following a ground path.

6. nelmsman holding a course with gyro or magnetic compass.

Behavioral Category #9 -- Positioning movement and recalling procedures

e SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Concerns the chaining or sequencing of events.

2. Includes both the cognitive and motor aspects of equipment

set-up and operating procedures.

3. Procedural check lists are frequently used as job aids.

4-

169

4%, S ' ... , . .. . . . - -%.. ..

-X.-, .P L _-S

1. Recailing equipment assembly and disassembling procedures. Q2. Recalling the operation and check out procedures for a piece

of equipment (cockpit check lists).

3. Following equipment turn-on procedures--emphasis on motor

behavior.

Behavioral Category #10 -- Voice Communicating

* SAMPLE ATTRIBUTES

1. Speaking and listening in specialized languages. ,

2. Often involves the use of a specific message model. Standard

vocabulary and format.

3. Also concerns clarity of voice, enunciation and speed. 0

4. Timing of verbalization if usually critical--when to pass

information.~0 °5. Typically characterized by redundancy in terms of information 0

content.

6. Involves extensive use of previously overlearned verbal skills,.0

or overcoming overlearned interfering patterns.

7. Tasks may be difficult due to background noises.

* EXAMPLES

1. Officer giving oral orders and receiving reports.

2. Sonar operator passing oral information over communications net.

3. Instructions by ground control operator to pilot in landing C

aircraft.

0

0170

',-- . .-.- " . -. " .' ... ". . -'.a .-. .. , ...- -.',a' -''.a. ,-",." . .',. .' .a. V . . ."".., .,. ... ."." . .". ,V .".. .""

Learning Guidelines

for

Good Instructional Practice

Extracted from TRADOC Pam 350-30,Interservice Procedures for Instructional

System Development, Phase III

9

.,

171-..

LEARINING GUIDELINES

Behavioral Category #1 - Rule Learning and Using

P (1) Pick out the features of the real world job environment

which could be used to trigger the trainee's recall of

training material which must be used in the rule using

part of his job.

P/F (2) Where possible, supply students with diagrams, pictures,

charts, graphs,.rhymes, key words, and other association

devices which the student can use to relate what he al-

ready knows to what he is trying to learn.

P/F (3) Encourage students to make up their own association

devices if they can and want to do it.

F (4) Where the learner is having a difficult time trying to

learn and apply a'rule, use specific questions which

will help the learner to state the elements and relation-

ships in the rule and thus see how concepts of the rule

are related.

F (5) Provide practice until the student learns the rules and

learns to apply the rules to the desired level of per-

formance in the operational job setting.

F (6) Positive rewards of the student's correct applications

of the rules learned is required in the early stages of

training.

I

- 172

7' Toward :he end of training, the level of positive rewards

for correct performance should be reduced to the same

level that the student will find on the job.

F (8) Relate the rules to be learned to operational tasks which

the trainee must perform in real world assignments. 0

F (9) Different trainees will have different rates and styles

of learning the material. Use techniques which allow

students flexibility in learning time.

F (10) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic.practice or re-

fresher training for infrequently used material. o0F (11) In order for slower learners to reach the same level of

, proficiency as faster learners, time must be allowed for

the slower learner to get as many positive rewards for

correct applications of the rules learned as the fasterQ 0

learner. V -

F (12) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the0

material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the

learning objectives; that is, what the trainee is ex-

pected to be able to do by the completion of training.

F. (13) Make sure that the student can recall and demonstrate

the concepts which make up the rule; then go on to rule

learning.0

F (14) Require the learner to state the rule verbally in the

learner's own words. This helps the learner recall which

concepts make up the rule and how the concepts are ar-0

ranged. 0

173

F (15) Present examples of when the rule applies and when it

doesn't.

F (16) Provide opportunities to apply the rule in a variety of

new situations in which the learner has not previously

been trained to apply the rule.

F (17) During practice, practical applications and practice

-R tests, provide the student with immediate knowledge of

results about his correct and incorrect answers.

F (18) Provide rewards for correct application-of the rule.

*F (19) To test the learner s understanding of the rule, provide

an unfamiliar situation in which the rule can be aRplied,

and then require the learner to tell how the concepts of

the rule are related to each other and to this situation.

F 17

LEARNING GUMDELINES

Behavioral Category #2 - Classifying/Recognizing Patterns

P/F (1) Call student's attention to the important, distinctive O

features and characteristics of a pattern which distin-

guish this pattern from other patterns.

P/F (2) Clearly display each of the distinctive features of pat- cterns under study. Show 'ow these cues differ from each

other (pre-differentiation .of stimuli).

P/F (3) Determine if the trainee can detect distinctive features O

in patterns that are not to be classified or recogn~zed

(ignored) in the training task.

P/F (4) Emphasize distinctive features which can be remembered in Q O

-. the form of mental "pictures" instead of abstract words.-

When possible, supply students with diagrams, pictures,

charts, graphs, rhymes, acronyms, keywords, self in- C

structions, common associations, and other association

devices like these to which the student can relate the

material he is trying to learn. C

P/F (5) Teach students to transform distinctive features of the

patterns into items that they can readily recall and

make correct actions to.

P/F (6) In instructional presentations and practice, many examolel.

and non-examples of the pattern should be presented.

1'

~175

''F (7) Toward the end of training, present examples and non-

examples of patzerns that will be very sinmilar to each

other in the job environment.

P/F (8) In early training there should be few irrelevant features,

so that identifying the distinctive characteristics of

the pattern is fairly easy.

P/F (9) By the end of training, the number of irrelevant cues

surrounding distinctive characteristics should be in-

creased to correspond with the real-life situation/job

setting.

P/F (10) Provide the student with practice in recognizing examples

from the full range of patterns produced by a given ob-

ject. Make the examples more similar as training pro-

gresses. At the end of training, the similarities in

the examples should be the similarities that exist in-

the real world.

P/F (11) Provide a variety of examples of the pattern. Select

examples from the full range of variations in the pattern.

P/F (12) To test learning, require the trainee td provide new

examples of the pattern, and to t..each recognition of

-. ~the pattern to someone el 1se.

F (13) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

materials should clearly inform the trainee of the

training objectives; that is, what the trainee is ex-

pected to be able to do by the completion of training.

176

1%14) Organize the training material in such a way that the/>

trainee can meetl-he training objectives at the end of C

training.

F (15) Relate the objectives and learning activities to opera-

tional tasks which the trainee must perform in future 0

real world assignments.

F (16) Positive rewards of the students' correct recognition of

patterns is required in the early stages of training.

F (17) Toward the end of training, the level of positive rewards

for correct performance should be reduced to the same

level that the student will find on the job.

F (18) Provide plenty of opportunities for students to practicemaking recognitions of each pattern being learned.

0F (19) In practice and practice tests, provide for immediate

knowledge of results to help the student meet the learning

objectives by making each action of the task correct.0

F (20) The pause following knowledge of results should be long

enough to allow the student time to sort out his errors

* and pick out distinctive features of the pattern to beC

classified.

F (21) Different trainees will have different rates and styles

of learning the material, Provide flexibility in the0

time allowed.

F (22) In order for slower learners to reach the same level of

proficiency as faster learners, time must be allowed for0

0

177

-. .*77,

the slower learner to get as many or more positive rewards

for correct answers as the faster learner.

F (23) Be sure that students develop a strong tendency to look

for certain critical and distinctive patterns and develop

the same kind of expectations they will need to have while

on the job.

F (24) Require the student to overlearn the original material;

that is, the student should continue to practice the re-

quired tasks after the point that simple mastery of the

task has been met.

F (25) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic opportunityto

recall and apply infrequently used material.

4

0

* ~ ~..~-.178

1 7.~..;. -777 w

L EARN I G GUIDELINESQ

Behavioral Category #3 - Identifying Symbols

P (1) Pick out features of the real world job environment which 0

could be used to spark the trainees' recall of associated

material which would likely be used in the job or its

parts. 0

P/F (M If there are very similar symbols (or features of parts

of symbols) which have been frequently confused in the past,

then be sure that the students can tell the difference 0

between the symbols (or their parts) before they ar~e taught

actions to take for each one.

P/F (3) During instruction, the presentation of the symbol should

*be followed immnediately by the presentation of its mean.ng

(contiguity principle).

P/F (4) When possible, supply students with diagrams, pictures, 0

charts, graphs, rhymes, acronyms, key words, and other

association devices to which the student can relate what

he is trying to learn. 0

F (5) Clearly relate the learning objectives and learning acti-

vities to operational tasks, which the trainee must per-

form in future real world assignments.

F (6) Break the overall learning task down into manageable steps

or units when any of the following conditions exist:

0

0179

a. lower ability student~s

b. complex material

c. overall task contains many small parts

F (7) Change the order of presenting material during practice

so that each training item will be learned equally well.

F (8) Encourage the students to make up their own association

devices if they can and want to.

F (9) When possible, provide the students with association de-

vices which will cause an emotional reaction in the student.

F (10) Allow for self-paced practice and provide the student

with knowledge of the results of his identifications.

F (11) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic recall and prac-

tice for infrequently used material.

(J~F (12) Require the student to overlearn the original material;

Sithat is, the student should continue to practice the re!-

quired tasks after the point that simple mastery 6f the

task has been met.

e tF (13) Practice and test situations should require the student

to make written or verbal answers so that the accuracy of

his recall can be checked.

F (14) Different trainees will have different rates and styles

4% of learning the material. Provide flexibility in learning

time alotted.

0F (15) Positive reward of the student's correct

identification of

180

required in the early stages of training.

F (16) Toward the end of'training, the level of positive re-

wards and knowledgeof results should be reduced to the

same level that the student will find on the job.

C

0

o0

0

.1)

0

" 181

LEARNING GU;DELINES

Behavioral Category #4 - Detecting

P/F (1) Train student to use systematic search procedures

utilizing whatever senses (sight, hearing, etc.) are

appropriate for the task.

P/F (2) Provide examples of correct performance of the task

where appropriate.

P/F (3) In presenting signals, sample from the full range of

types of signals. Include the different signal sources

to be encountered on the job and the different patterns

of each signal source.

P/F (4) Train the student to use the detected signal as a cue

KQ to search for and verify the existence of the signal in

a second sense modality, where it. is possible for the

signal to be detected by more than one sense, and when

a student thinks he has detected the signal through one

sense.

P/F (5) Where appropriate, train the student to use peripheral

vision when scanning with the eyes.

a The following (6 -11) are guidelines for managing earlier

stages of training.

P/F (6) Provide a high signal density more frequent than in the

operational task.

* 182

.'5 (7) Signals snould have high signal-to-noise ratio Q "

P/F (8) Use different amounts of time between signal presentation.

P/F (9) Insure a high frequency of student identifications of

the signal.

P/F (10) Provide student with immediate and continuous knowledge 0

of results

P/F (11) Do not teach any vigilance techniques

0

. The following (12- 16) are guidelines for managing intermediate

stages of training.

0

P/F (12) Use a lower signal density

. ~P/F (13) Use lower signal-to-noise ratios

P/F (14) Use different amounts of time between signal presentations. 0

P/F (15) Provide student with intermittent knowledge of results.-.-*

P/F (16) Introduce vigilance techniques

0

* The following (17 - 21) are guidelines for managing advanced

,~-stages of training.

O/F (17) Low signal density; i.e., operatjonal density or minimum

a., number suited to training.

P/F (18) Decrease signal-to-noise ratio to operational level

,/F (19) Use different amounts of time between signal presentations.

P/F (20) Provide the student with knowledge of results equivalent.

P/F (21) Require vigilance techniques appropriate to the job setting.

183 0

-" a. . -k1. . 'I 7 e , rw % . -, .. , . .,',,-..- ', "'

?,/F k22) Train tne studenz to monitor his own vigilance level

by conditioning him to respond to biological conditions

(internal cues) which appear when vigilance begins to fade.

F (23) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the

learning objectives; that is, what the trainee is ex-

pected to be able to do by the completion of training.

F (24) Relate the learning 'objectives and learning activities

to operational tasks which the trainee must perform in

future real world assignments.

F (25) Train the student in techniques of vigilance; trailhim

to establish a mental "set" to search. Use instructions

to establish this "set" and provide a positive reward

when the student achieves a proper "set."

F (26) Provide knowledge of results on correct detections. This

can serve as positive reward to encourage vigilance

behaviors that will lead to continued correct detections.

(27)Ensure that detections are correct before providing posi-

tive reward.

F (28) Do not allow a student to leave one phase or level of

the learning task until he has achieved the required

level of mastery.

0S184

LEARNING GUIDELINES Q1 00

Behavioral Category #5 - Making Decisions

P/F (1) Provide the student with a wide variety of decision

making experiences. Provide basic problems where there

are only a few factors to consider. Also provide complex

problems which require the student to consider many 0

factors. Th,, solutions should range from easy to hard.

P/F (2) If the trainee will be required to make the decision

under stress in the real world, then he must overlearn

the decision making skill during training. That is, he

must be able to make the correct decision, and he must

be able to make the decision efficiently, accurately, Q 0

and repeatedly in distracting surroundings.

P/F (3) During the final stages of training, tt is important to

provide situations which closely duplicate the real world 0

with respect to amount of data, type of data, amount of

time to ccmplete the decision making problems, and thedo

amount of distraction and "noise" in the working environ- C

ment.

F (4) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

materials should clearly inform the trainee of the learning C

%objectives; that is, what the trainee is expected to be

able to do by the completion of training.

C

0185

--. .p * |

15) At ze beginning of training, relate the learning ob-

jectives and learning activities to operational tasks

which the trainee must perform in future real world

assignments.

F (6) For the most efficient learning of decision making the

student must already have learned the technical knowledge

which will allow him to identify what the problem really

is, make a list of the most reasonable solutions, and

determine which of the solutions would be best.

F (7) The student will learn best if he is not afraid of making

incorrect decisions in the training situations; thi is

4particularly true in the.early stages of training and in

very complex decision making processes. Materials and

instructors should, therefore, attempt to decrease student

fears to a low level.

F (8) Give the students examples of-these two types of a:tions

which are to be avoided when making decisions:

a. response biases; that is, the tendency to make a

"favorite" decision or use a "favorite" solution

regardless of the real nature of the problem.

b. perceptual sets; that is, the tendency to generalize

problems or view several types of problems as if

they were all the same when, in fact, they are quite

different.

186

=77

, 7) each he students a set of steps to follcw in making Q0decisions such as' the following 5-step model:

a. Discover the existence of aproblem and define it

b. Identify and collect relevant information

c. Develop reasonable solutions to the problem

1) compare alternative solutions

2) combine alternate solutions where desirable

d. Evaluate each of the proposed solutions. 0

1) how will each solution solve the problem?

2) will each solution-bring about any additional0

benefits or problems?

3) rank each solution according to the results

it would bring.

0e. Decide on the best solution and put it into effect.

F (10) Provide the student with enough realistic information and

data on which to formulate possible solutions and make0

final decisions. Be sure tIat the student makes decisions

in the same variety of settings as he will face in

carrying out his job.0

F (1) Provide the learner with knowledge of results for

each decision he makes. A recommended list of questions

to ask about the learner's problem solutions follows:0

a. Predictable? (Were evidences of perceptual sets shown

in his solution?)

b. Perseverated? (Were evidences of response biases

shown in solution?) Q

187

c. Timely? (Is this the appropriate time to execute

this particular aecision?)

d. Complete? (Did he consider all of the data and

information?)

e. Consistent? (Is his solution compatible and relevant

to the data and the available information?)

F (12) Give knowledge of results with respect to the student's

decisions each time. Where possible, provide the actual

consequences of the learner's decision.

I4.

.4P

.4

188

LEARNING GUIDELINES 0

Behavioral Category #6 -Recalling Bodies of Knowledge0

P (1) Arrange for features of the real world job setting to be0'

used to trigger the trainee's recall of training material--

the knowledge he needs to do the job.

P (2) Use high interest, attention-getting features of the0

learning materials throughout the training. Keep student

attention by using learning activities which require

active student participation.0

P/F (3) Make the learning activities relevant by making them'

similar to real-life tasks that the student will be per-

forming on the job.0

P/F (4) If the real world job will present the trainee with very

similar features of the job situation which will require

the trainee to remember different knowledge for each

feature, make sure that the trainee learns the difference

between these features before he is taught which body of

knowledge to associate with each feature.

)P/F (5) When possible, supply students wi-th diagrams, pictures,

charts, graphs, rhymes, acronyms, key words, and other

association devices to which the st~.dent can relate the

facts and principles he is trying to learn and recall

them more easily.

P/F (6) In early phases of training, provide the student with

-~ - guides, prompts, cues, and coaching which will help him

189

remember the material correctly.

P/F (7) As training progresses, prompts should be reduced until

it matches the level of help that will be available in

the real world job setting.

P/F (8) Provide students with opportunities to practice their

training tasks by setting up a wide variety of testing

and practice situations which are very similar to situa-

tions the learner will encounter on the job.

P/F (9) Practice ahd test situations should reqyire the student

to make written or verbal answers so that the accuracy

of his recall of the facts and principles he learned can

be checked.

F (10) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

material/media should clearly inform the trainee of the

learning objectives; that is, what the trainee is ex- -

pected to be able to do by the completion of training to

meet the learning objectives.

F (11) Analyze the subject body of knowledge to detect key words,

formulas or phrases. Organize the learning activities

around these key items.

F (12) Before testing for recall, provide some warm-up exercises

(or) an introduction to remind the Atudent of the type

of task and the type of information needed.

F (13) If it is necessary for the student to learn similar

bodies of subject matter, then directly compare the

.10

190

..... 5.. * a. - ~

booies when they a re first presented so that the student0

can tell them apart (or) separate their presentation by

as much time as possible to avoid confusion between them.

F (14) Encourage and give students directions to make up theirC

own association devices if they can and want to.

F(15) When possible, provide students with association devices

which will cause an emotional reaction in the student.C

F (16) During the training sessions, provide the student with

immediate knowledge of results about his correct and in-

correct answers.C

F (17) Provide positive rewards during the instruction, even

during non-testing situations. Reward a student's pro-

gress, attitude, attention, mastery of an objective, etc.

F (18) In practice and practice tests, provide for imm~ediate

knowledge of results to help the student retain correct

answers and eliminate incorrect answers.

F (19) Change the order of presenting the material during

practice so that each item in the list will be learned

equally well.

F (20) Rest periods should be provided during practice sessions

'according to need for rest as judged by the student and

requirements of the specific learning material as judged

by the instructor.

F (21) Different trainees will have different rates and styles

of learning the material. Try to provide flexibility in

time to learn.Q

191

(22) In order for slower learners to reach the same level of

proficiency as faster learners, time must be allowed for

the slower learner to get as many or more positive rewards

for correct answers as-the faster learner.

F (23) As training continues, give the learner chances to compare

his progress and achievement with the stated learning ob-

jectives.

F (24) Test to see that the student is able to correctly recall

key features that will help him recall the knowledge he

needs-in performing his job.

F (25) Provide the student with practice in associating the

knowledge to be learned with key features of the job

setting.

F (26) Prevent forgetting by showing the meaningfulness of the.

mater ial to the learner's job environment and duties.

Emnphasize the organization and structure of the material.

F (27) Require the student to overlearn the original material;

that is, the student should continue to practice the

required tasks after the point that simple mastery of

the training task has been met.

.4

7 192

LEARNING GUIDELINES

Behavioral Category 47 - Performing Gross Motor Skills

P (1) Teach the learner to tell the difference between similar

external cues (conditions, features, characteristics, etc.

or objects in the job environment to which the learner o

must respond with an appropriate action) like knowing when

too much pressure is put on a power saw the wood begins

to smoke.

P (2) Teach the.learner to tell the difference between similar

internal cues (muscular feelings inside one's body which

guide the execution of a physical skill and allow automatic c

responses) like knowing by the "feel" of the power saw how

much pressure to use without burning the wood.

P/F (3) Early in training, present immediate and specific knowledge Q C0

of results to the student.

P/F (4) Early in training, present external cues that will bring

out the desired responses in the student's actions. C

P/F (5) Later in training, training should reduce the knowledge

of performance results to on-the-job levels.

P/F (6) Later in training, training should train the student to

respond to internal cues in his muscles to guide his

actions in correctly performing the task.

P/F (7) If students make incorrect actions or begin to develop

* bad habits, a penalty is presented following these

improper responses until they disappear.

C193

2 .3) To insure that the learner understands the required task,

tne training media should independently demonstrate/correct

performance of the task.

P/F (9) To insure that the learner understands required subtasks,

the training media should independently demonstrate

component parts of the task.

P/F. (10) To insure that the learner understands required task

and subtasks, training media permits the instructor/

student to describe and/or demonstrate the desired

task and its component parts.

P/F (11) Provide for learner practice on parts (specific components)

of the task for:

1) simple task-practice in entirety

2) complex task practice in parts and then in entirety

P/F (12) Provide for learner practice under varied conditions

so as to:

1) facilitate the performance of the motor task

2) help adapt the performance of this task to

potential environmental changes

P/F (13) Ensure that during practice the learners:

1) understand the objectives of the skill while learning

2) can observe a skilled performance of the desired task

as often as necessary

3) can obtain knowledge of results concerning his

performance of the task

P/F (14) Ensure that during practice the learners have short rest

periods mixed in with the practice methods

194

! 5) rovioe real life distractions, interruptions, and

"noise" to the level that the person will encounter

on-the-job, when and where appropriate.

F (16) At the beginning of training, the learning objective is

made clear and apparent to the trainee.

F (17) At the beginning of training, the trainer clearly relates

the learning objectives and learning activities to opera-

tional tasks which the trainee must perform in future realC

world assignments.

F (18) Feed back to student knowledge of results; student learns:

1) what he is doing right C

2) what he is doing wrong

F (19) Feed back to student comparisons; student learns how what

he did compares to the: C

1) learning objectives of the program

2) correct demonstration of task

3) standards that are required in operational setting

F (20) The pause following knowledge of results should be long

enough to allow the student time to sort out his errors

and to rest his muscles. C

F (21) Reward performances which are closer to the goal than the

preceeding performances. in this manner, the student's

performance will become successively closer to the desired C

6erformance (shaping).

F (22) After the student successfully reaches the desired

performance, reduce the frequency of reward to the

level found on the job. . 0

195

- ' ,ecuire the student to overlearn the original material;

that is, the student should continue to perform the

required tasks after the point that simple mastery of

the task has been met.

F (24) Allow for individual .variation in physical coordination

and provide extra time and practice for those who learn

the skills less readily.

F (25) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic practice for

infrequently used skills.

196

LEARNING GUIDELINES

Behavioral Category 08 Steering 0and Guiairrg/Continuous Movement

P (1) Critical cues, from which the trainee gets feedback on how

well the task was performed, must be realistic and continually

available during the performance of the task.

P (2) In continuous control task training, maintain a high level

of real world conditions in the presentation of cues

to which the trainee must react, the actions and reactions

which the trainee makes, and the way that the displays and

controls of the system continuously respond to the trainee's

control.

P/F (3) Demonstrate correct task performance with a model.

P/F (4) Provide practice under a variety of conditions. C

P/F (5) Provide practice on specific component skills when learning

complex tasks.

P/F (6) Give the student knowledge of results on small, distinct C

segments of his performance, especially during early

stages of learning.

P/F (7) Teach the student to scan continuously by specific training C

of eye movement and where to focus for scanning.

F (8) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

materials should clearly inform tne trainee of the c

learning objectives.

F (9) Relate the learning objectives and activities to operational

tasks which the trainee must perform in future real world C

assignments. Q

197

wrxr. - -- -- - -.-..-. ~=.. u vunr. f - W lflifS la nWEE=-

.~?rovide a preview of important, selecteo motions and

movements that the student will learn to miake.

F (11) Break the overall learning task down into manageable steps

or unit when any of the following conditions exist:

a. lower ability students

b. complex material

c. the overall task contains many small parts

and is so long that the student or instructor

thinks that only.a part of it at a time should

be learned.

F (12) Highly skilled performance requires extensive practice;

This practice should provide:

a. an understanding-of skill objectives

b. the student can observe skill performances

c. the student is given adequate opportunity to

practice on the task

d. student receives knowledge of results

e. rest periods to be mixed in with the practice

periods when the trainee feels that he needs them.

F (13) Positive reward should be provided for performances which are

closer to goal than preceeding performances. In this manner,

the student's performance will become successively closer

to the desired performance (shaping).

F (14) Positive reward should follow as soon as possible after

each correct student performance; initially after each

distinct segment of performance and toward the end of

training after each maneuver or complete evolution.

198

LEARNING GUIDELINES

Behavioral Category 09 - Positioning Movement 0and Recalling Procedures C

p (1) Provide a visual demonstration of the physical skill that

the trainee is expected to perform at each step in the

checklist of procedures.

P (2) Pick out features of the real world job environment which

could be used to sp ark the trainees' recall of training

material wthich must be used in that part of his job.

P (3) Provide realism for procedural and physical skills practice:

a. equipment realism can be at a minimum level;

for example, a photo of the job setting or~ a

paper and plywood model

* b. checklist items and their corresponding procedural Qresponses need to be as realistic as possible-

P/F (4) Break the physical skills (positioning movement) into

logical sub-units or part skills. Then make sure that

the procedural steps for each of these sub-units are well

organized.

P/F (5) Break the overall learning task down into manageable steps

or units when any of the following conditions exist:

a. lower ability students

pb. complex material c

c. overall task contains many small parts

P/F (6) If the checklist presents the trainee with similar checklist

items which in the past have been frequently confused, then C

0C

F. 1994 0 - - a * . . . . -. ~ * - .*, . - ,

10, .*~*' . ~

be sure that the trainee can explain the differences

between these similar checklist items before he is taugnt

which action to take for each one.

P/F (7) When possible, supply students with diagrams, pictures,

charts, graphs, rhymes, acronyms, key words, and other

association devices like these to which the student can

relate the material he is trying to learn.

. The following (8-13) are guidelines for providing the trainee

with practice:

% P/F (8) Ensure that the trainee has a lot of opportunity to practice

physical skills early in the training.

P/F (9) Be sure the trainee understands the learning objectives.

P/F (10) Provide a visual demonstration of the correct performance

P/F (11) Allow the trainee to practice part-skills and provide

feedback to train him to perfect the movement.

P/F (12) Integrate the part-skills intoa smooth sequence.

P/F (13) Provide feedback so the trainee can improve his performance.

6 The following (14-19) are guidelines for managing earlier

stages of training.

4 P/F (14) Provide immediate and frequent knowledge of results.

P/F (15) Provide immediate and frequent positive reward.

P/F (16) Provide few or no distractions

P/F (17) Learning material should be broken down into small, easily

learned parts.

P/F (18) Items should be relatively easy to learn

P/F (19) Provide guides, prompts, cues, and coaching to aid learning.

'0200

. , _8

V.M.. . ..N. - ,

0 The -'ollowing (20-25) are guidelines for managing later

stages of learning.

P/F (20) Provide occasional, delayed feedback.

P/F (21) Provide occasional, delayed reward of students' correct

movements.

0P/F (22) Distractions and interferance should be similar to what

will be found on the job.

P/F (23) Learning material to be recalled and used should be as it

would be found on the job.

P/F (24) Learning material should be as complex as that to be used

on the job.P/F (25) Use no guides or prompts that would not be found on the job.

F (26) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or materials/

media should clearly inform the trainee of the learning

objectives.

F (27) Organize the training material in such a way that the trainee

can easily identify and achieve the learning objectives

throughout the training.

F (28) Relate the objectives and learning activities to operational

tasks which the trainee must perform in future real world

assignments.

F (29) Encourage the students to make up their own association

devices if they can. C

F (30) When possible, provide students with association devices

which will cause an emotional reaction in the student.

0

201

N : 3'i) 7o help students remember a chain of procedures, it is

useful to practice identifying checklist items. Some

examples are:

a. identifying each checklist item and explaining

or performing its corresponding procedure

b. identifying a group of checklist items (as many

as the student can handle at once) and explaining

or performing their corresponding procedural

steps; the first items of each group should over-

lap with the last items of the previously studied

group

c. identifying all of the checklist items and explaining

or performing their corresponding procedural steps

d. encourage students to mentally practice running

through the steps in the'checklist

F (32) Help students to use association devices that are easy to

remember, to aid in the recall of procedures.

F (33) Positive reward should follow as soon as possible after a

correct answer.

F (34) The pause following knowledge of results should be long

enough to allow the student time to sort out his errors or

mentally confirm his correct answer, (post-feedback delay).

F (35) Rest periods should be provided during practice sessions

according to need for rest as judged by the student (or)

requirements of the specific learning material as judged.

Qby the instructor.

202

-6) -Overlearn :he task through extensive practice.

F (37) In order for slower learners to reach the same level of

proficiency as faster learners, time must be allowed for

the slower learner to get as many (or more) positive

rewards for correct answers as the faster learner.

F (38) As training continues, occasionally give the learner 0

chances to compare his progress and achievement with the

stated course objectives.

F (39) Train the.student to the level of proficiency required on 4

the job. Facilitate acquisition of the.material by

relating it to on-the-job duties, responsibilities, advance-0

ment, or survival.

F (40) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic practice for

infrequently used procedures. . 0 040

0

0

0203

LEARNING GUIDELINES

Behavioral Category1 "10 - Voice Communicating

P (1) Break up the presentation material into separate, distinctive

types of voice connulication that are used on the job.

P (2) Point out critical cues and performances that are different

from habitual (everyday type) voice communication.

P/F (3) Identify similar cues (sounds, words, groups of words, vocal

patterns, etc.) that are often confused in job communications

and test the student to be sure that he can tell the

difference betWeen them.

P/F (4) Teach the student to be mentally alert (perceptual 'set)

for the specific voice communications being taught; that

is, teach the student to listen for certain words and

phrases.

P/F (5) Demonstrate a voice procedure by giving examples of correct

performance. Be sure the learner observes critical cues

and the appropriate responses that he should make to them.

P/F (6) Toward the end of training, increase stress and miscellaneous

interruptions, distractions, and "noise" to the level that

will appear on the job.

P/F (7) Toward the end of training, practice voice communication

procedures to the-level that they will have to be performed

in the job setting.

P/F (8) At the beginning of the training, the instructor or the

materials should clearly inform the trainee of the

learning objectives.

204

-- -,.. .lli - - .. .v'

O) r-an~ze the tralning material in such a way that the

trainee can easily identify and meet the learning0'

objectives.

F (10) Relate the learning objectives and activities to operational

tasks which the trainee must perform in future real world 0

assignments.

F (11) Present a brief overview of the activities in which the

students will participate during training.

F (12) Before demonstrating specific procedures and techniques,

teach general voice commnunication terminology and procedure.

F (13) Require enough practice trials of the learner to producec

the correct performance; he should especially practice parts

he is having difficulty with until he can demonstrate the

correct procedure. 0F (14) During practice, practical applications, and practice tpests,.

provide the student with immnediate knowledge of results

about his correct and incorrect answers.0

F (15) Positive reward should follow as soon as possible after a

correct answer.

F (16) Rest periods should be provided during practice sessions0

according to need for rest as judged by the student and

requirements of the specific learning material as judged

by the instructor. 0

F (17) Cross-train the learner so that he may perform other voice

conmunication tasks and be able to act as a replacement for

other members of his team.

0205

(!8) Require the student to overlearn the original material;

that is, the student should continue to practice the

required tasks a'fter the point that simple mastery of

the task has been met.

F (19) Reduce forgetting by providing periodic practice for

infrequently used material.

F (20) Provide a large reward when trainee meets overall training

objectives and required overlearning.

206

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