Appendix: Physical and Astronomical Constants

Most physical and astronomical constants used in this book are given in Allen, C.W. (1973): Astrophysical Quantities, 3rd ed. (Athlone, London). We give here a few values frequently used.

Velocity of light c 2.99979250 X 108 ms-1

Gravitational constant G 6.670 X 10-11 Nm2 kg- 2

Planck's constant h 6.62620 X 10-34 J s Electron charge e 1.602192 X 10-19 C

Electron mass m. 9.10956 X 10-31 kg Boltzmann's constant k 1.38062 X 10-23 JK-1 Proton mass mp 1.672661 X 10-27 kg

Rydberg constant RH 109677.576 cm -1 (or Kayser) Zeeman displacement -:lv/B 1.39961 X 1010 Hz Tesla-1

Wavelength associated with 1 eV '\0 1.23985 X 10-6 m 1014 Hz Frequency associated with 1 eV vo 2.417965 X

Temperature associated with 1 eV 11604.8 K 1011 m Astronomical unit

Parsec

Mass of Sun Radius of Sun Luminosity of Sun

Blackbody

Stefan-Boltzmann constant Planck function

AU 1.495979 X pe 3.085678 X 1016 m

3.3261633 light yr M0 1.989 X 1030 kg R0 6.9599 X 108 m L0 3.826 X 1026 W

5.66956 X 10-8 Wm-2 K-4 B>. = 2hc2,\-5/(ehc/k>.T -1) Wm-2 m-1 sr-1

= C1,\-5 /(eC2/>.T -1) Cl = 2hc2 = 1.19107 X 10-16 Wm2 s-l C2 = hc/k = 1.43883 X 10-2 mK B v =2hv3/c2(ehv/kT_1) Wm- 2 Hz-1 sr-1 N>. = 2c/,\4(eC2 />'T - 1) photonsm- 2 m-1 sr-1 N v = 2v2/c2(ehv/kT - 1) photonsm-2 Hz-1 sr-1

311

General Bibliography

Allen, C.W. (1973): Astropbysical Quantities, 3rd ed. (Athlone, London). Def­initions of basic quantities, numerical values, useful constants. Referred to as AQ in this book.

Annual Review of Astronomy and Astropbysics, Ann. Revs., California. A yearly volume containing about ten review articles, usually excellent. Reg­ularly provides the latest information on observational methods and instru­mentation. Referred to as ARAA, volume, year in this book.

Hopkins, J. (1980): Glossary of Astronomy and Astropbysics, 2nd ed. (Univer­sity of Chicago Press, Chicago)

Instrumentation in Astronomy. SPIE: Colloquium UI, Tucson; SPIE 172, ed. by D. Crawford (1979) Colloquium IV, Tucson; SPIE 331, ed. by D. Crawford (1982) Colloquium V, London; SPIE 445, ed. by A. Boksenberg and D. Crawford (1983) Colloquium VI, Tucson; SPIE 627, ed. by D. Crawford (1986). These colloquia give a very complete survey of new ideas and instrumen­tation (detectors, image processing ... ). The articles are written at the re­search level.

Lang, R.L. (1980): Astropbysical Formulae (Springer, New York). A basic com­pendium of physics, as required in astrophysics. Referred as AF in this book.

Astrophysical Observation

Carleton, N. (ed.): Metbods of Experimental Pbysics, Vol. 12, Astrophysics (Academic, New York): Vol. 12A: Optical and Infrared (1974) Vol. 12B: Radio Telescopes (1976) Vol. 12C: Radio Observations (1976). Three volumes of detailed description, at visible, infrared and radio wave­lengths, of experimental methods. These volumes are especially relevant to Chaps. 3, 5, 6, but sometimes outdated.

Harwit, M. (1981): Cosmic Discovery (Harvester, Brighton). A splendid book, detailing in particular how astronomical discoveries follow the opening-up of new observational capacity.

Kitchin, C.R. (1984): Astropbysical Tecbniques (Adam Hilger, Bristol). A re­cent book witha similar scope to the present book; more descriptive, very complete.

313

Kuiper, G.P., Middlehurst, B. (eds.): Stars and Stellar Systems (University of Chicago Press, Chicago): Vol. I: Telescopes (1960) Vol. II: Astronomical Techniques (1962). Survey volumes, nowadays rat her dated, but still valuable for some aspects of classical optical astronomy.

Lang, K.R., Gingerich, O. (1979): A Source Book in Astronomy and Astro­physics 1900-1975 (Harvard Press). A collection of historical papers, in­cluding papers describing major observational discoveries.

Walker, G. (1987): Astronomical Observation - An Optical Perspective (Cam­bridge University Press, Cambridge)

Perspectives

Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1980s, Report of the Astronomy Survey Committee (National Academy Press, Washington DC 1982). This report proposed guidelines for ten years of research in the United States, both space- and ground-based.

European Space Seien ce, Horizon 2000, European Space Agency Special Publi­cation 1070, (ESA, Paris 1984). An interesting survey of possible European space missions between now and the year 2000.

314

Bibliography to Chaps. 2-7

Chapter 2

General Reference

Valley, S. (ed.) (1965): Handbook o[ Geophysics and Space Environment (Mc­Graw-Hill, New York). A good general reference for al1 properties and quan­tities associated with the atmosphere and the Earth's environment.

Structure of the Lower Atmosphere

Houghton, J.T. (1977): The Physics o[the Atmosphere (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

Humphreys, W.J. (1964): Physics o[ the Air (Dover, New York). A classic reference (1920), in arecent revision, giving a good description of many meteorological and atmospheric phenomena.

Atmospheric Radiation

Goody, R.M. (1977): Atmospheric Radiation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

McCormac, B.M. (1971): The Radiating Atmosphere (Reidel, Dordrecht) Reach, F.E., Gordon, J.L. (1973): The Light o[ the Night Sky (Reidel, Dor­

drecht)

Atmospheric Turbulence

The Journal o[ Atmospheric Seien ces publishes re cent research in the topics covered in this section.

Lumley, J.H., Panofsky, H.A. (1964): The Structure o[ Atmospheric Turbulence (Interscience, N ew York)

Roddier, F. (1981): "The Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence in Optical Astron­omy", Progress in Optics, ed. by E. Wolf, Vol. XIX, p. 281. A thorough and well-referenced treatment of the fundament als.

The Ionosphere

Giraud, A., Petit, M. (1978): Ionospheric Techniques and Phenomena (Reidel, Dordrecht)

Hargreaves, J.K. (1979): The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Rela­tions (Van Nostrand, New York)

315

Ratcliffe, J .A. (1972): An Introduction to the Ionosphere and Magnetosphere (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge)

Atmospheric Transmission

Atlases of the solar spectrum with high spectral resolution give identifications of telluric lines.

De1bouille, L., Roland, G., Brault, J., Testermann, L. (1981): Spectre solaire de 1850 a 10000cm-1 (Universite de Liege, Liege). This atlas can also be obtained on magnetic tape (NOAO, Tucson, Arizona).

GEISA (1982). "Data bank for spectroscopy of mo1ecules influencing the trans­mission of p1anetary atmospheres." Bulletin d'Information du Centre de Donnees Stellaires. Observatoire de Strasbourg, France.

Migeotte, M., Neven, L., Swensson, J. (1957): "Le Spectre Solaire de 2.8 a 23.7 p.m." Mem. Soc. Roy. Sci. Liege 2

Particle Background

Hess, W.N. (1968): The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere (Blaisdell, Waltham, Toronto)

Stassinopoulos, E.G. (1970): World Maps of Constant B,L and Flux Contours, NASA Special Publications 3054 (NASA, Washington DC)

Webber, W.R., Lezniak, J.A. (1974): "The comparative spectra of cosmic ray protons and helium nudei." Astrophys. Space Sci. 30, 361

Chapter 3

Radiofrequencies

Blum, E.J. (1981): "Radioastronomy at millimeter wavelengths." Adv. E1ec­tron. E1ectron Phys. 56, 97

Kraus, J.D. (1986): Radioastronomy, 2nd ed. (Cygnus Quasar Books, Powell, OH)

Rohlfs, K. (1986): Tools of Raruoastronomy (Springer, Berlin, Heide1berg) Stobie, R.S., McInnes, B. (eds.) (1982): Workshop on Astronomical Measuring

Machin~s (Royal Observatory, Edinburgh)

UV and X-rays

Calibration Methods in the UV and X-ray Regions ofthe Spectrum (European Space Agency, Special Publication 33, Paris 1974)

Peterson, L. (1975): "Instrumental techniques in X-ray astronomy." ARAA 13, 423

Gamma Rays

Fichtel, C., Trombka, J. (1981): Gamma Ray Astrophysics, NASA Special Pub-1ication 53, Washington DC)

Hillier, R. (1984): Gamma Ray Astronomy (Clarendon, Oxford)

316

Ramana Murthy, P.V., Wolfendale, A.W. (1986): Gamma-Ray Astronomy (Cam­bridge University Press, Cambridge)

Some referenees from the bibliography to Chap.5 are also relevant.

Chapter 4

Natural Vision Barlow, H.B. (1983): "Understanding Natural Vision" in Physical and Bio­

logical Processing of Images, ed. by O.V. Braddick, A.C. Sleigh (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg)

Chabre, M. (1985): "From the photon to the neuronal signal." Europhys. News 16, No. 5, 1

Imbert, M. (1987): "The coding of images by the retina." Europhys. News 18, 32

Distributions and Fourier Transforms Arfken, G. (1970): Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 2nd ed. (Academic,

New York) Braeewell, R.M. (1986): The Fourier Transform and its Applications 2nd ed.,

revised (MeGraw-Hill, New York). This book is extremely useful beeause of the very large number of exercises relevant to astronomy and physics.

Champeney, D.C. (1985): Fourier Transforms in Physics (Adam Hilger, Bristol) Sehwartz, L. (1966): Mathematical Methods for Physics (Addison-Wesley, Read­

ing, Mass.)

Probability, Random Variables, and Signal Processing DiGeso, V., Scarsi, L., Crane, P., Friedman, J.H., Levialdi, S. (1985): Data

Analysis in Astronomy (Plenum, New York) Frieden, B.R. (1983): Probability, Statistieal Optics and Data Testing, Springer

Sero Inf. Sei., Vol. 10 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg) Papoulis, A. (1986): Probability, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes

(MeGraw-Hill, New York). Abasie reference for the concepts of random variables and stochastic processes and proofs of the assoeiated results, with a view to physical applications.

Thermodynamics of Radiative Fluctuations Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York) Landau, L., Lifshitz, E.M. (1980): Course on Theoretical Physics, Vol. 5: Sta­

tistical Physics (Pergamon, Oxford) Olivier, B.M. (1965): "Thermal and quantum noise." Proc. IEEE 53, 436

317

Chapter 5

General References Burbidge, G., Hewitt, G. (eds.) (1981): Telescopes for the 1980s. Annual Re­

views, Palo Alto, CA. Detailed descriptions of the Very Large Array (radio), Multi Mirror Telescope (visible and IR), Space Telescope (visible and UV) and the Einstein Observatory (X-rays), and the associated instrumentation.

Ford, W.K. (1979): "Digital imaging techniques." ARAA 17, 189. Review of progress in imaging detectors at a1l wavelengths.

Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York). Detailed description of photon-matter interaction and experimental arrangements, with a full bibliography.

Kittel, C. (1986): Introduction to Solid State Physics, 6th ed. (Wiley, New York). Basic reference for the underlying physics of radiation detectors at a1l photon energies.

McKay, C.D. (1986): "CCD's in astronomy." ARAA 24, 255

References for Spectral Regions and Techniques

Radiofrequencies

Blum, E.J. (1981): "Radioastronomy at millimeter wavelengths." Adv. Elec­tron. Electron Phys. 56, 97

Kraus, J.D. (1986): Radioastronomy, 2nd ed. (Cygnus Quasar Books, Powell, OH)

Philips, T.G., Woody, D.P. (1982): "Millimeter and submillimeter wave re­ceivers." ARAA 20, 285

Infrared and Submillimetric Chantry, G.W. (1984): Long Wave Optics. The Science and Technology of IR

and near mm Waves. Vol. I: Principles, Vol. 11: Applications (Academic, New York)

Keyes, R.J. (ed.) (1977): Optical and Infrared Detectors, Topics Appl. Phys., Vol. 19 (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg). Very complete survey of infrared de­tection.

McCreight, C.R. (1984): "Two-dimensional infrared detector arrays." Intern. Astron. Union, Colloq. 79, 585

Pipher, J. (1976): "Instrumentation for infrared astronomy." ARAA 16, 335 The Scientinc Importance of Submillimeter Observations, ESA Workshop 1982,

European Space Agency, Special Publication 189, Paris Wolfe, W.L., Zissis, G.J. (eds.) (1978): The Infrared Handbook (Environmen­

tal Research Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI). Excellent coverage of theoretical and practical references for the 1-1000 Jlm region.

Wynn-Williams, C.G., Becklin, E. (eds.) (1987): Infrared Astronomy with Ar­rays. (Institute of Astronomy, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii)

318

Visible and Ultraviolet Baluteau, U.P., d'Odorico, S. (eds.) (1986): The Optimization of the Use of

CCD Detectors in Astronomy. ESO-OHP Workshop (E~opean Southern Observatory, Garching)

Beynon, J.D., Lamb, D.R. (1980): Charge-Coupled Devices and their Applica­tions (McGraw-Hill, New York)

Cappaccioli, M. (ed.) (1984): Astronomy with Schmidt-Type Telescopes (Rei­deI, Dordrecht). Review of recent progress in photography of faint objects.

Dereniak, E.L., Crowe, D.G. (1984): Optical Radiation Detectors (Wiley, New York)

Duchesne, M., Lelievre, G. (eds.) (1976): "Applications astronomiques des recepteurs d'image a reponse lineaire." Intern. Astron. Union, Colloq. 40

Eccles, M.J., Elizabeth-Sim, M., Tritton, K.P. (1983): Low Light Level Detec­tors in Astronomy (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). Fairly quali­tative description of detectors used in the visible.

Furenlid, 1., Hoag, A.A. (1978): "Signal-to-Noise of Photographic Emulsions" in Modern Techniques in Astronomical Photography, ed. by R.M. West, J.L. Heudier (European Southern Observatory, Geneva)

Janesick, J. et al. (1984): SPIE 501, 2 Livingstone, W.C. (1973): "Image tube systems." ARAA 11, 95. A good refer­

ence though now a little dated in view of technical progress. Smith, A.G., Hoag, A.A. (1979): "Advances in astronomical photography at

low light level." ARAA 17, 43 Timothy, J.G. (1983): "Optical detectors for spectroscopy." Prog. Astron. Space

Phys. 95, 810

x- and Gamma-Ray Astronomy Fichtei, C.E., Thombka, J. (1981): Gamma-Ray Astrophysics (NASA Special

Publication 453, Washington DC) Giacconi, R., Gursky, H. (1974): X-Ray Astronomy (Reidel, Dordrecht) Hillier, R. (1984): Gamma Ray Astronomy (Clarendon, Oxford) Longair, M.S. (1981): High-Energy Astrophysics (Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge). Pages 68-100 deal with detectors. Paul, J. (1979): "L'astronomie'Y a haute energie"; Thesis, Universite Paris VII.

Detailed description of the sky-mapping COS-B satellite. Peterson, L.E. (1975): "Instrumental techniques in X-ray astronomy." ARAA

13,423 Ramana Murthy, P.V., Wolfendale, A.W. (1986): Gamma-Ray Astronomy (Cam­

bridge University Press, Cambridge)

Neutrino Detection Bahcall, J.N., Davis, R. (1982): Essays in Nuclear Astrophysics (Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge) Bahcall, J.N. (1985): "Solar Neutrinos" in Highlights Astrophysics: Concepts

and Controversies, ed. by S. Shapiro, S. Teukolsky (Wiley, New York)

319

Danziger, I.J. (ed.) (1987): Supernova 1987a, ESO Workshop (European South­ern Observatory Workshop, Garching)

Gravitational Wave Detection

Brillet, A., D amour , T., Tourrenc, P. (1983): "Introduction to gravitational wave research." Ann. de Phys. 10,201

Deruelle, N., Piran, T. (eds.) (1983): Gravitational Radiation, Smnmer School in Theoretical Physics, Les Houches (North-Holland, Amsterdam)

Cosmic Rays

Cesarsky, C.J.: "Cosmic-ray confinement in the galaxy." ARAA 18, 289 Hillas, A.M. (1984): "The origin of ultra high energy cosmic rays." ARAA 22,

425

Chapter 6

Theory of Image Formation

Born, M., Wolf, E. (1980): Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford). A fundamental reference work, giving the complete theory of diffraction and the basis principles of some optical instruments.

Bruhat, G., Kastler, A. (1954): Optique (Masson, Paris) Harburn, G., Taylor, C.A., Welberry, T.R. (1979): Atlas of Optical Transforms

(Bell, London). Interesting visual illustrations of Fourier transforms. Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York) Mertz, L. (1965): Transformations in Optics (Wiley, New York). Original treat­

ment, often directly concerned with astronomy. Roddier, F. (1988): "Interferometric imaging in astronomy." Phys. Rep. In press

Telescopes

Burbidge, G., Hewitt, A. (eds.) (1981): Telescopes for the 1980s (Annual Re­views, Palo Alto, CA). Reference work for aseries of large instruments (Very Large Array, Space Telescope, Multi Mirror Telescope ... ).

Danjon, A., Couder, A. (1983): Lunettes et Telescopes (Blanchard, Paris). Reis­sue of a classic book, confined to the visible.

Ficht el , C.E., Trombka, J.I. (1981): Gamma Ray Astrophysics, NASA Spe­cial Publication 453 (NASA, Washington DC). A handbook of gamma-ray astronomy.

Hiltner, W. (ed.) (1962): Stars and Stellar Systems (University of Chicago Press, Chicago). Now somewhat dated, but gives much information about classical problems in the visible and radio range.

King, H.C. (1979): The History of the Telescope, 2nd ed. (Dover, New York)

320

Future Telescopes: Ground-Based (Visible and Infrared)

Aseries of conferences have been devoted to this subject since the 1970s, in particular: Barr, L. (ed.) (1986): Advanced Technology Optical Telescopes, SPIE 628 Burbidge, G., Barr, L. (eds.) (1982): Advanced Technology Optical Telescopes.

SPIE 332 Hewitt, A. (ed.) (1980): Optical and Infrared Telescopes for the 1990s (Kitt

Peak National Observatory) d'Odorico, S., Swings, J.P. (1986): ESO's Very Large Telescope (ESO, Gareh­

ing) Reiz, A. (ed.) (1974): Conference on Research Programs for the New Large

Telescopes (ESO-SRC-CERN, Geneva) Swings, J.P., Kjär, K. (1983): European Southern Observatory's Very Large

Telescope (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H., Kjär, K. (eds.) (1981): Scientific Importance of High Angular

Resolution at Infrared and Optical Wavelengths (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H. (ed.) (1984): Very Large Telescopes: Their Instrumentation and

Programs. Intern. Astron. Union, Colloq. 79 (ESO, Garehing) Ulrich, M.H. (ed.) (1988): Very Large Telescopes and Their Instrumentation

(ESO, Garehing)

Future Telescopes: Space Missions (All Wavelengths)

Suitable references are the Phase Areports and the feasibility studies produced by the European Space Agency and NASA for each proposed new mission, notably: Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), FIRST, XMM, etc.

Image Formation in a Turbulent Medium

Roddier, F. (1981): "The Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence in Optical Astron­omy" in Progress in Optics, Vol. XIX, p. 281. This article treats very clearly the formalism and main results needed for studying atmospheric effects.

Tatarski, VJ. (1961): Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium (McGraw-Hill, New York)

Woolf, N.J. (1982): "High resolution imaging from the ground." ARAA 20, 367. Concepts and techniques central to the development of very large ground­based telescopes.

Treatment of Images

Bracewell, R. (1979): "Computer image processing." ARAA 17, 113 Dainty, J.C., Shaw, R. (1974): Image Science (Academic, New York) Ford, W.K. (1979): "Digital imaging techniques." ARAA 17, 198 Henbest, N., Marten, M. (1983): The New Astronomy (Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge). A beautifully illustrated book showing that images are ubiquitous in all branches of astronomy, whatever the wavelength.

321

Pearson, T.J., Readhead, A.C.S. (1984): "Image formation by self-calibration in radio astronomy." ARAA 22, 130. A good summary of image reconsti­tut ion methods which start from a partial knowledge of the image Fourier transform.

Chapter 7

General References

Born, M., Wolf, E. (1980): Principles of Optics, 6th ed. (Pergamon, Oxford). Gives the basic principles of interferometers, Michelson, Fabry-Perot, .... Particularly useful for ultraviolet, visible, infrared and submillimetric do­mruns.

Bruhat, G., Kastler, A. (1954): Optique (Masson, Paris). Classic treatise giving much material on spectrometers.

Harvey, A.F. (1970): Coherent Light (Wiley, New York). Contains many ref­erenceSj useful for heterodyne detection particularly in the visible, infrared and submillimetric regions.

Wolfe, W.L., Zissis, G.J. (eds.) (1978): The Infrared Handbook (Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI). Amine of information and practical and technological references for all infrared instrumentation.

Fourier Spectroscopy

Connes, P. (1970): "Astronomical Fourier spectroscopy." ARAA 8, 209

Echelle Spectroscopy

Chaffee, F., Schroeder, D. (1976): "Astronomical applications of echelle spec­troscopy." ARAA 14,23

x- and Gamma-Rays

Peterson, L. (1975): "Instrumental techniques in X-ray astronomy." ARAA 13, 423. Gamma-ray spectroscopy nowadays uses the intrinsic spectral selectiv­ity of the detectors. The reader should refer to Chap. 5 for further discussion.

322

Subject Index

Aberrations 227 Absolute calibration 11 - magnitude 65 Absorption coefficients 28 Abundances 3 Acoustic spectrometer 304 Acquisition rate 19 - system 117 Active optics 227 - support 227 Adaptive optics 259 Aerosol scattering 40 Agitation 252 Airglow 34 Airy function 224 Altazimuth mount 240 Altitude 54 Amplifier 183 - noise 160 Amplitude detector 120 - spectrum 92 Analogue-to-digital converter 130 Angular calibration standards 66 - resolution 15,16 Antenna temperature 183 Anticoincidence device 199 Aperture 116 - synthesis 225,242,244 -- at radio frequencies 231 Apodisation 70,309 Area of coherence 256 Astigmatism 227 Astrometry 17 Atmospheric constituents 25 - cutoff 243 - emission 34 - , -, thermal 23, 36 - ions 27

opacity 23 scattering 23,39 transmission 28, 66 turbulence 23,41

Atomic transitions 28 Auroral zones 54 Autocorrelation 91

spectrometer 305 - of a stochastic process 105 - theorem 92 Autocovariance of a stochastic process 105

Background signal 118 Band profile 32 Bandpass 120 Barrier zone 154 Beam etendue 59,279 Bed of nails 88 Bin 135 Binary pulsar 6 Blackbody radiation 62 Blaze of a grating 283 Bolometers 153 Bolometric magnitude 64 Bouger's line 66 Bounded support 93 Box-car function 84 Bragg crystal spectrometer 299

Calibration sources 58 standards 66

- , ultraviolet 75 - , X-ray 75 Calorimeters 153 Carbon dioxide 27 Carcinotron 192 Cassegrain focus 239 Centrallimit theorem 102 - moments 100 Cerenkov effect 200 Characteristic function 100 Charge coupled device (CCD) 169 - injection device (CID) 169 Chi-squared 101 Chopper 145 Circadian cycle 27 Circular pupil 223 CLEAN algorithm 264 Cloud 48 Coded mask 250 Coherence 131 - degree of electromagnetic field 210 - etendue 216 - of field from circular source 216 - length 211 Collection system 116 Collimating mirror 284 Colour indices 65 - temperature 79 Column of precipitable water 26

323

Coma 227 Compton effect 152 Conduction band 148 Convolution 88 CORAVEL 291 Correlation length 254 - product 91, 226 Cosmic rays 2,53 - 2.7 K background 71 Cosmological window 52 Costs 21 Coude focus 239 Counting mode 77 Cross-correlation 93,95 Cross-section 28, 152 Cross-spectrum 93,95 Current-voltage characteristic 155 Cutoff frequency 223

Dark signal 118 Data bank 19 - handling 19 Daylight observations 40 Deconvolution 263,279 Degree of mutual coherence 210 Degrees of freedom 102 Densitometer 119 Depletion zone 154 Detection limits 123 - threshold 118 Detector 117, 146 - quantum efficiency (DQE) 159 Diffraction 81 - at infinity 219 - limit 227 Digitising on one bit 143 Digitization 126 - step 130 Diode 153 Dirac comb 85 - distribution 85 Discharge tube 68 Discrimination of weak astronomical source

35 Dispersion 100 Distortion 227 Distribution function 97,104 Domain of isoplanicity 220 Double sideband (DSB) detection 189 DQE in presence of a dark current 206 DUMAND project 201 Dynamic range 130

Earth's atmosphere 23 Ebert mounting 286 Echelle grating 283 Echellogram 284 Effelsberg radiotelescope 231 EINSTEIN 196,248

324

Electromagnetic cascade 201 - radiation 1 Electrometer 151 Electron bombarded silicon (EBS) 165 - differential ent:rgy spectrum 54 Electronic camera 148,151,162 - transitions 28 Energy calibration standards 66 Equivalent width 276,278 Ergodicity 109 Estimator 112 Etendue 59,287 - of coherence 131,213 Event 96 EXOSAT 196 Expectation value 99 External scale of turbulence 253 Extinction 2 Extrinsic photoconductors 148

Fabry-Perot etalon 297 - interferometer 297 Faint object camera (FOC) 166 Fermi levels 154 Fibre optics 240,288 Field curvature 227 - rotation 240 - of view 15,116 Field-effect-transistor (FET) 169 Figure of merit 281 Filtering 110,117 - by running mean 141 Finesse 298 Fluorescerrce 34 Flux 60 Focal plane curvature 240 - ratio 239,240 Fourier transform spectrometer 291,309 - transforms 81,82 Fraunhofer diffraction 218 Free spectral interval 284 Free-free emission 75 Frequel 226 Frequency doublers 193 Fresnel diffraction 219,272 Fried parameter 256,273 Full width at half-maximum 276 Fully illuminated field 240

Gamma-ray bursts 207 - detection 77 - telescope 250 Gaunt factor 75 Gauss distribution 99 Gaussian noise 124 Geocorona 35 Germanium bolometer 180 Grain 122,151 GRASP 269

Grating spectrometer 281 Gravitational lenses 2 - wave detection 204 - waves 5 Grazing incidenee X-ray telescopes 249 Ground-based astronomy 32

Half-power beam width 222 - width 276 Harmonie generators 193 Heavy nuclei 54 Helieities 5 Heterodyne detection noise 207 - interferometer 248 - spectroscopy 302 High Resolution Imager (HRI) 196 -- Spectrograph (HRS) 287 Holographie ruling 287 Homodyne interferometer 226 Homogeneous turbulenee 43 Hot-eleetron bolometer 156,180 Hybrid deviees 173

Image 117,263 - eoding 267 - dissector 287 - formation 218 - intensifier 163 - photon eounting system (IPCS) 165 - quality 49,240 - restoration or restitution 263 - sampling 223 - scale 240 Imaging 14 Information 1 - treatment and storage 17 Infrared ealibration 69 - and millimetre transpareney 49 Instantaneous image 256 Instrument field 227 Instrumental profile 278 Integration times 125 Intensity interferometer 271 Interferenee 211 - filter 281 - fringes 212 Interferogram 292 Intermediate frequeney (IF) signal 189 Interstellar extinction 66 Intrinsie photoeonduetors 148 Inversion layer 24 Ionization 23 Ionospherie turbulenee 47 IRAM 231 IRAS 179,243 Isoplanicity 220 IUE 244

Jansky 60 Joint density 101 - distribution function 101 - probability 101

Keck telescope 242 Klystron 192 Kolmogorov speetrum 42

Lambert's law 63 Latent image 151 Lateral rejeetion 71 Latitude 54 Law of large numbers 111 Leptons 4 LIDAR 35 Light gathering power 279 Linear filter 127 Loeal oseillator 183, 188, 192 Loeal Standard of Rest (LSR) 275 Long-exposure image 255 Luminosity 61

Magnetograph 288 Magnetosphere 53 Magnitude system 63 Maser amplifier 191 Mass absorption eoefficient 152 Maximum entropy 265 Mean intensity 59 - of a stochastie proeess 105 - value 99 Median 99 Metal-insulator-supereonductor (MIS) 169 Metal-oxide-semieonduetor (MOS) 169 Meteorites 3 Michelson interferometer 244,291 Michelson's experiment 271 Mieroehannel plate 163,195 - - amplifiers 148 Mierophotometer 18,163 Millimetre astronomy 38 Millimetrie interferometers 234 Minimum detectable power 186 MIS eapacitanee 170 Mixer 153,188 Mixing ratio 26 Modulation transfer function (MTF) 158,

222 Moleeular epitaxy 155 - lasers 193 - transitions 28 Monochromatie fiux 59 - luminosity 61 Monolithie devices 174 Multi-Mirror Teleseope (MMT) 241 Multi-objeet spectroseopy 288 Multiehannel spectrometers 304

325

Multiplex (Felgett) advantage 294,309 - gain 296 Multiplexing 117,119 Multipliers 193

n-type conductivity 148 Nasmyth focus 239 National New Technology Telescope 242 Negative frequencies 93 Neutrino detection 200 - mirrors 203 Neutrinos 3 Night sky emission 34 Noise 121 - diode 68 - equivalent charge (NEQ) 160 -- flux 137 -- power 137 - generator 68 - source 67 - temperature 133,184 Non-redundant pupil 233 Normal distribution 99 - process 107 Nuclear emulsions 151 Nuclei 2 Nyquist formula 139

OAO 244 Object 263 Observations from space 51 Observing sites 48 Offset signal 38 On-line filtering 128 Optical depth 275 - disc 19 - system 117 Optimal filtering 19,125,263 Optimum sampling rate 142 Order 282 Oversampling 130 Ozone 27

p-type conductivity 149 Parameter 99 Parametrie amplifier 191 Parseval's theorem 92 Passband 120 Phase closure 262 - reconstruction algorithm 267 - spectrum 92 Photochemical effect 150 Photoconductor effect 148 Photoelectric emission of solids in vacuum

147 Photographie plate 151,175 Photometrie quality of sites 48 Photometry 11,58 Photomultiplier 148,161

326

Photon noise 122 number 132

- properties 7 - statistics 217 Photovoltaic effect 150 PIN diode 197 Pixel 15,117 Planck's law 62 Plasma frequency 33 Point source response 224 Poisson distribution 99 - impulses 107 - process 106 Polarization 16,61 Pollution 50 Position-sensitive proportional counter 195 Power of a signal 94 - spectral density 92,95 - spectrum 92,95 Predisperser 284 Prime focus 239 Principal solution 263 Probability density 98 - theory 81 Proportional counter 15,193 Protons 54 Pulsed discharge tube 75 Pupils 218 Pyrometry 70

Quadratic detector 120 Quantum efficiency 135,147 - noise 133,134 Quasi-monochromatic radiation 211 Quick look 18

Radial-velocity analyser 291 Radiative transfer 275 Radioastronomical observations 50 Radiochemical detection methods 200 Radiofrequency calibration 67 Radioheliograph 234 Radiometry 58 Random intensity distribution 255 - variables 96 Rapid television 207 Raster scan 158,230 Ray tracing 227 Rayleigh 34 - criterion 224 - scattering 39 Rayleigh-Jeans law 62 Readout noise 160 Real time digital correlators 143 Receiver 117,146 Reciprocity law 176 Redundant pupil 233 Reference frames 17 Refractive index of upper atmosphere 33

Relative calibration 67 , far infrared 74

- - , near infrared 72 - - , visible 71 - intensity of a spectralline 276 Replication operator 86 Resolution criterion 279 Resonance lines 75 - spectrometer 308 Resonant cavity 182 Response function 222 Reticon 169,170 Reynolds number 41,42 Richardson number 45 Root-mean-square deviation 100 Rotational transitions 28 Rotational-vibrational transitions 28 Rowland mounting 286 Running mean 141

Sampling 126 - rate 129 Saturation 167 Scale height 24 Schmidt telescope 240 Schottky diode 154 Scintillation 122,252 - counters 153 Scintillators 198 Secondary electron conduction (SEC) 165 Seeing 256 Segmented mirrors 242 Self-scanned array 170 Semiconductor detectors 153,197 Sensitivity 10 - of astronomical instruments 12 - in the visible 11 Shah function 85 Shannon's theorem 129 ' Short-exposure image 256 Sidelobes 70,116 SIGMA 251 Signal processing 81 Signal-to-noise ratio 121,186 Silicon CCDs 171 - intensified target (SIT) 165 Similarity 84 SIN 156 Single sideband (SSB) detection 189 SIS 156 Site testing 37 Sky brightness 40 - chopping 38 - noise 38 Smearing 252 Smoothing by running mean 141 Solar activity 54 - eclipses 41 - granulation 143 Solid state imagers 169

Source function 275 South Atlantic Anomaly 54 Space astronomy 32 Spark chamber 199 Spatial coherence 211 - filter 221 - filtering effect of turbulence 255 - frequency 83 - resolution 14 Specific intensity 59 Speckle 247,257 - interferometry 258 Spectral analysis 12 - coverage 9 - element 279 - hygrometer 37 - isolation 303 - lines 275 - multiplexing 292 - resolving power 12,279 - selection 117 - selectivity 146 - width 211 Spectroheliograph 288 Spectrometers 274 Spectrum 92 Spin 16 Standard deviation 100 Stationary process 105 Stigmatic 227 Stochastic process 103 Stokes parameters 62 Stratosphere 24 Strong interactions 3 Structure constant 44,254 - function 253 Submillimetre observations on Hawaii 56 Superconducting bolometer 203 - grain chamber 202 - junction 154 Superheterodyne receiver 188 Supernova 1987a 203 Support 93 Synchronised detection 144 Synchrotron radiation 76 System temperature 185

Telescope collecting power 11 - costs 21 - diameters 10 Television scanning detectors 165 Telluric absorption bands 28,32 Temperature fluctuations and refractive

index of air 45 Temporal coherence 211,248 - frequency 83 Thermal background noise 122 - noise 133 -- of a resistor 137

327

Throughput 59,279,287 - advantage of Fourier transform

spectrometer 294 Time constant 157 - filtering 111 - resolution 14 Time-dependence of turbulence 47 Transfer equation 275 - function 187,221 Transformation of a process 108 Translation 84 Transported power 59 Troposphere 24 Truncation 142 Tunnel effect 155 Tunnel-effect junction 156 Two-dimensional box-car fundion 87

UKIRT 243 Unbiased estimator 112 Undersampling 130

Valence band 148 Varactor 191 Variance 100

328

Very Large Array (VLA) 185,234 -- Telescope 242 - Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)

236 Vidicon tube 165 Vignetted field 240 Visibility 212 VLA see Very Large Array Volume emissivity 75

Water vapour 26 Wave-front sensor 259 Waveguide 182 Weak interactions 3 Wide band receiver 188 Wiener-Khinchine theorem 92 Wiener-Kolmogorov filter 127 Wolter telescope 249

X-ray bolometers 301

Zenith distance 28 Zernike-van Cittert theorem 213 Zodiacal light 53 - nebula 51