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Appearance Comparison, Appearance Self-Schema, Perfectionism, and Body Esteem Among Korean College Students

Stacy Y. Ko1, Meifen Wei1, Hyun-Joo Park2, and Kenneth Wang3

AbstractIn this study, we examined whether the constructs of appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation were significant mediators for the direct association between physical appearance comparison and body esteem. A total of 290 South Korean students from a university in South Korea participated in this study. Results from structural equation modeling supported that both appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation were significant mediators for the relationship between physical appearance comparison and body esteem. A bootstrap method was used to assess the magnitude of the indirect effect, with 33% of the variance in body esteem accounted for by physical appearance comparison, appearance self-schema, and perfectionistic self-presentation. A multiple-group analysis showed that the mediation model could be applied equally to both men and women students in South Korea. The current study demonstrates how body esteem issues may unfold in a Korean cultural context where appearance is highly salient to one’s identity.

1Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA2Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea3Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, CA, USA

Corresponding Author:Stacy Y. Ko, Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, 901 Stange Road, W112 Lagomarcino Hall, Ames, IA 50011, USA. Email: stacyko@iastate.edu

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Keywordsphysical appearance comparison, appearance self-schema, perfectionistic self-presentation, body esteem, South Korea

Body image concerns have long been associated with Western European women. In contrast, the East Asian woman’s typically thinner body type has seemingly lessened the relevance of body-related concerns in this pop-ulation. However, recent studies have suggested that there are few differ-ences in body dissatisfaction between White and non-White women (Grabe & Hyde, 2006), and that body dissatisfaction constitutes a problem for other ethnic groups as well as men (Garrusi, Garrusi, & Baneshi, 2013). Specifically, South Korea is a country characterized by very rapid socio-cultural change and Westernization in a short period of time; consequently, individuals place great emphasis on appearance management (Park & Choi, 2008) and exhibit alarmingly high rates of body dissatisfaction (Jung & Lee, 2006). Additionally, South Korea has been identified as the most diet-conscious of 13 Asian countries (Organization for Economic Coop-eration and Development, as cited by Oh, 2004).

South Korea is characterized by specific cultural norms that likely influ-ence the development of body image concerns. For instance, South Koreans have been shown to have greater levels of interdependent self-construal (Bae, 2016), in which the view of the self is connected with others as opposed to being separate and unique from others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Thus, South Koreans may use social comparison to blend in with the community according to its expectations and norms. South Korea also has one of the highest rates of cosmetic surgery in the world, consistent with the norms of a culture obsessed with dieting and aspiring to attain the slim figures and Western features that have overtaken the country’s media landscape (Oh, 2004). In this culture, to assert one’s uniqueness may connote social ostra-cism and an unacceptable departure from cultural norms.

An additional aspect of Korean society that merits exploration in its rela-tionship to body image concerns is the importance of self-presentation ten-dencies to “save face” (i.e., avoid disgrace in the presence of others) and maintain interpersonal harmony (Lee, Suh, & Lee, 2011). Koreans may be sensitive about making a good impression on others and engage in face- saving behaviors (e.g., perfectionism) to obtain social recognition and approval by others (Choi & Kim, 2000). Although very little research has been done on perfectionism in the context of body image concerns for South Koreans, its salience seems likely. Thus, in the current study we sought to examine how South Koreans experience body esteem (or lack thereof) within

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a cultural context that emphasizes social comparison with others, a high valu-ing of appearance, and perfectionistic tendencies.

Physical Appearance Comparison and Body Esteem

According to Festinger’s (1954) social comparison theory, human beings have an innate drive toward obtaining accurate evaluations of the self. People will compare their opinions and abilities to those of others in the absence of objective, nonsocial means. The theory represents a framework not only for how people come to gain self-knowledge more generally but also for how people obtain evaluations of the self in the domain of physical appearance (Myers & Crowther, 2009). Research suggests that with regard to physical appearance, social comparisons tend to be of an upward nature (i.e., compar-ing oneself with someone who is better off) rather than downward (i.e., com-paring oneself with someone who is worse off; Wheeler & Miyake, 1992), and that such comparisons usually produce a decrease in self-perceptions of attractiveness.

A slowly developing but growing literature base has found empirical sup-port for these theoretical bases. Studies have found a positive association between physical appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction (Keery, van den Berg, & Thompson, 2004), as well as with internalization of appear-ance ideals (Keery et al., 2004), body shame (Tylka & Sabik, 2010), drive for thinness (Tiggemann & Miller, 2010), drive for muscularity (Smolak & Stein, 2006), and body dysmorphia (Boroughs, Krawczyk, & Thompson, 2010). Of particular relevance, individuals from Asian cultures have been shown to dis-play more of a desire for upward social comparison (Chung & Mallery, 1998), presumably to attain self-improvement goals for the sake of the group. Because their cultural orientation encourages an interdependent self- construal in which one’s identity is largely shaped in relation to others (Bae, 2016), Koreans may have a tendency to engage in social comparison to ensure that they have not strayed too far from accepted societal standards (Jung & Lee, 2006). This physical appearance comparison may increase the likelihood that individuals will identify bodily flaws and experience lower body esteem (see Figure 1, Path A). As one Huffington Post article stated, the mentality surrounding appearance management in South Korea is one that is highly tied to interpersonal connection and can be encompassed as “surgery is cheap enough, so please fix X so that the rest of us don’t have to look at it” (Douglas, 2016, para. 4). Given the proposed salience of social comparison within the Korean cultural context, as well as the theoretical and empirical

Ko et al. 361

link between social comparison and body dissatisfaction more broadly, we hypothesized a negative association between physical appearance compari-son and body esteem (see Figure 1, Path A). Specifically, we anticipated that more physical appearance comparison would be associated with more nega-tive attitudes and feelings about one’s body and appearance.

Multiple Mediation: Appearance Self-Schema as a Mediator

Social comparison theory posits that social comparisons tend to be of an upward nature (i.e., with those better off) in the domain of physical appear-ance (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992). This type of comparison may render appear-ance a highly salient aspect of one’s identity (i.e., a self-oriented concern) and simultaneously put pressure on the self to engage in positive self-presentation tendencies in front of others (i.e., an other-oriented concern), consistent with

Figure 1. Regression coefficients for mediation model testing the indirect effect of physical appearance comparison on body esteem through perfectionistic self-presentation and appearance self-schema. Values are in standardized units (B represents unstandardized units).*p < .05. ***p < .001.

362 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

a cultural orientation that encourages an interdependent self-construal. This theoretical assumption of social comparison theory is supported by prior empirical research in which self- and other-oriented concerns, such as intero-ceptive awareness and social anxiety, mediated body dissatisfaction in paral-lel with one another (Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2016; Peat & Muehlenkamp, 2011). Thus, in addition to the direct effect between physical appearance comparison and body esteem, the current study proposed a multiple media-tion model wherein physical appearance comparison would be negatively associated with body esteem by way of two parallel mediators.

The first proposed mediator, appearance self-schema, is derived from the concept of self-schemas (Markus, 1997), which are cognitive representations of the self developed on the basis of past experience and used to guide the processing of self-related information. To be self-schematic on appearance (i.e., to have high appearance self-schema) entails a high preoccupation with appearance and its central relevance to the evaluation of the self. Initial empir-ical evidence has found that exposing women to music video clips with highly attractive women and a focus on appearance results in higher appearance schema activation and increased comparison processing (Tiggemann & Slater, 2004). Although the authors of the aforementioned study viewed both social comparison and appearance schema activation as mediators between music video viewing and body dissatisfaction, we believe that engaging in physical appearance comparison could also promote high appearance self-schema by making the role of appearance more salient in self-evaluation (see Figure 1, Path B1). Thus, the first mediator in the model was intended to capture the unfolding of body image concerns in relation to one’s view of the self.

As for presumed connections with body esteem, one study showed that exposing individuals to non-appearance-schematic conditions (i.e., simply looking at products) led to less body dissatisfaction and negative mood than conditions in which participants engaged in social comparison with highly attractive models (Tiggemann & McGill, 2004). In another study, researchers also found that women with high appearance self-schema (i.e., viewing appearance as a salient part of who they are) were less satisfied with their bodies and had lower self-esteem than women with low appearance self-schema (Jung & Lennon, 2003). Thus, we expected that there would be a negative relationship between appearance self-schema and body esteem due to a hyper-focus on the failure to meet cultural standards of ideal beauty (see Figure 1, Path C1).

In light of the extant findings on appearance self-schema, we hypothe-sized a mediation effect of appearance self-schema on the association between physical appearance comparison and body esteem. Specifically, we expected

Ko et al. 363

that engaging in more physical appearance comparison would be positively associated with viewing appearance as a salient part of one’s identity (see Figure 1, Path B1). Subsequently, we expected that holding appearance as central to one’s identity would be associated with more negative attitudes and feelings toward one’s body, or lower body esteem (see Figure 1, Path C1).

Multiple Mediation: Perfectionistic Self-Presentation as a Mediator

In contrast with the self-oriented construct of appearance self-schema, per-fectionistic self-presentation (Hewitt et al., 2003) captures the other-oriented need to appear perfect in front of others, consistent with social comparison theory’s emphasis on how one is viewed in an interpersonal context. In a culture that emphasizes norms of preserving the reputation of one’s social group (Lee et al., 2011), concealing shortcomings and presenting the self as perfect in front of others may be one mechanism by which Koreans strive to maintain connection with others. Prior research has also shown that individu-als who identify with an interdependent self-construal (i.e., Koreans) tend to engage in self-presentation behaviors that promote social harmony (Lee & Park, 2011). For example, despite being aware of their physical imperfec-tions, Koreans may strive to maintain a perfect physical appearance to retain the respect of others and contribute positively to the reputation of their family and friend groups.

Although researchers have not directly examined the association between physical appearance comparison and perfectionistic self-presentation, Wyatt and Gilbert (1998) found that individuals with perfectionistic standards engaged in more unfavorable social comparison than individuals who did not uphold those standards. Thus, it is likely that physical appearance compari-son and perfectionistic self-presentation (i.e., appearing perfect in front of others) are positively correlated with one another. Physical appearance com-parison may act as a tool by which to evaluate oneself around cultural norms of beauty, heightening awareness of one’s shortcomings and activating South Koreans to present themselves flawlessly in order to cover up their imperfec-tions. For this reason, we expected that engaging in more physical appear-ance comparison would be positively associated with perfectionistic self-presentation (see Figure 1, Path B2).

Moreover, we expected that perfectionistic self-presentation would be negatively associated with body esteem. Korean cultural norms of “saving face” are held strongly, to the point that Koreans will go so far as to choose loss of life than to be disgraced in the presence of others (Kim, 1993). In the

364 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

realm of physical appearance, South Koreans may strive to present them-selves as perfect to others despite their physical imperfections, which may create painful reminders of their bodily “flaws” and contribute to lower body esteem. Empirically, perfectionistic self-presentation has been positively associated with eating disorder symptoms, body image avoidance, and lower appearance self-esteem (Hewitt, Flett, & Ediger, 1995). Perfectionistic self-presentation has also been shown to have strong associations with low self-esteem more broadly, which entails a self-presentation style based on reluctance to draw attention to oneself (Baumeister, Tice, & Hutton, 1993). South Koreans who have perfectionistic self-presentation tendencies are thus likely to present the self as “perfect” to others so as not to draw attention to oneself and, in turn, experience low esteem with regard to their body image and appearance. Therefore, we hypothesized a negative relationship between perfectionistic self-presentation and body esteem (see Figure 1, Path C2).

Taken together, we presumed that more physical appearance comparison would be associated with a stronger likelihood of presenting the self as per-fect to others or covering up imperfections in order to “save face” (i.e., per-fectionistic self-presentation). In turn, we predicted that this perfectionistic self-presentation tendency would create painful, internal reminders of bodily flaws and imperfections and be associated with lower body esteem. That is, we expected that perfectionistic self-presentation would significantly medi-ate the association between physical appearance comparison and body esteem (see Figure 1, Paths B2 and C2).

Current Study

In sum, there were three hypotheses for the present study. First, we expected that physical appearance comparison would have a significant negative rela-tionship with body esteem (see Figure 1, Path A). Second, we hypothesized a multiple (or parallel) mediation model wherein appearance self-schema (i.e., a self-oriented concern) and perfectionistic self-presentation (i.e., an other-oriented concern) would significantly mediate the association between physi-cal appearance comparison and body esteem. Specifically, more endorsement of physical appearance comparison was expected to be significantly related to more endorsement of appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-pre-sentation (see Figure 1, Paths B1 and B2), which in turn would be signifi-cantly related to more unfavorable evaluations of body esteem (see Figure 1, Paths C1 and C2). Support for our mediation hypotheses would imply that we can use appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation as guides for interventions to help those who have body esteem concerns.

Ko et al. 365

Moreover, existing research on body image has focused mostly on the experiences of Korean women (e.g., Jung & Forbes, 2006; Jung & Lee, 2006), leaving the body image concerns of men largely unaccounted for. However, prior research has suggested that body image concerns may dif-ferentially affect men and women. For instance, studies with young Chinese men have shown that they engage in comparatively lower levels of body surveillance (Jackson & Chen, 2015), make fewer appearance comparisons, and have less overall appearance dissatisfaction than young Chinese women (Chen & Jackson, 2012; Jackson & Chen, 2015). On the other hand, Chinese women have been shown to exhibit significantly higher levels of body dis-satisfaction, interpersonal appearance pressure, appearance social compari-sons, and body surveillance than Chinese men (Chen & Jackson, 2012; Jackson & Chen, 2011, 2014). Although these results highlight the presence of mean differences between men and women, it is unknown whether there are differences in the associations between the variables in the current study. Thus, we also conducted an exploratory analysis to understand whether our proposed mediation model would be equivalent between South Korean men and women, and to increase our understanding of body image concerns among Korean men.

Method

Participants

A total of 290 South Korean students at a university in South Korea partici-pated in the present study. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 28 (Mage = 21.4 years, SD = 2.1 years).

There were 66 (23%) first year students, 88 (30%) sophomores, 69 (24%) juniors, 55 (19%) seniors, and 12 students (4%) who were at least in their fifth year of study. Participants consisted of 139 (48%) women and 151 (52%) men. Ten percent of participants had received some form of cosmetic surgery, and 69% of participants endorsed placing “quite a bit” or “very much” value on presenting a perfect image to others.

Measures

Physical appearance comparison. The Physical Appearance Comparison Scale-Revised (PACS-R; Schaefer & Thompson, 2014) is an 11-item measure used to assess an individual’s tendency to engage in physical appearance compari-son. Sample items are “When I’m out in public, I compare my physical appearance to the appearance of others,” and “When I’m with a group of

366 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

friends, I compare my weight to the weight of others.” Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (always), with higher scores indicating greater frequency of appearance comparison. Coefficient alphas with a sample of White and ethnic minority college students ranged from .96 to .97 (Schaefer & Thompson, 2014); the coefficient alpha was .94 in the current study. Construct validity was established through significant positive correlations with eating pathology, internalization of appearance ideals, and appearance-related pressures from peers, family, and the media; and significant negative correlations with body satisfaction and self-esteem for college students (Schaefer & Thompson, 2014).

Appearance self-schema. The Appearance Schemas Inventory (Cash & Labarge, 1996) is a 14-item scale used to assess core beliefs or assumptions about the importance, meaning, and effects of appearance in one’s life. The inventory includes three subscales. The appearance stereotyping subscale represents assumptions about the social goodness and badness of an attrac-tive and unattractive appearance. The body image vulnerability subscale reflects an individual’s assumptions that their appearance is inherently defec-tive and socially unacceptable. Lastly, the self-investment subscale is reflec-tive of the notion that appearance and the pursuit and management of attractiveness are influential and central to the self-concept. Sample items are, “Attractive people have it all” (appearance stereotyping subscale), “What’s wrong with my appearance is one of the first things that people will notice about me,” (body image vulnerability subscale), and “What I look like is an important part of who I am” (self-investment subscale). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with higher scores representing greater importance and relevance of appearance in one’s life. The overall coefficient alpha for the measure was .81 for a sample that included Korean college students (Jung & Lee, 2006), and .87 in the current study. Construct validity was established through posi-tive correlations with body-image dysphoria, poor self-esteem, social anxi-ety, self-consciousness, depression, and eating disturbances for college students (Cash & Labarge, 1996), as well as positive correlations with body dissatisfaction and lower self-esteem for a sample of college students includ-ing Koreans (Jung & Lee, 2006).

Perfectionistic self-presentation. The Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale (Hewitt et al., 2003) is a 27-item scale used to measure self-presentational styles that strive to create an image of flawlessness to others (i.e., perfection-istic self-presentation). A version previously translated into Korean was used in the current study (Lee et al., 2011). The scale includes three dimensions.

Ko et al. 367

The perfectionistic self-promotion subscale measures the desire to present oneself as perfect to others. The nondisplay of imperfection subscale measures the desire not to appear less than perfect to others. The nondisclosure of imper-fection subscale measures the need to avoid public admissions of imperfection or failure. Sample items are, “I try always to present a picture of perfection” (perfectionistic self-promotion subscale), “I will do almost anything to cover up a mistake” (nondisplay of imperfection subscale), and “Admitting failure to others is the worst possible thing” (nondisclosure of imperfection subscale). Items are rated on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores representing stronger per-fectionistic self-presentation tendencies. Internal reliability for the three sub-scales ranged from .78 to .86 for a sample of university students (Hewitt et al., 2003); an overall coefficient alpha of .95 was obtained for a sample of college students (Schrick, Sharp, Zvonkovic, & Reifman, 2012). An overall coeffi-cient alpha of .91 was obtained in the current study. The construct validity of the scale was supported by a positive correlation with a measure of self-pre-sentation motivation among South Koreans (Lee et al., 2011).

Body esteem. The Body Esteem Scale (BES; Mendelson, White, & Mendelson, 1997) is a 23-item measure that assesses participants’ attitudes and feelings about their bodies and appearance. A version previously translated into Korean (Lee, Lee, Choi, Kim, & Han, 2014) was used in the current study. The BES includes three subscales: appearance (i.e., general feelings about appearance), weight (i.e., weight satisfaction), and attribution (i.e., others’ evaluations about one’s body and appearance). Sample items are “I like what I see when I look in the mirror” (appearance subscale), “I am preoccupied with trying to change my body weight” (weight subscale; reversed item), and “I’m as nice looking as most people” (attribution subscale). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (always), with higher scores representing more positive self-evaluations of one’s body or appearance. Coefficient alphas were .75 for appearance, .83 for weight, and .85 for attribution subscales in a sample of Korean college women (Jung & Forbes, 2006). An overall coeffi-cient alpha of .90 was obtained in the current study. Construct validity was established through positive correlations between BES-appearance and global self-esteem, BES-weight and actual weight, and BES-attribution and social self-esteem in a sample including college students (Mendelson et al., 1997).

Procedure

For surveys where a Korean version did not currently exist (i.e., the Appearance Schemas Inventory and Physical Appearance Comparison

368 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

Survey–Revised), items underwent the translation procedure outlined by Ægisdóttir, Gerstein, and Çinarbas (2008). First, a bilingual Korean–American psychologist translated items from English to Korean. Second, a bilingual doctoral student in psychology back-translated the Korean versions of the measures into English. Third, another doctoral-level student in psy-chology compared the original and back-translated English versions to ensure equivalence, readability, and naturalness of the translated version. Any items that were not comparable were sent back through the process to be translated and back-translated again until equivalence was achieved.

Participants were required to be a college student over 18 years of age, and were informed that the study was related to perfectionism and body image con-cerns in the Korean college student population. Participation was completely voluntary, and research subjects were told that the survey would take about 15 min to complete. Survey packets written in Korean were distributed in various undergraduate courses where instructors had given their prior consent for data collection. No incentive or reward was offered for participation in the study.

A total of 299 South Korean students were administered paper-and-pencil surveys before the beginning of class in several undergraduate courses. However, six participants were excluded from the data analysis due to them returning blank surveys, and an additional two participants were excluded because they were of Chinese nationality. Data from an additional participant was deleted because they did not provide any demographic data, making the final sample consist of 290 participants in the present study.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

We conducted a MANOVA test to see if there were significant mean differ-ences in the variables between men and women. The result indicated that there was an overall significant difference, Wilks’ Lambda = .91, F(4, 285) = 6.92, p < .001. The follow-up MANOVA results showed that the differ-ence was significant only for physical appearance comparison, F(1,288) = 17.45, p < .001. Specifically, the mean score for physical appearance com-parison was lower for men (M = 2.40, SD = 0.85) than for women (M = 2.89, SD = 0.86), with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.57).

Latent Variables

We planned to conduct structural equation modeling with latent variables in this study in order to rule out measurement error. A general rule in this

Ko et al. 369

process is to include at least three measured indicators for each latent variable (Kenny, Kashy, & Bolger, 1998). The scale for physical appearance compari-son had 11 items. However, instead of using all 11 items as indicators, item parceling was used to obtain a better model fit and more reliable indicators (Little, Cunningham, Shahar, & Widaman, 2002). We followed Russell, Kahn, Spoth, and Altmaier’s (1998) recommendation to create three item par-cels. First, an EFA was conducted for the physical appearance comparison measure. Next, we rank ordered the items based on the magnitude of the fac-tor loadings, and successively assigned pairs of the highest and lowest items to form the first parcel. We repeated this process until we assigned all items to three parcels in order to equalize the factor loadings across the three par-cels (Little et al., 2002; Russell et al., 1998). These three item parcels were then used for the physical appearance latent variable.

Moreover, for appearance self-schema, perfectionistic self-presentation, and body esteem, the three subscales on each measure were used as the three measured indicators of their latent variables. We further examined whether each of these individual latent variables were well-defined by their three measured indicators. All the latent variables were well-defined by their three measured indicators (i.e., factor loadings for the three indicators were signifi-cant and roughly equalized), with the exception of body esteem. There was a concern with the latent variable of body esteem because the standardized factor loadings of the three measured indicators were 1.54, 0.29, and 0.33. That is, in addition to the standardized factor loadings being relatively unequal, one of the standardized factor loadings was greater than 1 (note that it is impossible to have a standardized factor loading that is greater than 1). Thus, we used the aforementioned item parceling method (Russell et al., 1998) to recreate three new measured indicators for body esteem. Results suggested that the latent variable of body esteem was well-defined by its three measured indicators (i.e., item parcels with relatively equalized stan-dardized factor loadings of .92, .87 and .87). Therefore, for physical appear-ance comparison and body esteem, three item parcels were used as the three measured indicators of their latent variables. For appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation, the three subscales on each measure were used as the three measurement indicators for each latent variable.

Measurement Model

Consistent with recommendations made by Anderson and Gerbing (1988), a CFA was conducted before the structural model was tested to examine whether the measurement model provided an acceptable fit to the data. Both the measurement and structural models were estimated by using the

370 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

maximum-likelihood method in Mplus (Muthen & Muthen, 2010). Three fit indices were used to assess the goodness of fit of the model to the data: the comparative fit index (CFI), the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR), and the RMSEA. Criteria for acceptable fit have ranged from CFI ≥ .90 and SRMR and RMSEA ≤ .10, to more conservative criteria of CFI ≥ .95, SRMR ≤ .08, and RMSEA ≤ .06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The result for the measurement model was χ2(48, N = 290) = 159.43, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .05, and RMSEA = .09, CI [.07, .11], indicating that the fit indices for the CFI and SRMR met the more conservative criteria, whereas the more liberal acceptable criteria was met for the RMSEA. Means, stan-dard deviations, and correlations among the 12 measured variables are reported in Table 1. Standardized factor loadings for all 12 measured vari-ables were significant (see Table 2). Additionally, correlations between the independent latent variable (i.e., physical appearance comparison), the mediator latent variables (i.e., appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation), and the dependent latent variable (i.e., body esteem) were all statistically significant (see Table 3). Specifically, using Cohen’s (1992) criteria for small (.10), medium (.30), and large (.50) correlation effect sizes, physical appearance comparison was positively correlated with appearance self-schema with a large effect size and positively correlated with perfec-tionistic self-presentation with a medium effect size. Additionally, physical appearance was negatively correlated with body esteem with a large effect size. Appearance self-schema was positively correlated with perfectionistic self-presentation with a large effect size. Both appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation were negatively correlated with body esteem with large and medium effect sizes, respectively. Because the mea-surement model was well represented by the latent variables, this measure-ment model was used to examine the structural model.

Structural Model for Testing Mediated Effects

For the first hypothesis, we tested the direct effect from physical appearance comparison to body esteem only (see Figure 1, Path A). Results indicated a reasonably acceptable fit to the data, χ2(8, N = 290) = 27.44, p < .001, CFI = .99, SRMR = .02, and RMSEA = .09, CI [.06, .12]. This standardized direct effect was significant (β = -.49, p < .001). For the second and third mediation hypotheses, the structural model was subsequently tested, and results showed a reasonable fit of the model to the data, χ2(48, N = 290) = 159.43, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .05, and RMSEA = .09, CI [.07, .11]. Identical to the measurement model, the fit indices for CFI and SRMR met the more conservative criteria, whereas the more liberal acceptable criteria

371

Tab

le 1

. In

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nd S

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11.

21.

32.

12.

22.

33.

13.

23.

34.

14.

24.

3

Phys

ical

app

eara

nce

com

pari

son

1.

1 Pa

rcel

1—

1.2

Parc

el 2

.88*

*—

1.3

Parc

el 3

.81*

*.7

9**

—

App

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self-

sche

ma

2.

1 A

ppea

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8**

.41*

*.3

6**

—

2.

2 Bo

dy im

age

vuln

erab

ility

.53*

*.4

5**

.40*

*.7

1**

—

2.

3 Se

lf-in

vest

men

t.4

7**

.43*

*.3

4**

.64*

*.6

2**

—

Perf

ectio

nist

ic s

elf-p

rese

ntat

ion

3.

1 Pe

rfec

tioni

stic

sel

f-pro

mot

ion

.30*

*.2

8**

.20*

*.4

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.34*

*.4

7**

—

3.

2 N

ondi

spla

y of

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rfec

tion

.28*

*.2

6**

.16*

*.3

7**

.39*

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7**

.72*

*—

3.3

Non

disc

losu

re o

f im

perf

ectio

n.2

0**

.15*

.17*

*.2

7**

.35*

*.2

9**

.53*

*.5

9**

—

Body

est

eem

4.

1 Pa

rcel

1−

.39*

*−

.37*

*−

.37*

*−

.32*

*−

.45*

*−

.24*

*−

.24*

*−

.33*

*−

.25*

*—

4.2

Parc

el 2

−.4

2**

−.4

0**

−.4

4**

−.2

8**

−.4

3**

−.1

6**

−.1

7**

−.2

9**

−.2

6**

.81*

*—

4.3

Parc

el 3

−.4

6**

−.4

2**

−.3

7**

−.4

3**

−.5

4**

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372 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

was met for the RMSEA. As seen in Figure 1, all the structural paths were significant.

Testing the Significance Levels of Indirect Effects

A bootstrapping procedure was used to determine the significance of the indi-rect effects (Mallinckrodt, Abraham, Wei, & Russell, 2006; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). The structural equation model was tested with 10,000 bootstrap

Table 2. Factor Loadings for the Measurement Model

Variable and indicator B SE 95% CIa βa

Physical appearance comparison Parcel 1 0.83 0.04 [0.76, 0.91] .96*** Parcel 2 0.89 0.04 [0.81, 0.96] .92*** Parcel 3 0.86 0.05 [0.77, 0.95] .85***Appearance self-schema Appearance stereotyping 0.69 0.04 [0.61, 0.78] .83*** Body image vulnerability 0.62 0.04 [0.55, 0.69] .86*** Self-investment 0.56 0.04 [0.49, 0.63] .75***Perfectionistic self-presentation Perfectionistic self-promotion 0.78 0.05 [0.68, 0.88] .81*** Nondisplay of imperfection 0.78 0.05 [0.69, 0.88] .88*** Nondisclosure of imperfection 0.62 0.05 [0.53, 0.72] .67***Body Esteem Parcel 1 0.55 0.03 [0.49, 0.62] .91*** Parcel 2 0.56 0.03 [0.50, 0.62] .87*** Parcel 3 0.57 0.03 [0.51, 0.64] .88***

a95% CI and probabilities are presented for standardized factor loadings.***p < .001.

Table 3. Correlations Among Latent Variables for the Measurement Model

Latent variable 1 2 3 4

1. Physical appearance comparison — 2. Appearance self-schema .61*** — 3. Perfectionistic self-presentation .33*** .56*** — 4. Body esteem −.49*** −.51*** −.40*** —

***p < .001.

Ko et al. 373

samples, resulting in 10,000 estimates of each path coefficient. If the 95% CI for the estimates of the indirect effects based on these 10,000 estimates did not include zero, we concluded that the indirect effect was statistically sig-nificant at the .05 level (Mallinckrodt et al., 2006; Shrout & Bolger, 2002).

Results showed that the 95% CI for the first indirect effect (i.e., physical appearance comparison to appearance self-schema to body esteem; see Figure 1, Paths B1 and C1) did not include zero, B = -0.18, CI [-.34, -.04], indicating statistical significance for this indirect effect. The 95% CI for the second indirect effect (i.e., physical appearance comparison to perfectionistic self-presentation to body esteem; see Figure 1, Path B2 and C2) also did not include zero, B = -0.07, CI [-.15, -.01], which indicated a significant indirect effect. The R2 value showed that 33% of the variance in body esteem was accounted for by physical appearance comparison, appearance self-schema, and perfectionistic self-presentation.

Exploratory Multiple Group Analyses

A multiple group analysis was conducted in Mplus (Muthen & Muthen, 2010) using structural equation modeling to first examine whether the measurement model was equivalent between men and women. Two models were tested for measurement invariance. One was the freely estimated model (i.e., freely estimated factor loadings) and the other was the equally estimated model (i.e., constrained factor loadings to be equal). The result for the freely esti-mated model was χ2(96, N = 290) = 184.43, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .05, and RMSEA = .08, CI [.06, .10]. The result for the equally estimated model was χ2(108, N = 290) = 191.52, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .06, and RMSEA = .07, CI [.06, .09]. When a scaled chi-square difference test was used to compare these two models, a nonsignificant result, χ2(12, N = 290) = 5.84, p = .92, showed that these factor loadings were invariant between men and women.

Next, another multiple group analysis was conducted to examine whether the structural paths were equivalent between men and women. Similarly, the two models were tested for structure invariance with a freely estimated model (i.e., freely estimated structural paths) and an equally estimated model (i.e., constrained structural paths to be equal). The result for the freely estimated model was χ2(108, N = 290) = 196.27, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .06, and RMSEA = .08, CI [.06, .09]. The result for the equally estimated model was χ2(114, N = 290) = 199.87, p < .001, CFI = .96, SRMR = .07, and RMSEA = .07, CI [.06, .09]. When a chi-square difference test was used to compare these two models, a nonsignificant result showed that these structural paths were invariant between men and women, χ2(6, N = 290) = 4.31, p = .64.

374 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

Post Hoc Analysis

Given that the present study is cross-sectional in nature, an alternative model was investigated to examine any other possible ordering of variables and to increase confidence in the current model. For example, it may be the case that individuals who are self-schematic on appearance and perfectionistic may be more likely to engage in physical appearance comparison, which is then asso-ciated with body esteem. With this possibility in mind, we conducted a post hoc analysis with appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presenta-tion as predictors, physical appearance comparison as the mediating variable, and body esteem as the outcome variable. Results indicated a significant indi-rect effect of appearance self-schema on body esteem through physical appearance comparison, B = -0.22, 95% CI [-.36, -.14], but a nonsignificant indirect effect of perfectionistic self-presentation on body esteem through physical appearance comparison, B = -0.004, 95% CI [-.05, .06]. Therefore, this analysis lends initial support to the original mediation model (i.e., appear-ance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation as mediators between physical appearance comparison and body esteem) as the optimal choice.

Discussion

In this study, we sought to find support for three hypotheses examining the relationship between physical appearance comparison and body esteem by way of the mediating variables of appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation within a South Korean cultural context. Results confirmed our first hypothesis that the direct effect from physical appearance compari-son to body esteem was significantly negative before the mediators were added into the model. This finding is consistent with previous theoretical conceptualizations and empirical findings suggesting positive associations between physical appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction (e.g., Keery et al., 2004), as well as negative body image outcomes such as body shame (Tylka & Sabik, 2010). The negative relationship between physical appearance comparison and body esteem supports the notion that the act of comparing physical appearances may heighten individuals’ awareness of their own bodily flaws. Although this comparison may be perceived as neces-sary to improve oneself for the sake of the group, we found that this compari-son is also associated with more negative attitudes and feelings toward one’s body (i.e., body esteem).

Second, our results showed that appearance self-schema was a significant mediator for the association between physical appearance comparison and body esteem. This finding is consistent with a social comparison theory

Ko et al. 375

framework (Festinger, 1954), where engaging in physical appearance com-parison may make it such that appearance becomes a highly salient construct by which to evaluate oneself and others (i.e., high appearance self-schema). This process may then become associated with low body esteem as one becomes increasingly attuned to bodily flaws that are not consistent with cultural ideals. Although Korean culture to some extent normalizes an “obses-siveness” with appearance (Schwekendiek, Yeo, & Ulijaszek, 2013), our results question how adaptive these cultural norms are and call for a challeng-ing of the status quo. In line with previous findings that have demonstrated the negative consequences of having a sense of self-worth based excessively on appearance (e.g., eating disturbances; Chang, Perera, & Kupfermann, 2014), perhaps it is time for Korean cultural norms to shift toward acknowl-edging other aspects of the self that help to maintain a healthy level of body esteem.

Third, our results supported our hypothesis that perfectionistic self-presen-tation would mediate the association between physical appearance compari-son and body esteem. Although research on perfectionistic self-presentation with Koreans has been limited (Lee et al., 2011), our results provide initial evidence that this construct may be salient to South Koreans who identify with an interdependent self-construal. As social comparison in the domain of appearance is likely to occur with those who are perceived as better off (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992), perfectionistic self-presentation may help Koreans navigate their social worlds by “saving face” and contributing positively to the reputations of their family and social groups. In her article in The New Yorker, Marx (2015) stated “The feeling is, if you can look better, you should. Not to do so would be complacent and lazy and reflect badly on your group. . . . It’s not that you’re trying to stand out and look good. It’s that you’re trying not to look bad” (para. 20). As Koreans identify with an interdependent self-con-strual in which their identity is formed in relation to others (Bae, 2016), this statement highlights the cultural relevance of perfectionistic self-presentation among Koreans and brings to light the need to engage in self-presentation behaviors that promote social harmony (Kurman & Sriram, 1997; Lee & Park, 2011). Thus, rather than serving an egoistic function that serves to put oneself above others, perfectionistic self-presentation may serve as a tool that ensures alignment with norms in a culture where standing out from the pack is frowned upon.

As a whole, our results represent a substantive contribution to the litera-ture in light of the fact that body image concerns have been examined mostly with women. Results from our MANOVA test and multiple group analysis showed that body image concerns in South Korea hold similarly for both men and women, contrasting with previous studies that demonstrated differences

376 The Counseling Psychologist 47(3)

between Asian men and women in the development of body image concerns (e.g., Chang, Perera, & Kupfermann, 2014; Chen & Jackson, 2012). This study also represents the first of its kind (to the authors’ knowledge) to empir-ically examine perfectionistic self-presentation with South Koreans within the context of body image concerns. Our findings are consistent with those of previous studies that have confirmed the presence of mediating variables related to body dissatisfaction and other negative attitudes toward one’s body (i.e., lowered body esteem; Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2016; Patton, Beaujean, & Benedict, 2014; van den Berg et al., 2007), suggesting that this outcome is a complex one in which multiple predisposing variables may play a role.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Although this study represents a significant contribution to the literature, sev-eral limitations should be noted. First, this study only examined the experiences of Korean college students in a rapidly urbanizing city. It is unknown whether these findings would apply to Koreans living in more rural parts of the country or who otherwise differ from our sample (i.e., noncollege students). For instance, it may be the case that body image concerns are salient only in urban college student populations where there is more exposure to Westernized norms of beauty and potentially more pressure to conform to beauty trends. In the future, researchers could examine whether the current model holds for other populations in rural settings by examining the endorsement of Westernized beauty norms as a moderating variable for the paths between physical appear-ance comparison, appearance self-schema, and perfectionistic self-presenta-tion. Furthermore, because we did not control for any variables in the current study, future research studies could account for relevant variables such as body mass index to establish further confidence in our results.

Second, we frequently referenced the nature of Korean culture as a frame-work from which to consider the variables in our study. Future research could extend our conceptual model by empirically examining the relationship between relevant variables (e.g., perfectionism) and adherence to specific Korean values (e.g., saving face). Examining relevant variables is important given that our consideration of certain constructs remained at a theoretical level, and their explicit measurement is critical to confirming their true rele-vance in body image research. This next step would lend further support to the salience of cultural norms in the development of body image issues, thereby strengthening the foundational assumptions of our study.

Third, this study constitutes a cross-sectional design, precluding any determination of causal relationships among the variables. Longitudinal or experimental studies must be conducted in the future to determine any causal

Ko et al. 377

relationships with certainty. For instance, cross-lagged models with longitu-dinal data can be used to further confirm the causal directions between vari-ables. In addition, even though we explored one possible alternative model, it is also the case that other alternative models may apply equally well. Therefore, future studies can utilize different, competing theoretical frame-works to explore other alternative possibilities to our model.

Lastly, the relationships between the mediators (i.e., appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation) and body esteem were weaker than expected. Therefore, we speculate that there might be a third variable that could moderate these associations, such as self-compassion. Specifically, those who are more compassionate toward themselves might be less likely to report low body esteem even in the presence of high appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation. In other words, even if one considers appearance an important part of the self and strives to present the self as perfect, practicing self-compassion may help to buffer against the potential negative consequences of appearance self-schema and perfectionistic self-presentation on body esteem. By examin-ing compassion as a moderating variable, researchers could explore the associations between appearance self-schema or perfectionistic self-pre-sentation and body esteem in a way that better captures the nuances and complexity of these relationships.

Counseling Implications

Our study holds several implications for clinical work with South Koreans who suffer from body image concerns. First, appearance self-schema was a significant mediator between physical appearance comparison and body esteem. As such, clinicians can work with clients to help them see how hold-ing appearance as salient to one’s identity can contribute to lower body esteem. Individuals can be helped to enhance identification with areas other than appearance to reduce self-schematicity in this area and diversify their origins of self-worth (e.g., being a respectable, kind person). Although most South Korean counselors have been educated and trained in Western schools of thought due to the influence of Western counseling and counseling psy-chology in academia, they would benefit from enhanced competence in cul-turally specific interventions (Lee, Suh, Yang, & Jang, 2012). In line with this recommendation, clinicians can help their Korean clients understand how immersing themselves in a cultural context that glorifies appearance can pro-mote unhealthy comparisons to others and exert a powerful influence on self-perceptions. We hope that a more deliberate exploration of cultural norms

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might help to lessen the power of these norms in creating body image con-cerns within this population.

Second, this study is the first of its kind to examine perfectionism with South Koreans in the context of body image-related concerns, and as such, interventions can be targeted toward enhancing body esteem by way of reduc-ing tendencies toward perfectionistic self-presentation. Clients would benefit from developing a greater awareness about aspects of their culture that pro-mote perfectionistic self-presentation. Ideally, counselors can teach clients ways to actively defend against perfectionistic self-presentation and its poten-tial negative consequences, especially self-concealment (i.e., presenting the self as perfect), which has been shown to negatively influence attitudes toward seeking professional help for Korean college students (Yoo, Goh, & Yoon, 2005). Self-concealment may be especially relevant in South Korea given that many social stigmas are attached to receiving counseling services, as mental health services have historically been associated with severe mental disorders (Lee et al., 2012). Even though Korean culture promotes “saving face” and concealing imperfections, individuals could be helped to identify the benefits of opening up to close, trusted others and of fostering compassion for the pres-sure they are under for maintaining appearances.

We hope that future studies continue to bring to light existing cultural norms in South Korea that may be associated with body image concerns in this population. Rather than blindly accepting current emphases on appear-ance as a marker for self-worth and success in Korean society, it is important that future researchers investigate the cultural influences that contribute to negative body image outcomes. Many Koreans may benefit from challenging the status quo in ways that are more adaptive to their functioning, and we hope that the current study represents a foray in this direction.

Acknowledgments

We thank our funders for making this international collaboration possible. We also thank all South Korean students who took an interest in our research and participated in this study.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This study was funded by the Campbell/

Ko et al. 379

Borgen Psychology Graduate Student International Travel Fund, Society of Counseling Psychology Student Science Award, Michael Sullivan Diversity Scholarship, and the Psi Chi Graduate Research Grant.

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Author Biographies

Stacy Y. Ko, MSW, is a doctoral candidate in counseling psychology at Iowa State University. She received her master’s degree in social work from UCLA. Her research interests are in perfectionism, body image concerns, and minority stress/adjustment among Asians and Asian Americans.

Meifen Wei, PhD, is a professor of psychology in the counseling psychology pro-gram at Iowa State University. She received her doctorate from the University of Missouri. Her research focuses on risk and protective factors of coping with minority stress, culture and emotion regulation, and counselor training and multicultural competence.

Hyun-Joo Park, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Education at Dongguk University, South Korea. She received her doctorate from the University of Missouri. Her research interests are in the areas of the impact of perfectionism on mental health and its cultural implications, coping and problem-solving, and cross-national psycho-logical adjustment.

Kenneth Wang, PhD, is an associate professor in clinical psychology at Fuller Theological Seminary. He received his PhD in counseling psychology from Penn State University. Kenneth’s research focuses on perfectionism, psychological mea-surement, and cross-cultural psychological adjustment.