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AP/IB American History Mr. Blackmon

The American Revolution

I. Following the outbreak of fighting, Massachusetts established a provisional government.A. Ethan Allan in Vermont led the Green Mountain Boys in seizing Fort

Ticonderoga (5/10/75)1. Only 80 Americans and 50 British soldiers were involved. (Mitchell 29)

We shall see that the size of units engaged in the American Revolution arevery small.

2. These forts are crucial links in the communications with Canada. Theyalso possess gunpowder and cannon.

3. Shortly thereafter, Crown Point was also taken.B. In Virginia, Gov. Dunmore fled to a British warship.

II. The Second Continental CongressA. More radical than the First Congress

1. Thomas Jefferson wrote A Summary View of the rights of BritishAmerica.a. He argued the idea that kings are servants of the people.

B. Congress was forced to make decisions without actual legal authority.1. Congress declared the mass of men around Boston to be the Continental

Army.2. Congress appointed George Washington of Virginia to command that

army. This is the most important thing they did, including signing theDeclaration of Independence. Without Washington, the British win.

III. The Battle of Bunker Hill (Breed's Hill)A. Gage received assistance in the persons of Generals Henry Clinton, William

Howe and John Burgoyne. He would have preferred 20,000 men.B. On June 16, the militia began fortifying Breed's Hill with outworks on Bunker

Hill (they were supposed to fortify only Bunker Hill, hence the name of the battle) The position overlooks Boston.

C. Some 3,200 militia were attacked by 2,400 regulars, led personally by WilliamHowe (who had led the assault up the cliffs at the Plains of Abraham.) Howe wasbrave, but foolishly neglected elementary maneuver. The British should have wonthe battle easily. Instead, Howe chose a frontal assault against fixed defenses. Hemust have had only contempt for the fighting ability of militia.

D. The British were repulsed twice, and then stormed the position after theAmericans ran out of ammunition.

E. The British lost 1,500; the Americans lost 440 men. (Mitchell 38) The Britishwon the battle but were profoundly shocked. Howe, who succeeded Gage incommand, did not again attack Americans in such a frontal manner.

F. Bunker Hill drastically reduced the possibility of negotiation. I will harp upon theidea that violence creates its own logic and momentum. Once the wholesalekilling begins, it is not easy to stop it. This must be understood clearly by policy

AP/IB American History Mr. BlackmonThe American Revolution

makers and by voters before the killing starts.1. I am not a pacifist; there are times when military force must be used. But

it should never be done lightly. It is a lot simply to let the genie out thanto get it back in the bottle.

G. George III relieved Thomas Gage, whom he suspected of being too lax on thecolonists. William Howe takes over command.1. We shall learn that Howe is a competent soldier but hardly an energetic

one. 2. The quality of British generalship in this war is quite uninspired. Had a

man like James Wolfe commanded, we would have lost.H. George III formally declared colonies to be in "open rebellion" on 8/75I. George III declared a blockade on all of the colonies (not just Massachusetts)

1. A blockade is an act of war.J. George III despatches an army of 25,000 men.

1. This included about 12,000 Hessian mercenaries, and most British armiesin the North included very substantial German contingents.

2. A word about the Hessians (not Haitians).3. These men came from German princes, mostly in the area of Hesse-Cassel.

They were the standing army of these little princedoms. George paid theGerman princes; the poor soldiers got nothing extra at all, except theopportunity to die.

4. Hiring foreigners to kill his own subjects really enraged the colonists, andrepresents a serious escalation of the war.

IV. Efforts to NegotiateA. Congress sent the Olive Branch Petition, which was written by John Dickenson,

to the king, essentially asking the king to agree to status quo ante 1765. The kingand Parliament refused to receive it.

B. Congress also adopted the Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of TakingUp Arms."1. This was written by Jefferson and edited by John Dickenson, who is a

moderate who hoped for reconciliation.2. Radicals like Thomas Jefferson, James Wilson and John Adams had

already concluded that a federal solution to the issue of liberty vs.authority was necessary.a. This is like the modern Commonwealth.

3. Jefferson wrote "But why should we enumerate our injuries in detail? By one statute it is declared that parliament can 'of right make lawsto bind us IN ALL CASES WHATSOEVER.' What is to defend usagainst so enormous, so unlimited, a power? Not a single man ofthose who assume it, is chosen by us; or is subject to our controul orinfluence; but on the contrary, they are all of them exempt from the


operation of such laws, and an American revenue, if not divertedfrom the ostensible purposes for which it is raised, would actuallylighten their own burdens in proportion as they increase ours. Wesaw the misery to which such despotism would reduce us. We forten years incessantly and ineffectually besieged the Throne assupplicants; . . . But Administration, sensible that we should regardthese oppressive measures as freemen ought to do, sent over fleetsand armies to enforce them. . . . We resolved again to offer anhumble and dutiful petition to the King, and also addressed ourfellow-subjects of Great Britain. We have pursued every temperate,every respectful measure . . . We have received certain intelligencethat General Carleton, the Governor of Canada, is instigating thepeople of that province and the Indians to fall upon us; and we havebut too much reason to apprehend, that schemes have been formedto excite domestic enemies against us [a slave insurrection; neitherof these claims is false; Gov. Dunmore was attempting to instigate aslave insurrection, and the British actively incited the Indians] . . .We are reduced to the alternative of chusing an unconditionalsubmission to the tyranny of irritated ministers, or resistance byforce--The latter is our choice. . . Honor, justice, and humanity,forbid us tamely to surrender that freedom which we received fromour gallant ancestors, and which our innocent posterity have a rightto receive from us. . . . Our cause is just. Our union is perfect. Our internal resources are great, and, if necessary, foreignassistance is undoubtedly attainable. . . . We will, in defiance ofevery hazard, with unabating firmness and perseverance, employ forthe preservation of our liberties; being with our [one] mind resolvedto dye Free-men rather than live Slaves. . . . In our own native land,in defense of the freedom that is our birthright, and which we everenjoyed till the late violation of it--for the protection of ourproperty, acquired solely by the honest industry of our fore-fathersand ourselves, against violence actually offered, we have taken uparms. We shall lay them down when hostilities shall cease on thepart of the aggressors, and all danger of their being renewed shall beremoved, and not before." ("Resolved to Dye Free-men" 255-9)a. Note the clearly conservative argument: we are not fighting to

obtain freedom, we are fighting to preserve it. This is aconservative revolution.

C. Congress authorized an attack on Canada (!)1. It was believed that the French Canadians were shaky in their loyalty to


Britain. This proved illusory.D. Congress sought foreign assistance

1. The colonies needed money desperately, as well as arms, and, especially,gunpowder.

2. France and Holland are the likely sources.E. Congress authorized the construction of a navy.F. All of these are the actions of an independent state.G. Nevertheless there was a lot of reluctance for independence.

1. Lingering loyalty and sentimental attachments2. Costs of failure were clear: "We must all hang together or we shall

assuredly all hang separately." Benjamin Franklin.3. Fear of social disorder

a. A word on the logic of monarchy is in order. It is obvious thatsome kings are wise and some are not. Most often, they are not. Why would intelligent men support a monarchy?

b. First, loyalty is to the throne, not the individual.c. Second, a crucial issue for monarchists is legitimacy, that is, who

has legitimate right to the throne, and therefore to authority.d. The monarch represents the principle of order, lawful and

legitimate authority, and stability. If once the monarch isoverturned, then all other institutions which maintain the continuityand harmony of the society are endangered. Indeed, the act ofoverturning the monarch (whether by quarrel over the legitimateruler, as in the Wars of the Roses or by revolution and civil war, asin the English Revolution, the French Revolution or RussianRevolution) will almost certainly unleash powerful forces withinthe society which will at the least disturb if not destroy the societyas presently constituted.

e. The fear of disorder is no light fear. In disordered times, no man issecure (think of the Reign of Terror or Dzerzhinsky's Cheka). Communications often break down and hunger and disease stalkthe land.

f. As Jefferson pointed out in the Declaration of Independence, mostmen prefer to tolerate governmental wrongs rather than risk arevolution.

g. The true nature of the American Revolution is clearly shown inthat the kind of profound social cataclysm as was seen in theEnglish Revolution, the French Revolution or the RussianRevolution, did not occur in the American Revolution.

h. I will develop this further, but ours was a "conservativerevolution," in Degler's phrase.


V. The Invasion of CanadaA. Two columns marched on Quebec.

1. One was led by Richard Montgomery with 1,200 men2. The other by Benedict Arnold with 1,100 men.

a. Arnold's approach march was n epic during dead winter; only 600men made it. (Mitchell 40-1)

3. The British commander, Guy Carleton, conducted a very skillful defense.4. The French Canadians remained loyal to the British.5. With the American militia's term of enlistment almost up, Montgomery

and Arnold felt they had no choice but to attack with 1,100 men toCarleton's 1,800 defenders.

6. The American attack was repulsed, and Montgomery killed.7. Arnold conducted a skillful retreat in worse conditions than his approach

march. It was a remarkable feat of leadership.VI. The Evacuation of Boston

A. Adm. Samuel Graves took his squadron from Boston to burn Falmouth, Maineon 10/16/75.

B. Lord Dunmore in Virginia burned Norfolk on 1/1/76.C. Henry Knox, a bookseller, brought the artillery from Fort Ticonderoga by sledge

through deep forest in dead winter.D. Washington then fortified Dorchester Heights on the night of 3/5/76. The British

woke up to find artillery commanding their fleet in Boston Harbor.E. Howe had only two choices--a frontal attack on Dorchester Heights or evacuation

of Boston.F. On 3/17/76, the British evacuated Boston for Halifax. G. The thirteen colonies were clear of British troops.

VII. The Declaration of IndependenceA. Preliminary Events

1. The hiring of Hessians, as discussed above, created both rage and fearamong colonists.

2. The fighting at Bunker Hill tended to harden positions.B. Patrick Henry, (3/3/75) delivered his most famous speech: "It is vain, sir, to

extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry, peace, peace; but there is nopeace. The war is actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from thenorth will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our brethrenare already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it thatgentlemen wish . . . ? Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased atthe price of chains and slavery? Forbid it Almighty God--I know not whatcourse others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"

C. Thomas Paine, Common Sense published in January 1776 is a very importantstep in mobilizing support.


1. Paine was a recent immigrant from Great Britain whose talent was spottedby Franklin and encouraged. He became the wars' greatest pamphleteer. He is a master of revolutionary propaganda.

2. The language of Common Sense is extraordinarily vivid. The followingquotations will tend to cut up Paine's logic a good deal; I want you toexperience his wonderful eloquence.

3. "Some writers have so confounded society with government, as toleave little or no distinction between them. . . .Society in every stateis a blessing, but government, even in its best state, is but anecessary evil. . . . Government, like dress, is the badge of lostinnocence. . . . For were the impulses of conscience clear, uniform,and irresistibly obeyed, man would need no other lawgiver; but thatnot being the case, he finds it necessary to surrender up a part of hisproperty to furnish means for the protection of the rest; . . . . Thereis another and greater distinction, for which no truly natural orreligious reason can be assigned, and that is, the distinction of meninto KINGS and SUBJECTS. Male and female are the distinctionsof nature, good and bad the distinctions of heaven; but how a raceof men came into the world so exalted above the rest, anddistinguished like some new species, is worth enquiring into, andwhether they are the means of happiness or of misery to mankind. .. . To the evil of monarchy we have added that of hereditarysuccession. . . . One of the strongest natural proofs of the folly ofhereditary right in kings, is, that nature disapproves it, otherwiseshe would not so frequently turn it into ridicule by giving mankindan Ass for a Lion. . . . Because such an unwise, unjust, unnaturalcompact might (perhaps) in the next succession put them under thegovernment of a rogue or a fool. . . . This is supposing the presentrace of kings in the world to have had an honourable origin;whereas it is more than probable, that could we take off the darkcovering of antiquity, and trace them to their first rise, that weshould find the first of them nothing better than the principalruffian of some restless gang. . . . No man in his senses can say thattheir claim under William the Conqueror is a very honorable one. A French bastard landing with an armed banditti, and establishinghimself king of England against the consent of the native, is inplain terms a very paltry rascally original. . . . In short, monarchyand succession have laid . . . the world in blood and ashes. . . . Inthe following pages I offer nothing more than simple facts, plainarguments and common sense. . . . .The sun never shone on a cause


of greater worth. Tis not the affair of a city, a country, a province,or a kingdom, but of a continent. . . Tis not the concern of a day, ayear, or an age; posterity are virtually involved in the contest. . .Now is the seedtime of continental union. . . . I have heard itasserted by some that as America hath flourished under her formerconnection with Great Britain, that the same connection isnecessary towards her future happiness. . . I answer roundly, thatAmerica would have flourished as much, and probably much more,had no European power had any thing to do with her. Thecommerce by which she hath enriched herself, are the necessaries oflife, and will always have a market while eating is the custom ofEurope. . . . But she has protected us, say some. . . . We haveboasted the protection of Great Britain, without considering thather motive was interest not attachment; that she did not protect usfrom our enemies on our account, but from her enemies on her ownaccount. . . But Britain is the parent country, say some. . . . 'Evenbrutes do not devour their young, nor savages make war upon theirfamilies. . . .Not a single advantage is derived. Our corn will fetchits price in any market in Europe, and our imported goods must bepaid for buy them where we will. . . . The blood of the slain, theweeping voice of nature cries, 'TIS TIME TO PART. Even thedistance at which the Almighty hath placed England and America,is a strong and natural proof, that the authority of the one over theother, was never the design of Heaven. . . . It is repugnant toreason, to the universal order of things, to all examples from formerages, to suppose, that this continent can longer remain subject toany external power. . . . Every quiet method for peace has beenineffectual. . . . Wherefore, since nothing but blows will do, forGod's sake let us come to a final separation and not leave the nextgeneration to be cutting throats under the violated unmeaningnames of parent and child. . . . There is something very absurd insupposing a continent to be perpetually governed by an island. . . .But the most powerful of all arguments is that nothing butindependence, i.e. a continental form of government, can keep thepeace of the continent and preserve it inviolate from civil wars. . . .A government of our own is our natural right. . .nothing can settleour affairs so expeditiously as an open and determined declarationfor independence. . . . While America calls herself the subject ofGreat-Britain, no power, however well disposed she may be, canoffer her mediation. . . It is unreasonable to suppose, that France or


Spain will give us any kind of assistance, if we mean only to makeuse of that assistance for the purpose of repairing the breach, andstrengthening the connection between Britain and America, becausethose powers would be sufferers by the consequence. . . While weprofess ourselves the subjects of Britain, we must, in the eye offoreign nations, be considered as rebels. . . .Were a manifesto to bepublished, and dispatched to foreign courts, setting forth themiseries we have endured, and the peaceable methods we haveineffectually redress, declaring . . . that . . . we had been driven tothe necessity of breaking off all connection with her, . . . such amemorial would produce more good effects to this Continent than ifa ship were freighted with petitions to Britain." ("Common Sense"270-83)

4. The pamphlet was probably read by every literate American, and read toand discussed by a very large portion of the illiterate population.

D. Congress1. Authorized privateers (an act of a sovereign nation)2. Opened our ports to trade with foreign vessels.3. Urged the colonial assemblies to frame their own constitutions (which they

were already doing without any urging)E. Richard Henry Lee proposed the following resolution on June 7, 1776:

1. "That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free andindependent States." ("That these United" 297)

2. A committee was formed to draft the Declaration:a. Benjamin Franklin (PA)b. Thomas Jefferson (VA)c. John Adams (MA)d. Roger Sherman (CN)e. Robert Livingston (NY)

3. The draft was written by Jefferson and edited by Franklin and Adams.4. The Declaration of Independence was officially adopted on July 4, 1776.

F. Structure1. The first portion was an introduction and a justification.2. The second section is a statement of ideological faith.3. The third section is a list of grievances and an indictment of King George

IIIa. Jefferson was careful to impute acts of Parliament to the King,

since our view of the Empire linked the colonies to Great Britainthrough the Crown.

b. Jefferson attempted to demonstrate that the King had broken thesocial contract.


4. The Declaration is not, and was not intended to be, original thinking. Rather, it represented a fair summary of the ideological beliefs of manyAmericans. Its enduring power lies both in the ideas expressed and thewell-nigh flawless expression of those ideas.a. Note key ideas in the Declaration:

(1) Natural law(2) The purpose of government(3) The social contract(4) The source of sovereignty(5) The right of revolution

5. Interestingly, Jefferson wrote the following passage for the indictment,which was deleted by Congress: "He has waged cruel war againsthuman nature itself, violating its most sacred rights to life & libertyin the persons of a distant people who never offended him,captivating & carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, orto incur miserable death in their transportation thither." (Cumminsand White 89-90)

6. The Declaration has several different audiences:a. Americans whose loyalty was undecided or who were Loyalists

(Tories)b. British Whigs, justifying our resistance.c. European opinion, particularly at the French Court (which could

not, however, be expected to be too sympathetic to our ideas, evenif so many Enlightenment thinkers were French) and in Holland.

d. Posterity, where the Declaration retains its universal power.G. Permit me to mount my soap box briefly. The United States is unlike most

nations in the world in that we have not been created along ethnic, religious,linguistic, or purely geographic lines. If you look around the modern world, youwill see that nationalism remains the most potent force in world politics. Nationalism usually develops around cultural factors, such as language or "race." Not so the United States.1. The United States, even in 1776, did not possess a common language (a

dominant language, yes, but not a universal one); a common ethnicbackground; a common religion; a common race. We have always beenhighly heterogeneous.

2. Even less does the United States possess such common factors aslanguage, race, religion, ethnic background.

3. A comparison with Great Britain, Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Japanwill throw this difference into harsh light. In nations like Bosnia orRuanda or regions like Chechnya, one call see that artificial nations likeYugoslavia can be easily torn apart by these cultural divisions.


4. What defines the United States? What makes us different, as Americans? What makes us, in fact, Americans at all? Is it merely birth within thepolitical borders? No, since a large proportion of our population is andhas always been foreign born.

5. I believe that the United States is defined by three documents, which layout what we, as a nation and a people, believe in. We are, in other words,defined and shaped by a set of political ideas--an unusual circumstance fora sovereign nation.

6. Those documents are the Declaration of Independence--the statement offirst principles--, the Constitution of the United States (includingAmendments)--which give our principles practical form--; and theGettysburg Address--which provides a definitive commentary on themeaning of our great experiment in government.

7. During this course, I shall not hesitate to deal with the unpleasant, ugly,shameful, and controversial issues in U.S. history. I will criticize our pastwhere I believe it is warranted (and I expect you to be free to do the same,so long as you defend your position). A responsible citizen of a republicmust exercise critical faculties. I am not engaged in propaganda as it isusually understood. Nevertheless, I am proud--very proud--to be anAmerican, and our history is one that, on the whole, uplifts me. Mygreatest background was in European history. Now I am trying to read alot of Latin American history. Believe me, in general, the history of thehuman race is a grim tale indeed. For all our failings, the degree to whichwe have striven to embody our deepest beliefs can be seen in sharpestdetail when compared with the history of any other European nation youmight choose. Even English or French history is pretty grim most of thetime--much less Italy, Spain, or Germany. Russia doesn't even beardiscussion. And Latin American history is pretty depressing.

8. I believe that these three documents go far in defining the differencebetween the experience of the United States and so much of the rest of theworld.

H. "When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for onepeople to dissolve the political bands which have connected them withanother, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate andequal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Natures's God entitlethem, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that theyshould declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are createdequal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienableRights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men,


deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That wheneverany Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Rightof the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government,laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in suchform, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety andHappiness. Prudence indeed will dictate that Governments longestablished should not be changed for light and transient causes; andaccordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed tosuffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing theforms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses andusurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design toreduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, tothrow off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their futuresecurity,--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and suchis now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems ofGovernment. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a historyof repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object theestablishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, letFacts be submitted be submitted to a candid world. . . .

he has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of largedistricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right ofRepresentation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them andformidable to tyrants only. . . .

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposingwith manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. . . .

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure oftheir office, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

he has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarmsof Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies withoutthe Consent of our legislature.he has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the

Civil Power. . . . For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murders

which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offenses:


For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighboring Province,establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so asto render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the sameabsolute rule into these Colonies.: . . .

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves investedwith Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protectionand waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, anddestroyed the Lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries tocompleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun withcircumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages,and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. . . .

He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeaveoured tobring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whoseknown rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes andconditions. . . .

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, inGeneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world forthe rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the goodPeople of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these UnitedColonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; . . .And forthe support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of DivineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and oursacred Honor. ("Declaration of Independence" 297-01)

VIII. Balance of Forces and Military Situation.A. American advantages

1. The colonists were actually in possession of the land being contested. TheBritish were in a position of having to reconquer it all--a formidable task.a. Washington thoroughly understood that fact; his opponents do not

seem to have understood it.b. The war effort for Britain would be very costly in money and

manpower.2. Geographical separation. The British were operating at the end of a line of

communication thousands of miles long, and months in transit. In such asituation, the difference in relative power between the colonies and Britainis narrowed by Britain's ability to project power.a. It works in both directions, by the way. The fundamental fact of


military reality for the United States is that we must project ourpower across vast distances in order to protect our interests. Geography limits us just as it limited Great Britain. As a voter,don't forget that when you face future Iraqs, Viet Nams, Bosnias.

3. Inefficiency and poor leadership in the British Army and Navy.a. The British generals Gage, Clinton, Howe, Burgoyne and even

Cornwallis appear to be no better than journeymen soldiers,technically competent within their sphere, but very limited invision. There is no James Wolfe here, much less an ArthurWellesley.

b. The Royal Navy was at its lowest ebb in strength in a century. Inaddition, the local commander, Adm. Graves, was prettyincompetent--the result of promotion strictly by seniority.

c. The British made some titanic blunders in the war--chief amongthem the omission to send orders to Howe to cooperate withBurgoyne.

4. The generation of the Founding Fathers included some giants--the mostextraordinary generation in our history, and all the more amazing in viewof the size of the population. Above all others, we had GeorgeWashington, the indispensable man, the Father of His Country.

5. Great Britain was a world power, and had to worry about world widecommitments. We shall see that those commitments were decisive. At theend of the war, the British faced war not only with the United States butFrance and Spain as well.

6. The United States could win the war simply by making the British decidethat the cost of winning was greater than it was worth; this is preciselyhow North Viet Nam won the Second Indochina War.

B. George Washington: Father of His Country (OK, so occasionally a littlepropaganda!)1. Washington served during the entire war without pay. He asked only to be

reimbursed for necessary expenses. His accounting was so meticulous thatit agreed within pennies to Congress'. (Cummins and White 126)

2. Washington was an amateur soldier, and never pretended to be otherwise. he learned quickly, and did not make the same mistake twice.

3. Trained, professional soldiers were in short supply.a. Some of the ones we had were so bad they helped the British more

than us, like Charles Lee.b. Perhaps it is significant that some of our best professionals came to

us voluntarily from Europe, after fighting had broken out. Thesemen had no stake whatever in the fighting, except for the idealswhich we professed: Thaddeus Koscieusko, Baron de Kalb,Casimir Pulaski, and Friedrich von Steuben. (the Marquis de


Lafayette was not a professional soldier.)4. Some of our amateurs proved to be very good: Benedict Arnold (until he

turned traitor); Nathanael Greene, John Stark; Daniel Morgan; AnthonyWayne.a. Many others proved poor or incompetent.b. It is a measure of Washington's greatness that few of his choices

for leadership proved not to be able while quite a few of Congress'political appointees were incompetent. Great leaders must be goodjudges of men. (Mitchell 91)(1) Lincoln would go through the same difficulties.

5. Throughout the war, Washington's greatest challenge was to train, feed,clothe, and hold his army together. Fighting the British came second tothat. He battled Congress more doggedly than he had to battle the British.

6. It is a measure of Washington's greatness that he did not depose theincompetent Congress (if pro is the opposite of con, what is the oppositeof progress?) and establish himself as dictator. Caesar did; Cromwell did;Napoleon would soon. In Latin America, how many men on horsebackresponded to the crisis in their nation by seizing power and establishingmilitary rule?a. A concrete example was Washington's refusal to take needed food

and shelter from civilians at the point of a bayonet at Valley Forge. To do so would violate the very relationship of the army to thecitizenry which a republic must have. Many in Congress, who didnot understand the principle of military subordination to the civilauthority, were not so understanding. (Flexner 109-12)

7. Do you realize how unusual Washington's forbearance is? Do you realizewhat an aphrodisiac power is? Don't you think Washington understoodthat he had the power to do it, and that he could fight the war far better asdictator than as simply Commander in Chief of the Continental armies? His refusal to become a Caesar is one of the reasons Europeans, especiallyFrederick the Great, admired Washington so much.

8. George Washington was not committed to an independent nation. GeorgeWashington was committed to an independent republic; he wascommitted to a nation of laws; to a nation of civilian rule, in which themilitary are and must always be the servant of civil authority, howeverincompetent that civil authority might be; where laws are made by the willof the people, not by the fiat of a dictator or the thrust of a bayonet.("Genius" 12-13)

9. Saul Padover assessed Washington as follows: "The Sheer personality ofWashington was the decisive element in the three crucial events of earlyAmerica--the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Convention, and the


first national administration." (qtd in Cummins and White 127)C. American Weaknesses

1. There are so many one is almost uncertain where to start.2. The United States lacked money. We desperately needed loans from

abroad. Wars--all wars--are hideously expensive.3. The United States did not produce much gunpowder. Since it is difficult

to win a war within ammunition, we desperately needed to importmunitions from France and Holland. (Washington usually could issue nomore than 12 to 15 rounds per man, as contrasted to the 60 rounds carriedby British soldiers) (Cummins and White 146)

4. Congress had no power to tax whatever. a. Congress could only requisition from the states (a continuation of

the Imperial system, which had already proved to be inadequateand the replacement of which played a significant role in theoutbreak of the war). To requisition means to beg.

b. Congress could also resort to printing paper money. We printedlots and lots of it. Since there was no gold to back it up,eventually, the paper became worthless, and no one would acceptit--"not worth a Continental."

c. The shortage of coin caused prices to rise steeply.d. Since the British paid in gold, many merchants refused to do

business with the United States and gladly did business with theBritish--particularly around Philadelphia and New York.

e. The Army was paid in paper (if they were paid at all), which meantthat the men fighting to win the war did so at great hardship to theirfamilies as well as risk to themselves.

f. The final official value was $40 paper: $1 silver. Unofficially, itwas a lot worse: in 1779, $1.00 in gold was worth $50 to $100Continental. (Cummins and White 150)

5. Our system of supply was consequently very weaka. To say the least. You've heard the stories about men freezing at

Valley Forge; eating shoes and leaving bloody footprints in thesnow? They are true. Every winter. Soldiers were not paid foryears.

6. Lack of unitya. The United States was divided between Patriots (hey, we won!) or

Whigs and Loyalists or Tories.(1) In some states, particularly in New York, New Jersey,

North and South Carolina, the Revolutionary War is a bittercivil war.

(2) John Adams believed that 33% actively supportedindependence, 33% were Tories, and 33% were indifferent.


(3) Robert E. Brown's studies suggest that Tories accounted for7.6% to 18% of the population.

(4) Some 100,000 Tories fled the United States.7. The Tories

a. Modern studies show the numbers of Tories to be substantial. Anestimated 30,000 served for the British at one time or another. In1780, there were 8,000 Tory soldiers for the British, compared with9,000 in Washington's army. (Cummins and White 99)

b. These people tended to be more conservative.c. These people were concentrated along the fringes of the frontier,

and on the seaboard from the Hudson to the Chesapeake. (Cummins and White 99)

d. Tories came disproportionately from minority groups in thecolonies, from Quakers, Germans, Indians, and Blacks--groupswho may have feared for their status amidst the majority. (Cummins and White 99-100)

e. 80,000 to 100,000 Tories left the U.S. and fled, mostly to Canada. In 1783, 9,000 left from New York and Charleston each.(Cummins and White 104)

f. They failed in large measure because they offered no realalternative to the Whigs. They had no positive program. (Cummins and White 103)

g. They also failed in part because Washington deliberately cultivatedthem, refusing to deal harshly with conservatives and holding hismen in check. (Flexner 119) In other words, Washingtondeliberately avoided fighting the kind of revolutionary war thaterupted in France in 1789.

IX. Forming State GovernmentsA. The states turned to the idea of the compact, the covenant of the Puritans, in

establishing a new juridical basis for government. Government must be underlaw. They began to write constitutions.1. Between 1776 and 1780, while the issue of the war was still in doubt, all

13 states drew up constitutions.2. Three states adopted constitutions before the Declaration was even signed.

(Wright 8)3. Remember that the British constitution is not a written constitution. The

new states are breaking sharply with the British tradition.4. All of the states accepted as a fundamental proposition that "a written

constitution is a first essential of a free government." (Wright 9)B. Constitution writing embodied Lockean ideas, but also embodied the colonial

experience.1. The constitution writers were explicit in their belief that they were writing


social compacts: the Massachusetts constitution (drawn up by JohnAdams) states: "The body politic is formed by a voluntary associationof individuals: it is a social compact by which the whole peoplecovenants with each citizen and each citizen with the whole peoplethat all shall be governed by certain laws for the common good."(Wright 15-16)

C. The first constitutions were drawn up by the assemblies. But Massachusetts brokenew ground.

D. Massachusetts in 1780 called a special constitutional convention, and modeledtheir constitution on their colonial charter.1. They then submitted the constitution to the people for ratification.2. This is a crucial innovation: "The same body that forms a Constitution

have of consequence a power to alter it, and a Constitution alterable bythe legislature is no security at all to the individual." (Degler 90)

E. For the most part, the new constitutions dropped outside authority.F. All constitutions provided for an

1. Assembly2. Courts3. Governor

G. Each state strengthened the principle of separation of powers.H. Property requirements to vote were maintained. It has been argued by Charles

Beard, before careful studies had demonstrated the truth of the matter, that therevolution led to the end of the property requirements. This is not the case. Thelaws were modified some, but the principle that only those with property had theright to vote was maintained.1. Recall that Robert E. Brown has shown in Middle Class Democracy and

the Revolution in Massachusetts that property holding was wide-spread,and that about 66% of the male population was qualified to vote. A muchlarger percentage of Americans could vote under property qualificationsthan was the case in Great Britain.

I. Every state created a limited government: all men are tyrants enough at heart.J. The locus of power was the assembly.K. Virtual representation was rejected out of hand, as Gordon S. Wood has

demonstrated: the legislature are agents carrying out the wishes of the people.L. Virginia's constitution, written by George Mason, asserted the right of the people

to revolution. (Wright 16)M. Delaware in 1776 introduced a very important innovation, directly derived from

William Penn's charters for Pennsylvania and Delaware: an amending clause tothe constitution. (Wright 11)

N. The states drew up Bills of Rights: embodied a belief that government must be explicitly limited. Bills of Rights are bulwarks against majority rule.


1. Benjamin Wright draws an interesting comparison with the FrenchDeclaration of the Rights of Man (1789) which states that all sovereigntyis in the nation (not the people) and that the law is the expression of thegeneral will (Rousseau's idea), a far more totalitarian view of the power ofgovernment. (Wright 18)

X. Social ReformA. Reapportionment was undertaken in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina

(where the Regulator war had raged)B. Feudal remnants legally abolished:

1. Primogeniture: entire inheritance of lands goes to the eldest son; youngersons cut off without a penny.

2. Entail: Estates may be handed down only through the male line.3. Quitrents: a fee paid to the original landholder in mark of his authority.

C. The Anglican church was disestablished in South.1. In New England, however, the Congregational Church remained the

established church.2. There was the beginning of the radical idea that "a man's religion was

irrelevant to government" and that "religious orthodoxy [might not be]necessary for good citizenship and service to the state." (Degler 101)

3. States continued to collect tax money for the churches and to distribute themoney to churches in numerical proportion

D. The Rights of Women1. Abigail Adams had hoped that the Revolution would bring about change

for the better. She wrote her husband John on March 31, 1776, "I long tohear that you have declared an independency--and by the way in thenew Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you tomake I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be moregenerous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not putsuch unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Rememberall Men would be tyrants if they could. If perticuliar care andattention is not paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment aRebelion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in whichwe have no voice, or Representation."

2. There were some improvements in divorce laws3. There were beginnings of education for women.

a. A republic required an educated citizenry.b. Women held the chief child rearing responsibility.c. Women must be educated so as to rear patriotic sons.d. Improved education is a foundation for the later feminist

movement.E. Slavery


1. Slavery is not compatible with the Declaration of Independence.2. After 1780, the northern states did way with slavery gradually.3. The usual technique was by post-nati laws, that is, all slaves born after a

certain date would be freed upon reaching a specified age.a. The age varied from state to state. In New York, it was 28 for

males and 25 for females; in New Jersey, 25 for males and 21 forfemales.

b. Generally speaking, those slaves born prior to the post-nati datewere never subsequently freed. In New Jersey, 18 slaves lived tosee the election of Abraham Lincoln.

c. Particularly in New York and New Jersey, the process was abusedby illegal sales of slaves to the South just prior to the date offreedom. It has been estimated that New York sold twice as manyslaves away as it eventually freed.

d. Pennsylvania, with 10,000 slaves and a strong Quaker influence,led the way in 1780.

e. Rhode Island, with 6% of the population slave, set the year at 1784.f. Connecticut, with 5% of the population slave, passed their law in

1794.g. New Jersey held 11,423 slaves, and did not pass their law until

1804.h. New York had 12% of the population slave, and did not pass its

law until 1799.. (Freehling 132-33)4. All of the states, even the Southern states, prohibited the further

importations of slaves.5. Except for South Carolina and Georgia, restrictions on manumission were

lifted.6. Emancipation occurred only where slavery was not economically

important.F. A Social Revolution?

1. "It is quickly apparent that the social consequences of the Revolution weremeager indeed. In both purpose and implementation, they were not to beequated with the massive social changes which shook France and Russia.(Degler 108)

2. No new social class came to power3. There was no major shift in leadership as a result of the Revolution

a. 75% of state officials during the war held office prior to 1774.b. This trend will continue through the Constitutional period.c. The emphasis is continuity.

4. Tory lands were confiscated and redistributed.a. Again, comparison with the French Revolution and Russian


Revolution is instructive.b. Land was taken and sold as a revenue measure, not for purposes of

a general redistribution of property or land reform.c. Most of the land was sold to speculators, not landless farmers.d. The amount of Tory land taken is insignificant compared to al of

the land available.XI. Financing the War

A. There are only 4 ways to finance a war:1. Tax

a. Congress had no power tax; they had to rely on requisitions. Onlythe states could tax. If the state met a requisition, , it has probablyhad to tax itself.

2. Borrowa. You can borrow money by selling bonds to private citizens or to

foreign citizens or governments. These lenders have in effect,invested in your war.

3. Print moneya. Sovereign nations control their own printing presses. Printing

money is the easiest but worst way to finance a way. It willcertainly lead to inflation, and can easily ruin your currencyentirely. This is precisely what happened to the United States inthe Revolutionary War and also to the Confederacy during theCivil War.

4. Plundera. Make the loser pay the costs. A traditional way of making war. In

modern times, indemnities for costs were imposed on the loser bythe winner. This created animosity. The attempt to do this afterWorld War I helped to destroy the German economy anddestabilize the world economy. Modern war is far too expensive tomake the loser pay the costs without disastrous impoverishment ofthe loser.

B. Requisitions for money often overlooked by the states.C. The states contributed $5,800,000.D. Bonds were sold

1. Private citizens bought $7 to 8,000,000 ; this becomes our domestic debt2. Foreign governments bought $8,000,000; this becomes our foreign debt.

E. Paper money1. Congress printed $240,000,000 in paper, the "Continental" dollar.2. The states printed an additional $200,000,000.3. The effect of this was to depreciate savings via massive inflation. This

leads directly to the massive problems Alexander Hamilton would face asfirst Secretary of the Treasury.


XII. The Articles of ConfederationA. There was a very widespread belief, derived from David Hume, that a republic

was ill-adapted to a large geographic area.1. James Wilson of Pennsylvania expressed it thus: "to a small territory

the democratical, to a middling, the monarchical, and to anextensive territory the despotic form of government is best adapted." (now where did I get that quote? I can't find it where I thought it camefrom!)

2. Therefore, a Confederation of small republics was the best way to protectthe liberties for which we were fighting.

B. Organization of the Continental Congress1. Delegates were appointed by the state assemblies.2. Each state had one vote, which was the consensus of its delegates.3. Congress was the de facto war government.4. Congress created various committees which served as a substitute for an

executive.a. The most important figure here was Robert Morris, who wrestled

with the impossible problem of financing the war. He was animmensely talented man; no one could have done a better job.

C. The Articles of Confederation were presented on 11/17/77.1. The draft was written by John Dickenson.2. Every state had equal representation, with one vote per delegation.3. Only the states had the power to tax themselves.4. No state was to be deprived of its Western lands (recall that Western land

claims conflicted).5. "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence."6. Congressional powers:

a. decide on war or peaceb. appoint military officersc. requisition the states for men and moneyd. send ambassadorse. make treatiesf. coin moneyg. establish a post officeh. borrow moneyi. fix weights and measuresj. regulate Indian affairsk. settle inter-state disputes.

7. The Articles were accepted by all the states except Maryland by 1779.a. But without unanimous approval, they did not take effect.

D. The Western Lands Issue


1. The West had often been divisivea. Bacon's Rebellion 1676b. the Albany Congress 1754c. the Paxton Boysd. The Regulator War

2. Unequal representation between the East and the West and subsequentWestern resentment remains a problem.a. The East was often less truculent when it came to the Indians; the

willingness to tax to fight the Indians was in direct proportion toproximity to the frontier.

3. Landless States: Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Rhode Island, andPennsylvania were "landless" states, whose charters limited their size.a. These states desired Congress to control the unoccupied lands.

4. Landed States: Virginia (which had the largest and best establishedclaims), Massachusetts, Connecticut, Georgia, North and South Carolinahad western land claims, extending in some cases all the way to the PacificOcean.

5. Speculators in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and new Jersey had purchasedconsiderable land from Congress and competed with Virginia's OhioCompany, establishing a colony called Vandalia.a. Dickenson's draft blocked the aspirations of these speculators.

Congress can't sell what it does not have title to.6. Speculative interests controlled the Maryland assembly.

a. Maryland refused to ratify until the Western lands were given toCongress.

b. They argued (and this is in fact a legitimate concern) that thelanded states could easily eliminate all taxes, relying entirely uponland sales for revenue, while the landless states would be caught ina spiral of taxation.

7. Thomas Jefferson broke the deadlock.a. Virginia offered to cede all claims to Congress on two conditions:

(1) All prior speculative claims were canceled.(a) This ensured that the Maryland speculators could

not profit by extorting the entire nation.(2) The region was to be divided into states that were small

republics, to be admitted on an equal basis with the originalthirteen states..(a) This proposal sidesteps the potential problems of

colonial expansion and provides a principle forfuture growth. It is an enormously importantprovision for our future, and demonstratesJefferson's wisdom. Jefferson close to his best.


8. Virginia's willingness to cede Western land, since Virginia had the largestand best claims, as well as the largest population, and having paid in bloodand treasure for the Western lands was decisive.a. (remember that Virginia sent Washington out to build Fort

Necessity and start the French and Indian War; also George RogersClark, whose victories at Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennessecured the region for us, was sent by Virginia, not by Congress.)

E. Congress Under the Articles of Confederation1. Congress was given responsibility but no power.2. People were extremely wary of giving authority to a central government--

any central government. They did not fight a war to overthrow authorityfrom London only to replace it with authority in Philadelphia.

3. Cecilia Kenyon wrote of the future Anti-Federalists: "They weretransfixed by the specter of power. It was not the power of the aristocracythat they feared, but power of nay kind, democratic or otherwise, that theycould not control for themselves. Their chief concern was to keepgovernments as limited and as closely tied to local interests as possible."(Kenyon *)a. These Anti-Federalists included Patrick Henry George Mason,

Richard Henry Lee of Virginia,, George Clinton of New York,Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Joseph Warren ofMassachusetts.

4. Congress had no power to levy taxes5. Congress had no power to regulate trade.6. 7 states were needed for a quorum (and much time was lost for lack of a

quorum)7. 9 votes were needed to approve treaty or a requisition.8. Terms were for 1 year, so membership was constantly shifting.9. There was no executive10. Tariffs (called an impost) required unanimous approval.

a. This was never achieved, so foreign loans could not be repaid.XIII. The New York Campaign

A. The British set out to reestablish themselves in the colonies by landing at NewYork.1. A second thrust from Canada was intended to join up with the British in

New York, and thus cut the colonies in two.B. The force that landed at New York was huge, some 250 vessels, and an army of

32,000 men (and 10,000 sailors). The population of New York City was 25,000.C. The army was commanded by General William Howe; the fleet by Admiral

Viscount Richard Howe, is brother.D. Washington could count on about 20,000 men. (Mitchell 53-55)E. Washington should not have attempted to defend the city, but he is still learning,


and he was under heavy pressure from Congress to defend the city.F. Washington made some serious mistakes here, the worst of which was positioning

his army on an island with British command of the sea. The chief factors insaving his army were luck and Howe's dilatory manner.

G. The most charitable explanation of Howe's performance is that he was hoping tonegotiate a reconciliation.

H. Howe won a series of engagements:1. Brooklyn Heights 8/27/762. Long Island 8/27/763. Harlem Heights 9/16/764. By the end of these, Washington realized that he had placed his men in a

potential trap, and had evacuated first Long Island and then the city itself.5. The Continental Army was no match for the British and Hessians in open

battle.I. Washington is then forced to retreat clear through New Jersey.

1. Washington was hampered by an army that was disintegrating around him,and by subordinates who would not obey orders and who seemed intent onletting Washington lose so that they could seize the spotlight (CharlesLee).

2. It is during this retreat that Thomas Paine published his second greatcontribution to revolutionary propaganda: The Crisis.a. "These re times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and

the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink form theservice of their country; but he that stands it now, deservesthe love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell,is not easily conquered; yet we have this consolation with us,that the harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph. What we obtain too cheap, we esteem too lightly: it isdearness only that gives every things its value." (The Crisis406)

3. Howe ended the campaign season of 1776 believing that the war was allbut won. Following normal practices, he ordered winter camps set up forhis troops.

J. While this was going on, Gen. Carleton attempted an advance down LakeChamplain with his Canadians. He was opposed by Benedict Arnold. 1. The central military fact of life in upstate New York was that control of

Lake Champlain was essential to movement. Arnold built a flotilla todefend the lake. Carleton dismantled ships, transported them to LakeChamplain, and reassembled them. Carleton won the ensuing battle, butthe season was too advanced for him to continue This has very importantconsequences, since Burgoyne did not have Ticonderoga as a base of


operations when he began his campaign the next year. (Mitchell 68-79)XIV. Trenton and Princeton

A. Washington feared that a hard winter following a disastrous spring would led tothe disappearance of his army by desertion ended enlistments.

B. Washington determined to risk further battle in order to win a morale booster.C. His plan was really very daring indeed. He had to recross the Delaware River, a

major obstacle, under difficult weather conditions (yes, there were really flows ofice in the river, not to mention a snow storm). Then he had to defeat an enemywho had chased him out of New Jersey. If beaten, he would have his back to ariver: a recipe for annihilation.

D. Trenton was garrisoned by 1,400 Hessians under Col. Johann Rall. Washingtoncrossed the river on Christmas Day with 2,500 men and made a forced march toreach the town.

E. Surprise was complete. The garrison had celebrated Christmas heavily (read that: drunk heavily) Among the officers who distinguished themselves were AlexanderHamilton and James Monroe. 1. 50 Hessians were killed, 920 captured, 4 Americans were wounded (but 2

men froze to death on the way back). (Mitchell 78-83)F. Howe responded vigorously, trying to march columns up to trap Washington.

Washington's response was aggressive: to sideslip Howe and attack his supplybase at New Brunswick.

G. A meeting engagement occurred at Princeton 1/3/77. Washington won this smallbattle, but realized that he could not press farther without disaster, and broke off.

H. Europe's greatest soldier, Frederick the Great, regarded this campaign ofWashington's as brilliant. This is high praise indeed. The battles saved theContinental Army and probably Philadelphia for that year. (Mitchell 89)

XV. The Saratoga Campaign: The Turning Point of the American RevolutionA. Saratoga is the turning point of the American Revolution!!!!!B. Gen. "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne, besides being a member of Parliament,

dramatist, and fashionable man about town, fancied himself a great soldier.C. Burgoyne sold the government on a plan to cut the colonies in two, with himself

playing the key role.D. The plan itself is quite sound in principle.E. One thrust would be from Quebec, and would move down the historic water

pathway into the colonies, along Lake Champlain. This would be led byBurgoyne himself. His army consisted of 4,100 British, 3,100 Hessians, 250Canadians and about 400 Indians. (Mitchell 99)

F. Howe, from New York was to thrust up the Hudson toward Albany in order tosupport Burgoyne and to meet him half way. Howe's army was about 15,000 men(Mitchell 92)

G. A third thrust would be through the Mohawk Valley, the granary of New York,and would be comprised mostly of Tories and Iroquois Indians (under the


leadership of Joseph Brant (his English name; his Iroquois name wasThayendanegea; he was nephew by marriage to William Johnson and aremarkable leader in every respect). This force was led by Col. Barry St. Leger.

H. Properly executed, this plan should have won the war for the British. The Britishtotally botched it. The British Minister, Lord Germain, failed to send orders toHowe. (Mitchell 93)1. Just in case you missed that, the British planned a three pronged attack to

win the war, but forgot to order the strongest prong to take part. Ifmemory serves me correctly, the clerk entrusted with copying the orderstook a long weekend in the country, and forgot that he had not copied themor sent them when he returned. I am looking for that source. No wonderthe British lost the war.

I. Instead of cooperating with Burgoyne, Howe conducted an entirely unrelatedcampaign against Philadelphia. Howe won every battle, captured Philadelphia,and lost the war. Mitchell criticizes Howe, orders or no orders, for failing tosupport Burgoyne--it was only common sense. (93-4)

J. In contrast, Washington, while facing off against Howe, always paid closeattention to the northern campaign, and dispatched his best troops from his over-matched army to fight at Saratoga.

K. Oriskany1. On 8/3/77 St. Leger besieged Fort Stanwix at the mouth of the Mohawk

Valley, with a force of 900 Canadians and Tories and 900 Indians underBrant.

2. A militia force of 800 men plus 60 Indians under Nicholas Herkimerarrived to relieve the fort.

3. The Iroquois ambushed Herkimer at Oriskany. A very bitter and desperatebattle developed, with frequent hand-to-hand combat. After a day offighting, the Iroquois broke off, and the militia fell back (Herkimer died ofhis wounds).

4. The situation was saved by Benedict Arnold. Arnold arrived in the valleywith about 950 men. He did not think he was strong enough to defeat theBritish and Indians by force so he resorted to guile. Either he understoodthe Indians well, or he listened to advice.a. He arrested a Tory, a man who was retarded, and sentenced him to

death. He then convinced this man (in exchange for his life) to goamong the Indians and tell them that he had a huge army coming,and then released him into the Indian camp.

b. This man was perfectly safe from the Indians. They regarded hismental affliction as the work of the Great Spirit and would notharm him under any circumstances.

c. The rumor spread quickly. St. Leger's Indians became alarmed,and melted away.


d. St. Leger turned back. (Cummins and White 160-1, Eckert 174-7)L. The Murder of Jane MacCrae

1. Burgoyne started down from Canada on the historic invasion route to andfrom New York..

2. On July 27, 1777, his army neared Fort Edward.3. Jane MacCrae was a young woman who was well-known as a Tory, and

who was engaged to a British officer with Burgoyne. She evidentlypossessed very long, beautiful, and distinctive hair (I assume red).

4. A band of Indians accompanying Burgoyne's army captured her andanother Tory woman. One of the Indians murdered both of them, scalpedthem, and took the scalps to Burgoyne's army in order to collect thereward.a. Burgoyne, like other British commanders before and after him,

paid bounties for the America scalps. Americans also were knownto pay for scalps. The governor of Pennsylvania had promisedbounties for Indian scalps in 1774. (Eckert 27) Theoretically, thesewere only paid for the scalps of adult males in rebellion, notwomen or children or Tories. Of course, after someone wasscalped, it was difficult to ascertain their politics. As for womenand children, Indians on the warpath had always killed women andchildren indiscriminately. Any serious attempt to curtail thebounties on humanitarian grounds would have led to the Indianssimply melting away. The fact is that the British accepted thepractice of murder when they began paying for hair. Eckertdescribes the method the British used to collect and identify scalpsfor proper payment--it is chilling. They were collected in bundlesof 88 to 100 with minimum shipments to the Governor of Canadaof 700. Categories of identification included Soldier, Old Person,Woman, Boy, Girl, Infant, Mothers, Wives, Beaten to Death,Tortured to Death, Died Fighting. (Eckert 522-3)

5. MacCrae's fiancee recognized the scalp (his fellow officers physicallyrestrained him from killing the Indian), the bounty was duly paid, andBurgoyne wished the whole thing had not happened.

6. It is in fact a disaster for him far beyond the human tragedy of JaneMacCrae. If a well-known Tory woman, under the protection of theCrown, was not safe from the Indians with Burgoyne, then no one was. Burgoyne's army therefore represented a direct, deadly, and tangible threatto the life and well-being of every family in up-state New York and theupper New England states. (Mitchell 105, 128)

7. Recruits began pouring in to the Americans to stop Burgoyne. And, undersuch circumstances, where one's very home and loved-ones are directly atrisk, men will fight very hard indeed.


8. The Patriots made certain that the news of Jane MacCrae's death wasspread far and wide.

M. The Battle of Bennington 1. Burgoyne was literally hacking his way through virgin forest. He had

made a terrible choice of traveling 23 miles over very difficult terraininstead of sticking strictly with the longer, but better portage route. (Whyis uncertain; he knew better and had said so in a letter before thecampaign).

2. The small American forces in front of him systematically obstructed hispath, and destroyed everything of value in his path, especially food.

3. By August 11, Burgoyne's shortage of supplies was serious. He dispatched800 men, mostly Hessians to round up food stored at Bennington.

4. The militia that collected to defend Bennington were led by John Stark, aveteran of Rogers' Ranger, Bunker Hill, Trenton and Princeton. Theynumbered about 2,000 (Mitchell 108-9)

5. Stark aggressively attacked the Hessians, and defeated them. Reinforcedwith a further 650 men, the Hessians attempted to retreat under fiercepursuit.

6. The battle is a disaster for Burgoyne. He lost 900 men (to an Americanloss of 30 dead and 40 wounded) (Mitchell 112) Most of his Indians lefthim, and he was no longer strong enough to dare to detach a force toobtain supplies. And the Americans were getting stronger.

N. The Battles of Saratoga.1. Command of the main American force went to Horatio Gates, who was

supposed to be a good soldier, but who was in fact pretty incompetent.2. The real leaders of the American were the subordinate commanders,

Philip Schuyler, Benedict Arnold, Thaddeus Kosciusko, Daniel Morgan. These men, and especially Arnold, won the battles.

3. The Battle of Freeman's Farm 9/19/77a. Burgoyne attempted to outflank the American fortifications

blocking his advance at Bemis Heights. b. Benedict Arnold eventually stirred Gates into allowing Daniel

Morgan attack Burgoyne's column in the forest.c. Arnold and Morgan fought very successfully, nearly breaking the

British line. Hessian reinforcements thrown in at the last minutesaved the battle. Gates did nothing at all, despite repeated andangry pleas from Arnold for reenforcement.

4. The Battle of Bemis Heights 10/7/77a. The repulse at Freeman's Farm led Burgoyne to decide to entrench

and wait for help from Clinton, which wasn't going to come intime. Here, the terrible error of not sending clear instructions toHowe bears bitter fruit for the British.


b. The Americans simply build up their superiority in men (about11,000 to 5,000).

c. A strong reconnaissance in force led to a fight at Fraser's Farm,with Benedict Arnold once again bringing Daniel Morgan'sriflemen in. Arnold ordered Morgan to kill Gen. Simon Fraser,who was conspicuously rallying his men, and Morgan asked hisbest shot, Tim Murphy, to do so. Murphy killed the Britishcommander and the British defense collapsed.(1) British officer casualties in the War were very heavy

indeed. They thought it ungentlemanly to specificallytarget officers. The Americans had learned from theIndians--and they regarded war as a job to get done, not ameans of obtaining personal glory. Later, George S. Pattonexpressed the American attitude by saying, "No son of abitch ever won a war by dying for his country. You win awar by making the other poor son of a bitch die for hiscountry."

d. Arnold followed up the victory at Fraser's Farm by immediatelyattacking the main position, and over-running part of Burgoyne'smain defenses. Arnold was seriously wounded here.

5. Burgoyne's position was hopelessly compromised. He began a retreat, butwas brought to bay on October 17, 1777, and surrendered his entire army,5,700 men to a force now numbering about 20,000 men.

O. The Significance of Saratoga1. The French wished to hurt the British, but did not wish to back a losing

horse.2. The British are sufficiently shocked to attempt a negotiated peace.

a. Carlisle Commission was sent to offer concessions which, twoyears earlier, would have ended the conflict and saved the coloniesfor Britain; but now, after two years of war, it is too late. "Thecommissioners were empowered to offer if necessary all, and morethan all, that had been demanded by the first Continental Congress,provided the Americans would return to their allegiance and acceptparliamentary control of imperial trade. They were instructed tosalvage what elements of British authority they could, but anyterms short of independence might be accepted." (Christie 103)

3. Silas Deane (remember him from the Wethersfield DBQ?) had been sentto Paris as our ambassador, trying to obtain supplies.

4. The French Foreign Minister, the Comte de Vergennes, saw theRevolution as an opportunity to hurt France's traditional enemy.a. Pierre Beaumarchais (yes, the playwright) provided loans to the

colonies via a dummy corporation, Roderique Hortalez et Cie.


5. After the Declaration was issued, Arthur Lee and Benjamin Franklinwere sent by Congress to join Deane.

6. Vergennes (understandably) was cautious; he wanted Spanish support andhe wanted assurance that the U.S. could win.

7. Saratoga and the Carlisle Commission made Vergennes fear areconciliation between Britain and the U.S. This gave Franklin achance to negotiate very favorable treaties.

8. I cannot help but mention Franklin's role here. He was easily the mostfamous American alive, and was lionized by Parisian society. Franklincarefully cultivated his image as a plain rustic man of the people, which ofcourse concealed a very acute and sophisticated intelligence. He was avery experienced negotiator, having been a colonial representative beforethe war. His performance as a diplomat is simply brilliant; the U.S. owesa lasting debt to Franklin for his skill at this critical juncture of our history.a. By the way, while in Paris, he invented daylight savings time and

probably fathered an illegitimate child with a French aristocrat.9. There are actually two treaties signed on 2/6/78:

a. A Treaty of Commerceb. A Treaty of Amity.c. They provide a defensive alliance should Britain declare war on

France (remember this for later).d. Their explicit purpose was to preserve U.S. independencee. Neither side was to make a separate peace with Britain.f. All captured territory was to go to the U.S. France explicitly

renounced all claims to Canada.P. French assistance is essential to U.S. victory. The French alliance is a direct result

of the victory at Saratoga. Therefore, Saratoga is the turning point of theAmerican Revolution.

XVI. Brandywine and GermantownA. While Burgoyne advanced south, Howe decided to advance on Philadelphia from

New York.B. Washington offered battle at Brandywine 9/11/77, with about 11,000 to 15,000 en

to Howe' 15,000 men. (Mitchell-4)1. Washington had a strong position, but Howe's columns maneuvered well

against them, and confusion set in as to what was happening. Washington's reactions were slow. Such confusion is not unusual. The"fog of war" is not an idle phrase. There was some stubborn fighting bySullivan, Greene, and Wayne, but Howe massed 2/3s of his army underCornwallis against 1/3 of Washington's and drove the Americans from thefield.a. Once again, Washington has been defeated, but once again, he

withdrew his army in good order. So long as he can maintain an


army in the field, the British cannot defeat him. The proper Britishcourse of action would have been to pursue Washington's armyruthlessly, ignoring all other opportunities, until Washington wasdestroyed. The professional British soldiers did not understandtheir craft as well as Washington did. ("Genius" 8-19)

2. Howe went on to capture Philadelphia. Washington correctly refused topin his army down in a siege defense of Philadelphia, or any other fixedpoint. He could not win a siege engagement. Cities could be lost andwon, but he could not replace his army. In these fundamentals,Washington's judgement is absolutely sound.

C. Germantown1. Washington believed that Howe had weakened his army by detachments

and that he could surprise and defeat him at Germantown. 2. On 10/4/77, Washington attacked Howe with four columns. His plan was

too complex.3. Washington achieved initial surprise, driving back one unit to a stone

farmhouse. Then he erred in not by-passing the farmhouse. The defendersheld out heroically, and this disrupted the American attack.

4. Howe was able to rally and beat back the attack. Again, he wins thisdefensive battle.

5. This battle is only 13 days before Burgoyne's surrender; the news of thisbattle helps influence the French, who were impressed by the resilienceand aggression of Washington's army. (Mitchell 126)

XVII. Valley Forge and MonmouthA. Howe now went into winter quarters in Philadelphia. B. Washington took up winter quarters at nearby Valley forge.

1. This winter is as bad as the mythology portrays.C. Washington was under enormous pressure and criticism from Congress. he was

being unfavorably compared with Horatio Gates, the "hero" of Saratoga.1. He also found himself faced with the Conway Cabal, named for Thomas

Conway, an Irish-French adventurer, and which included Richard HenryLee, Horatio Gates, Thomas Mifflin and Lt. Col. James Wilkinson (aman without redeeming virtues so far as I know; his career is one ofunmitigated shame and betrayal.) The Cabal aimed at supplantingWashington with themselves. They were schemers, backroom backstabbers. (Flexner 108-16)

2. The Conway Cabal collapsed when they achieved control of theCongressional Board of War and attempted direct control of the army. Their sheer incompetence, when compared with Washington's skill andintegrity, led to their failure. "The threat that he [Washington] might beeliminated made Americans visualize the leadership without him. . . . therewas no one else. Washington was recognized as the indispensable man."


(Flexner 116)D. His immediate military problems were severe. The army was ill-fed and ill-

clothed. The stories about men without shoes leaving bloody footprints in thesnow are true.

E. He paid for supplies for the army at times out of his own pocket. Heconspicuously shared the hardships of his men. Only his iron will and prodigiousauthority held the army together.

F. Maj. Gen. Baron Friedrich von Steuben (who was not actually a Maj. Gen. nor aBaron) arrived from the Prussian Army of Frederick the Great to help. Frederick'sarmy was renowned as the best in Europe. Steuben was set to work as a drillmaster.1. Von Steuben had to adapt his drill to American conditions, and some of

his observations on the differences between European and Americanrecruits are still valid. Von Steuben respected the Americans. "NoEuropean army, the bogus nobleman pointed out, would have heldtogether under equivalent hardships. 'The genius of this nation,' hewrote a European comrade, 'is not in the least to be compared with thePrussians, the Austrians, or French. You say to your soldier, Dothis, and he doeth it, but I am obliged to say, 'This is the reason youought to do that,' and then he does it.'" (Flexner 118)

2. Von Steuben's drill work produced an army much more able to maneuveron the battlefield. The difference in performance between the Colonials(von Steuben trained regulars) and the militia is notable.

3. Oddly, given the historic reputation of the Prussian army, von Steubenexpected more responsibility and initiative out of junior officers than didthe British; Americans responded well to this attitude. (Mitchell 143)

G. Henry Clinton succeeded William Howe to command, as Howe returned toEngland. Clinton was ordered to evacuate Philadelphia and return to New York. Clinton began to pull out on June 16, 1778

H. Washington ordered Charles Lee, the man who had obstructed orders in NewJersey before being captured (and who was now exchanged; a dirty trick by theBritish) to attack Clinton's long, vulnerable columns.

I. Lee was loud and insulting in his opposition to any such attack on the British,believing Americans to be incapable of standing up to them. Greene, Lafayette,and Wayne were equally determined to fight. Lee received the command onlybecause of his relative rank.

J. On June 28, Lee not only gave no orders to attack, but lost control of themovement of his men. When he ran into the British, Lee promptly lost his nerveand ordered a retreat.

K. Washington approached leading his own column, and was stunned to run acrossconfused and retreating men from Lee's command. He rode ahead to see what


was wrong. When he saw Lee calmly chatting while his men retreated withoutfighting, he lost his temper spectacularly. The situation became genuinely seriouswhen the British continued to attack toward a disorganized American army. Washington took immediate charge and tried to rescue the botch Lee had madeeven as Clinton attacked. He organized a delaying action, and then a second,stronger line. The result was a stubborn and inconclusive battle. Clinton won inthat he succeeded in protecting his convoy. The Americans won in that CharlesLee was court-martialed and resigned.1. Having faced the newly trained Continentals under favorable conditions,

Clinton chose to avoid pitched battle with them for the rest of the war. Silent but eloquent testimony to their new battle skills. (Flexner 119-24)

L. Most significantly, Clinton simply returned to New York and stayed there. Washington will observe him and keep him there. The British have given uptrying to reconquer the North. Their effort will shift to the South.

XVIII. The WestA. Joseph Brant brought the Iroquois back into the field in 1778, conducting a

devastating attack on the Wyoming Valley in Pennsylvania in July and the CherryValley in November. The carnage was awful.

B. Virginia's response to the threat to the frontier was to commission George RogersClark to seize key forts in the Ohio Valley. Indians from that region were raidingthe entire frontier, urged on by the British governor at Detroit, Lt. Col. HenryHamilton, called the "Hair Buyer" for his scalp bounties.1. With less than 200 men, Clark marched overland, and surprised first

Cahokia, then Kaskaskia and last Vincennes, capturing them all. Hamilton recaptured Vincennes, but Clark again marched on Vincennes,under terrible winter conditions, and recaptured Vincennes in February1779.

2. Clark's actions are small scale, but have huge consequences. The shortterm effect is to provide relief for the frontier. The long term effect is togive the U.S. physical control of most of the Northwest Territory. Ourcontrol of Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes is the reason why the U.S.obtained a western border on the Mississippi River. The importance ofpossession of the Northwest Territory for our future can hardly beoveremphasized.

C. Joseph Brant returned to the fight in July 1779, devastating Minisink, New Yorkand ambushing the pursuing militia.

D. At this point, Washington detached one of his most reliable and experiencedgenerals, John Sullivan, with an army of 3,700 men, (mostly Continentals) anddirected him to break the back of the Iroquois Confederation. The objective wasnot so much to kill warriors as to destroy homes and crops.1. Sullivan's campaign is a textbook example of the weakness of the Indian

style of war when faced with determined Europeans. It also demonstrates


Washington's thoroughly sound grasp of Indian fighting.2. Sullivan timed his approach march to reach the heart of the Iroquois

villages just before harvest.3. The Iroquois were not nomadic. They had fixed villages and extensive

crops.4. Sullivan's approach was slow, but careful and irresistible. Only once was

Brant able to offer serious battle. He prepared a brilliant ambush atNewtown on August 27, but Sullivan was no Herkimer, and refused towalk into it. Instead, he mounted a well-coordinated flanking attack.Sullivan made no mistakes to be exploited. Brant was forced to retreat.

5. The Iroquois people fled before Sullivan's advance, but their crops couldnot. Sullivan systematically burned out the heart of the Iroquois. Thedamage included 50 towns, 200,000 bushels of corn, 50,000 bushels ofvegetables, 10,000 fruit trees killed--all the things necessary to sustain thelives of the 20,000 Iroquois.

6. The immediate consequence is that Brant fled to Canada with his people. The ensuing winter was the coldest in memory. Their winter food andshelter had been destroyed. The British in Canada helped as much as theycould, but the Iroquois suffered horribly in the winter--a large percentageof the total population died of exposure and malnutrition. More important,however, the League itself had been destroyed by Oneida joining theAmericans. The will of the Iroquois League to continue the fight wasbroken. Although Brant (who refused to give up) would burn Canajohariethe next summer, the power of the Iroquois Nation is permanently broken. (Eckert 506-7) (the description of the campaign is from Eckert 322-507)

7. Note that Sullivan waged a systematic, well-thought out war against theentire nation by destroying their economic base. It is a very businesslikeapproach to war (which Americans have tended to display throughout ourhistory). In the 1870s, the U.S. would break the Sioux and the Cheyenneby massacring the buffalo and attacking their winter camps. In the CivilWar, William Tecumseh Sherman would apply this callous, brutal,workmanlike and enormously effective mode of war to the Confederacy. In World War II, the U.S. would systematically bomb German andJapanese cities to rubble.

XIX. War in the SouthA. Clinton besieged Charleston in February 1780.B. The American garrison made the mistake of thinking to defend the city instead of

maintaining freedom of maneuver. The result was a disastrous siege that couldhave only one result. About 5,000 men were captured.

C. Two effective British leaders in South Carolina were Col. Banastre Tarleton andMaj. Patrick Ferguson.1. Tarleton, who raised a body of Tory cavalry, began making himself the


most hated man in South Carolina when he captured and massacred aVirginia cavalry unit at Waxhaws.

2. The fighting in South Carolina turned out to be perhaps the most bitter ofthe war. There was a large number of Tories in South Carolina, and theAmerican Revolution in the South became a civil war, with all the furysuch a war entails.

D. Congress sent Horatio Gates to take command of Virginia militia andContinentals to drive the British out. Gates met British commander Charles,Lord Cornwallis (who had been left in command when Clinton returned to NewYork) at Camden on 8/16/80.1. Gates had 3,050 men to Cornwallis' 2,250, but only 1,000 of the

Americans were Continentals.2. Gates arranged his troops badly, then joined the militia in running away as

fast as he could when they simply melted before British attack (he fled 200miles in 3 days, which is good riding). The Continentals were trapped anddestroyed.a. Camden is among the worst defeats ever sustained by American

arms: with 1,050 American dead and wounded to 324 (that doesnot include the militia who never returned) (Mitchell 171-4)

3. Camden left South Carolina in British handsa. Cornwallis found that he did not have complete control, however.

Bands of guerrillas formed and began harassing his garrisons.(1) These guerrillas were led by Francis Marion (the "Swamp

Fox"), Thomas Sumter, and Andrew Pickens.(2) These men understood guerrilla war very well, and would

later combine with Nathanael Greene to recapture the state.E. King's Mountain (10/7/80) marked the end of Cornwallis' thrust. Fought in

North Carolina, every man involved except the British commander, PatrickFerguson, was American: Whig or Tory.1. The Whigs were mostly Scotch-Irish backwoodsmen, the Tories mostly

Scotch backwoodsmen (I have always been amazed by the loyalty giventhe British Crown by the Scotch after Culloden; the British do not deserveall the blood these magnificent soldiers have shed for them.)

2. Ferguson was killed, and the Tories soundly defeatedF. In January, 1781, Benedict Arnold, now a British general after his famous

betrayal, burned Richmond.G. Washington sent his best commander, Nathanael Greene, south to retake South

Carolina. With him, he sent Daniel Morgan and his riflemen.H. The Battle of Cowpens 1/17/81

1. Cornwallis sent Tarleton with about 1,100 men to catch and destroyMorgan, who had about the same number of men.

2. Morgan chose to fight at the Cowpens, an unusual locations because he


put his men in open woods with his back to a river.3. Morgan left no account of his thinking, but one suspects that he

understood his militia very well, and in the position he took, his militiacould neither run nor hide.

4. Tarleton attacked straight up the hill. Tarleton was a brave and impetuousman, but Morgan handled his forces exceptionally well, and destroyedTarleton.a. Morgan lost only 70 men killed or wounded. Tarleton lost 930

men of 1,100 engaged. It is a serious loss to Cornwallis' strength.I. Cornwallis stripped his columns of excess baggage, and set out grimly in pursuit

of Morgan. Morgan grimly set out to lure Cornwallis farther and farther north. Morgan linked up with Greene, and Cornwallis pursued them both.1. Greene knew exactly what he was doing. He gathered boats at rivers,

stripped the surrounding countryside of all food and expected thateventually Cornwallis would have to stop for lack of supply. Then Greenecould counter-attack when Cornwallis was weakest. This is the samestrategy used by Kutusov against Napoleon in 1812.

J. The retreat came to an end when Greene brought Cornwallis to battle at GuildfordCourthouse, which he had selected in advance.1. As at Camden, Greene's militia ran away. But his Continentals did not,

and the battle was exceedingly hard fought. Greene withdrew at the end ofthe day, but Cornwallis had lost 25% of his men. (Mitchell 186-92)

2. As Cornwallis was shifted to Virginia, Greene set out to recapture SouthCarolina. His was a brilliant campaign involving close cooperationbetween his tiny army and the guerrillas, and resulted in resoundingsuccess.

K. Fighting in Virginia1. Benedict Arnold had landed at Petersburg and was destroying a lot of

property. Washington sent the Marquis de Lafayette to face off againsthim.

2. Cornwallis then arrived by sea with reinforcements up to 7,000 men. Heset out to catch and destroy Lafayette.a. Lafayette refused to be caught, and fought a series of skirmishes as

he fell back north.b. Cornwallis gave up trying to move north to catch him, and fell

back to the coast.c. Cornwallis was ordered to send 3,000 men to Portsmouth, Maine.

XX. YorktownA. Cornwallis positioned himself on the Yorktown Peninsula on the James River.

From there, he could be supplied by sea, or could embark for another thrust.1. He had also put himself in a potential trap. Washington saw this

immediately.


B. A French fleet with 3,500 soldiers under Adm. de Grasse set sail for theChesapeake.

C. Washington left a covering force in front of Clinton in New York, with orders tokeep Clinton deceived about where Washington's main force was. Washingtonthen marched south.

D. On 9/5/81 the French fleet under de Grasse defeated the British fleet under theincompetent Adm. Graves. It is Britain's only loss of a fleet engagement in 100years, and it gave the French command of the sea at Chesapeake Bay. Cornwalliscannot leave nor be supplied by sea.

E. On September 16, 1781, Washington had arrived to close the trap. Cornwalliscould not escape by land.1. Washington had 8,850 American and 7,800 French troops under Gen.

Rochambeau with him. Cornwallis had only about 7,000 men.2. Cornwallis decided to stand a formal siege. The French, however, wrote

the book on siegecraft in the 18th century (I mean that literally). This is atype of warfare that was highly scientific in conception if brutal anddangerous in execution. The date of the fall of Yorktown could bepredicted quite precisely.

3. Siege lines were dug and advanced. Cornwallis' outer redoubts werestormed. Cornwallis' situation was militarily hopeless.

F. On October 19, 1781, Lord Cornwallis surrendered 7,247 soldiers and 840 seamento Washington.

G. From a military point of view, the American Revolution was over. There is nofurther significant fighting (unless of course, you were involved in theinsignificant fighting.)1. Sir Guy Carleton replaced Clinton in New York and asked for a

suspension of hostilities in 1782.XXI. The Treaty of Paris of 1783

A. After Yorktown, the United States, France, and Great Britain were ready tonegotiate a peace.1. Spain was not. Spain had entered the war to regain Gibraltar and

(obviously) had not attained that goal. They were allied with France, butnot with the United States, which made things a bit awkward.

2. Furthermore, Spain had ambitions in the Mississippi Valley, and wished tolimit the size of the United States.

3. France wanted an independent United States, since that would weakenGreat Britain, her hereditary enemy, but she did not wish the U.S. to be toopowerful.a. Please note that, although the U.S. and France are allies, our goals

are not identical. This is a fundamental fact of coalition warfare,and statesmen or voters forget that only at their peril.

b. Usually (but not always) a coalition will hang together while the


war is going on, based on the common goal of winning the war.c. Once the war has been won, however, splits can show up and

former allies fight over the spoils.d. The classic example of this is the origin of the Cold War.e. Alliances are based on commonalty of purpose. Once common

objectives have been fulfilled, the alliance can be expected to breakup. Do not ever trust an alliance beyond the national self interestof each composite member. Sovereign nations will not act contraryto their self interest unless they re forced to do so.

f. It is the task of the statesman to identify those areas of legitimateand fundamental difference between his nation and other nationsand also to identify areas of legitimate agreement. The statesmanwho wishes to avoid war and conflict will work to maximize theareas of agreement and to minimize the areas of conflict. Thiscannot be done, however, unless an honest and frank appraisal isnot first made. The statesman who deludes himself may ruin hisnation.

4. France tended to side with Spain, since Spain was a fellow Europeanpower. If France had to choose between pleasing a great European powerand pleasing a weak nation 3,000 miles away, France would obviouslychoose Spain.

5. Britain was tired of the war, and the costs of the war.B. The U.S. Peace Commissioners

1. John Adams was our Minister to Great Britain.a. Adams asked for recognition of U.S. independenceb. He proposed boundaries with the Mississippi on the west, the 31

Parallel and the Flint and St. Mary Rivers on the south, and on thenorth, a line roughly the same as that today between Maine andCanada.

2. The French Foreign Minister, the Comte de Vergennes, disliked Adamsand undercut him.a. Vergennes convinced Congress to dilute Adams' authority by

adding John Jay, Henry Laurens, and Benjamin Franklin to thedelegation.

b. Congress then added the extraordinary instruction that thedelegation should keep Vergennes fully informed and to obtain hisagreement to proposals.(1) In short, Congress placed our treaty negotiations in the

hands of the Foreign Minister of another country!3. Our treaty with France prohibited a separate peace with Britain. If the

Spanish balked, and the French refused to sign without Spain, we werestymied.


4. Vergennes sent a secret envoy to London with suggestions of a boundaryeast of the Mississippi, along the crest of the Appalachians. In otherwords, Vergennes is double-crossing his own allies.

5. Fortunately for the U.S., John Jay suspected this, and spied on the French. He obtained proof, and using this, convinced Franklin and Laurens to quitkeeping Vergennes informed.

6. Jay secretly negotiated with the British.a. The British were reconciled to the loss of the United States. They

preferred to see the U.S. obtain the trans-Appalachian region sincethe U.S. would be pro-free trade (ie, we would trade with GreatBritain) while Spain and France was mercantilist and would try tokeep British merchants out.

7. Jay achieved rapid agreement on Adams' plan, then Franklin presented itas a fait accompli to Vergennes.

8. France did not want to continue the war without the U.S. and now had anexcuse to force the Spanish into agreement. Spain agreed on 9/3/83.

C. The Terms of the Treaty1. Recognition of U.S. independence2. Western boundary on the Mississippi.3. The U.S. were granted the right to fish off Newfoundland, Nova Scotia,

and Labrador, some of the richest fishing grounds in the world.4. Congress was to recommend to the states that they provide restitution to

the Tories.D. Lessons

1. The U.S. succeeded in gaining a treaty far more favorable than our powerwarranted by playing one European power off against another.

2. One can see the beginning of American isolationism in the discrepancybetween our interests and those of Europeans.a. Washington would later enunciate the idea of "no entangling

alliances"b. Paine had already sketched this idea in Common Sense.c. John Quincy Adams would later develop the idea of separate

spheres when he wrote the Monroe Doctrine.d. The idea is that our system, our interests, are distinct from

Europe's; we should not become enmeshed in their problems.


Works Cited

"The Call for Independence: Thomas Paine, 'Common Sense' (1776) Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. NewYork: Norton, 1975. 270-83.

Christie, I. R. Crisis of Empire: Great Britain and the American Colonies 1754-1783. NewYork: W.W. Norton, 1966.

Cummins, D. Duane and White, William Gee. The American Revolution. Beverly Hills, CA: Benzinger Press, 1973.

Degler, Carl. Out of Our Past: The Forces That Shaped Modern America. 3rd ed. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.

Eckert, Allan W. The Wilderness War. New York: Bantam, 1978 [A note on books by Allan W. Eckert. You will see them sold as fiction. They are not. They are written as if theywere a fictional narrative, but every incident and conversation is based on documentaryevidence, and they are heavily footnoted.]

Flexner, James Thomas. Washington: The Indispensable Man. New York: Signet, 1984.

Freehling, William. The Road to Disunion: Secessionists at Bay 1776-1854. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1990.

Garraty, John. The American Nation. 5th Ed. New York: Harper & Row, 1983.

"Independence Moved in Congress: Richard Henry Lee, Resolves for Independence (June 7, 1776). Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the AmericanRevolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 284-5

Mitchell, Lt. Col. Joseph B. Decisive Battles of the American Revolution. Greenwich, CN: Fawcett, 1962.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Genius of George Washington. New York: Norton, 1977.

"'Resolved To Dye Free-Men Rather Than Live Slaves': Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms (July 6, 1775)" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 255-9.

"'That These United Colonies Are, and of Right Ought To be Free and Independent States'; The


Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776). Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: ADocumentary History of the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 297-301.

"Thomas Paine, 'The American Crisis'" Colonies to Nation 1763-1789: A Documentary Historyof the American Revolution. Greene, Jack, Editor. New York: Norton, 1975. 406-8.

Wright, Benjamin Fletcher. Consensus and Continuity 1776-1787. New York: Norton, 1958


Works Consulted

Bailey, Thomas A., Kennedy, David M. The American Pageant. 7th Ed. Lexington,Massachusetts: D.C. Heath, 1983.

Bailyn, Bernard. Faces of Revolution: Personalities and Themes in the Struggle for American Independence. New York: Random House, 1992.

Bailyn, Bernard, Dallek, Robert, Davis, David Brion, Donald, David Herbert, Thomas, John L., Wood, Gordon S. The Great Republic: A History of the American People. 4th Ed.Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Co., 1992.

Blum, John M., Morgan, Edmund S., McFeely, William S., Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur M., Stampp, Kenneth M., and Woodward, C. Vann. The National Experience: A History of theUnited States. 6th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1985.

Boyer, Paul S.; Clark, Clifford Jr.; Kett, Joseph F.; Purvis, Thomas; Sitkoff, Harvard; Woloch, Nancy. The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. New York: D.C.Heath. 1990.

Current, Richard N., Williams, T. Harry, Freidel, Frank, and Brinkley, Alan. American History: A Survey. 6th Ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Birth of the Republic 1763-89. Rev. Ed Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977.

Morgan, Edmund S. The Challenge of the American Revolution. New York: Norton, 1976.

Scheer, George and Rankin, Hugh F. Rebels and Redcoats. New York: Mentor, 1957.

Tindall, George Brown and Shi, David E. America: A Narrative History. 3rd Ed. New York: W.W. Norton, 1992.

Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. New York: Norton,1969.

Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1992.

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