apes study guide test date: may 10th @...

APES STUDY GUIDETest Date: May 10th @ Noon

• Topics:

I. Earth Systems and Resources (10–15%)

II. The Living World (10–15%)

III. Population (10–15%)

IV. Land and Water Use (10–15%)

V. Energy Resources and Consumption (10–15%)

VI. Pollution (25–30%)

VII. Global Change (10–15%)

I. Earth Systems and Resources

• A. Earth Science Concepts Geologic time scale; plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes; seasons; solar intensity and latitude

• B. The AtmosphereComposition; structure; weather and climate; atmospheric circulation and the Coriolis Effect; atmosphere–ocean interactions; ENSO

• C. Global Water Resources and UseFreshwater/saltwater; ocean circulation; agricultural, industrial, and domestic use; surface and groundwater issues; global problems; conservation

• D. Soil and Soil DynamicsRock cycle; formation; composition; physical and chemical properties; main soil types; erosion and other soil problems; soil conservation

A. Earth Science Concepts

• Geological Time Scale

– Eon- ½ billion or more years

– Era- several hundred million years

– Period- tens of millions of years

– Epoch- several million years

– Age- Divides epoch into smaller sections

A. Earth Science Concepts • Radiometric Dating & Half Life

– Method of metric dating that uses radioactive decay to determine the age of rocks- uranium and carbon (ex. C-14)

– Half life- time taken for the radioactivity of a specific isotope to fall to half its original value

• Continental Drift & Seafloor Spreading– Plate tectonics- theory that the earth is covered in

tectonic plates– Continental drift- all present day continents

originally formed one land mass and are moving over the surface of the mantle

– Seafloor spreading- new crust is created in volcanic rift zones based on the age of rocks on either side of the mid-oceanic ridges

A. Earth Science Concepts• Earth Structure- Diagram includes: crust

(continental/oceanic), lithosphere, asthenosphere,

mantle, inner core, outer core

A. Earth Science Concepts • 3 types of Plate Boundaries (tectonics) -

– Divergent boundaries- magma upwells (mid-atlantic ridge)

– Convergent boundary- collisions– Continental-continental– Continental-oceanic– Oceanic-oceanic

• Subduction zone where densest plates sink– Transform boundary – (san andreas fault) plates slide

past each other• Frequent earthquakes

• Convection Currents-- Drives plate tectonics- Heat from radioactive decay within the mantle creates

the currents

A. Earth Science Concepts • How do Earthquakes arise?

– Rock underground breaks at the fault– Release of energy creates seismic waves

• Body vs Surface Waves– Body waves (primary & secondary) move through the

interior of the Earth• Primary – Travels through liquid & solid• Secondary – Travels through solid only

– Surface Waves – when body waves comes to surface (Raleigh & love waves)

• What are Tsunamis?– Tidal Waves → series of waves in a body of water caused

by a large displacement of water– Are not noticed at sea (except by buoys) → land pushes

waves up

A. Earth Science Concepts • How do volcanoes work?

– Magma from within the Earth’s upper mantle works its way to the surface. At the surface it erupts to form lava flows and ash deposits

• What are the effects of volcanoes?

– Fast moving lava can kill people and falling ash can make it hard for them to breathe

– Dust and soot in the air → cooling effect– Acid rain

A. Earth Science Concepts • What are the factors that control seasons?

– Tilt of the earth (angle of the sunlight)– Rotation of the Earth– Revolution

• What is the relationship between solar intensity and

latitude?

– Solar intensity varies with latitude based on the shape and angle of the planet

– Equator receives the highest solar intensity while the poles receives the lowest solar intensity because of the round shape of the Earth

B. The Atmosphere

• Composition of Atmosphere– 8 different compounds, their formula & % composition

1. Nitrogen Gas (N₂): 78.08%

2. Oxygen Gas (O₂): 20.95%

3. Argon Gas (Ar): 1.0%

4. Water Vapor (H₂O): 0.4%

5. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): 0.04%

6. Methane (CH₄): <0.01%

7. Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): <0.01%

8. Ozone (O₃): <0.01%

B. The Atmosphere• Structure/Layers of Atmosphere

• Exosphere– >550 km– Thinnest layer– Falling temperature

• Thermosphere– 80-550 km– Auroras– Rising temperature

• Mesosphere– 50-80 km– Coldest layer, burns

meteors– Falling temperature

• Stratosphere– 12-50 km– Contains ozone layer– Rising temperature

• Troposphere– 0~12 km– Contains weather– Falling temperature

B. The Atmosphere

• Difference between weather and climate?• Weather - Daily fluctuations including sunlight, cloud cover, and

current precipitation and humidity

Climate - Average weather of an area over time (usually 30

years), precipitation and temperature

• Factors that influence climate-

• Elevation and Altitude• Global wind patterns• Topography/Land use• Geography and Albedo• Pollution• Natural disasters

B. The Atmosphere

• Air

Circulation

Cells

B. The Atmosphere

• What is the Coriolis Effect?• Curve of straight lines on top of a rotating object, curving

perpendicular to the axis of rotation

• Deflects global winds and weather in direction away from

equator

• How does the Coriolis Effect alter global

winds?• Pushes winds into cells of rotation and creates curved air streams

• In the Northern Hemisphere: winds curve Right

• In the Southern Hemisphere: winds curve Left

B. The Atmosphere

• What is upwelling?• Process of deep, cold, nutrient-rich water rising to the

warmer surface water, pushed by surface winds

• El Niño (ENSO) vs La Niña

• El Niño - Reversal/stalling of trade winds, warm phase

Hot+dry in Oceania/Asia and Cool+Wet in US

Loss of Upwelling the SE Pacific

• La Niña - Increase of trade winds, “cool phase”

Increase in global storms

Cooler in Asia, Warm in South America

B. The Atmosphere• Polar Vortex

– Low pressure, cold air that is contained by jet streams that circulate around the poles (largest in South)

• Hurricane– Cyclonic thunderstorms that form over Tropical waters that rotate

around a low-pressure eye that gains energy as it speeds up

• Tornado– Swirling air masses that can reach speeds up to 485 km/h contained

around a low pressure core and last for seconds-minutes

• Cyclone– Swirling collection of air masses that spawn over water, can last for

several hours, and is wider than it is tall

• Monsoon– Violent winds near Indian Ocean that blow from cold to warm air

masses, often pulling along gallons of water from the Ocean

C. Global Water Resources and Use

• Important Properties of Water

– Solubility: How easily things dissolve

– Specific Heat: Has a high boiling point

– Adhesion: Adheres to many solid surfaces

– Cohesion: Strong hydrogen bonds hold water molecules to each other

– Density of Ice: Expands as it freezes


• Percent of Freshwater: 3% Saltwater: 97%

- Most freshwater is in ice (68%), about 30%

groundwater, and .3% is in surface water

• How is the water in the oceans circulated?

Ocean water is circulated by surface currents and thermohaline circulation

C. Global Water Resources and Use• List use & conservation in each sector.

– Agricultural - 70%

Used for irrigation Conservation - drip irrigation

– Industrial - 19%

Used for cooling power plants Conservation: improve efficiency of cooling

– Domestic - 11%

Used for showers, faucets, washing dishes, etc.

Conservation: fix leaks

C. Global Water Resources and Use• What are some issues facing water

resources?

– Surface Issues

-Pollution is easily dumped -runoff reaches surface water first - nutrient overload - eutrophication

– Ground water issues

- Pollution lasts a long time - Depletion - subsidence from over pumping - some are nonrenewable


• Global Water Problems

– Subsidence vs. Sinkhole

Subsidence: sinking due to things being removed from under the land

Sinkhole: sinking due to rock dissolving from under land – Saltwater Intrusion

Saltwater moves into freshwater making it unusable – Water Shortages

Too many people using too much water: wasteful use of water

– Dams- Displace people- flood area- disrupt ecological services- loss of biodiversity- sediment buildup

C. Global Water Resources and Use• Water Case Studies

– Case Study: Ogallala Aquifer

• Very slow recharge• Water table dropping • biodiversity threatened

– Case Study: Mexico City

• sinking after depletion of water table – Case Study: Aswan High Dam

• reduced silt and sediment flow downstream• caused erosion in the Nile Delta • Increase in waterborne diseases

– Case Study: California Water Project

• water management program• Collects water from Northern California and redistributes it to

Southern California

D. Soil and Soil Dynamics• Rock Cycle - formation/composition, physical & chemical

properties

D. Soil and Soil Dynamics

• Soil Composition (clay, gravel, loam, sand,

silt)

25% air, 25% water, 47% mineral, 3% organicClay- small, non-permeablegravel- large, permeableloam- 40- 40- 20Sand- largesilt- medium

• Soil Triangle

D. Soil and Soil Dynamics• Soil Horizons

O- organic, A- topsoil, E- Eluviation, B- Subsurface, C- Soprolite, R- Regolith

• What are some problems associated with soil and explain

importance of soil management?

– Topsoil erosion is a serious problem• Effects: loss of soil fertility, water pollution

– Dust Bowl (1930s)• Due to monoculture• Topsoil lost nutrients → became dust → blew away

(reduced visibility)

D. Soil and Soil Dynamics• Components of Soil Quality

– Aeration- Reduces soil compaction, water and nutrients penetrate to the roots → stronger plants

– Compaction- Few large pores, reduced rate of water infiltration and drainage

– Permeability- Measure of the capacity of soil to allow water and oxygen- low permeability→ soil salinization

– pH- acidic because pollutants (areas of high rainfall)– Nutrient-Holding- Affected by weathering because

nutrients lost during leaching (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)

– Water-Holding- Controlled by soil texture and organic matter content


• Soil Degradation– Desertification

• Becomes more dry and arid due to deforestation, drought, or bad agriculture practices

– Salinization• Salt accumulates in the soil after irrigation leaves

salt behind– Waterlogging

• Soil becomes saturated and plants can’t get air through their roots


• What are ways to conserve soil?

– No-till farming– Terrace/ contour farming– Use permeable surfaces– Restore/ protect wetlands and forests– Buffer strips– crop rotation– Use less fertilizer– Plant native crops

II. The Living World • A. Ecosystem Structure

– Biological populations and communities; ecological niches; interactions among species; keystone species; species diversity and edge effects; major terrestrial & aquatic biomes

• B. Energy Flow– Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food webs and

trophic levels; ecological pyramids• C. Ecosystem Diversity

– Biodiversity; natural selection; evolution; ecosystem services• D. Natural Ecosystem Change

– Climate shifts; species movement; ecological succession• E. Natural Biogeochemical Cycles

– Water, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Conservation of Matter

A. Ecosystem Structure

• Ecosystem Properties- Define & list examples– Abiotic factors (“a” non “bio” life → nonliving)

• Nonliving factors in an ecosystem• Examples: air, water, soil, rocks, nutrients

– Biotic factors (“bio” life → living)

• Living factors in an ecosystem

• examples: bacteria, humans, plants, animals, insects

A. Ecosystem Structure• Levels of Organization (Organism/Species →

Biosphere)

Organism: single individual →

Population: many of same species→

Community: many populations, multiple species →

Ecosystem: community & abiotic factors →

Biome: multiple ecosystems, defined by specific temperature and precipitation →

Biosphere: planet with multiple biomes (Earth)


• What is a habitat?– Natural home or environment of an organism

• What are ecological niches? – Specific

• Difference between fundamental & realized niche– Fundamental: maximum possible occupiable niche– Realized: niche held in real scenarios, factors in

competition


• Population Distribution (will have diagrams)–Clumped (humans)–Uniform (territorial species)–Random (some plants with spread seeds,

dandelions)

• Population Density


• Population Density:

(# of individuals / area)

Methods of measuring density- Mark-Recapture:- Transects: samples along a line, for

gradient- Quadrats: slow or stationary organisms

(square samples)


• Species Interactions – describe & provide an example– Commensalism+/0 , Remora & shark– Ammensalism-/0, grass & watering hole– Mutualism+/+, pollination– Parasitism+/- (host doesn’t die), literally any parasite


• Species Interactions – describe & provide an example– Predation/Herbivory+/-, Snake eats a rat (or plant for herbivory)– Competition-/-, Two snakes fight over a rat– Saprotrophism+/0, organism eats dead organism– Trophic CascadeChange in one population → change in other due to the food chain


• Effects of Competition

– Competitive Exclusion: two species with

overlapping niches compete, one excludes the

other

– Resource Partitioning: a result of competitive

exclusion, when competing niches result in the

sharing, “partitioning,” of a resource

– Character Displacement: differences between

similar species become more pronounced

when niches overlap due to the two above

A. Ecosystem Structure• Predator/Prey Adaptations

– Coloration

• Cryptic: Camouflage

•Aposematic: Warning colors

– Mimicry

•Batesian: animal mimics a dangerous one

– Viceroy & Monarch

•Mullerian: two animals with similar defense

mechanisms are colored similarly

– Bee, wasp, yellow jacket

A. Ecosystem Structure• What are keystone species? List examples/why?

– Keystone species: presence helps maintain high biodiversity

– Example: Elephants stomp out tree shoots, maintaining biodiversity

• What are foundation species? List examples/why?

– Foundation species: create habitats for other animals

– Example: Beavers create dams, providing new habitats

• What are edge effects?

– Some species are more adapted to edge areas → fragmentation creates more edge areas → edge species benefit, interior species are harmed


• What are factors that determine different

Biomes?– Temperature and precipitation

• Reading a Climatograph

– Measured per month

– AVERAGE temperature

– TOTAL rainfall


• Aquatic Biomes– Lentic vs Lotic

• Lentic: stationary• Lotic: flowing

– Zones of Freshwater/Lakes• Littoral, Limnetic, Profundal, Benthic

– Zones of Saltwater/Marine• Intertidal & Coastal• Pelagic: Euphotic, Bathyal, Abyssal

A. Ecosystem Structure• Aquatic Biome

– Wetlands• High concentration of aquatic plants adapted to hydric soil• Important for: water purification, flood control, carbon sink,

shoreline stability– Coral Reefs

• shallow, formed from coral polyps• Provide a buffer against waves, storms, floods, erosion

– Lakes• Open, relatively deep water• May have an outlet or stream• Water sources, fishing, transport, recreation, tourism

– Rivers & Stream• Mostly unidirectional flow of water• Highly adapted/specialized species• Erosion and sedimentation present

A. Ecosystem Structure• Terrestrial Biomes – Major Properties

– Savanna• Warm temperatures with moderate rainfall and seasonal

droughts

– Taiga• Moderate precipitation, long winters, and lots of coniferous

trees

– Temperate Deciduous Forests• Large amounts of annual rain with broadleaf forests

– Temperate/Tropical Forests• High humidity and temperatures, excessive amounts of rainfall,

and high flora and fauna biodiversity

A. Ecosystem Structure• Terrestrial Biomes – Major Properties

– Chaparral

• Hot and dry areas with minimal vegetation and precipitation

– Coniferous Forest

• Cooler temperatures with high amounts of precipitation also known as Taiga, largest

– Tundra

• Coldest biome with low vegetation and precipitation

– Desert

• Small amounts of rainfall with extreme temperatures and small amounts of vegetation


• Terrestrial Biomes – Major Threats– Savanna

• Climate change, erosion, deforestation overexploitation

– Taiga

• Deforestation from logging and clear cutting

– Temperate Deciduous Forests

• Climate change leading to acid rain and cutting trees

– Temperate/Tropical Forests

• Deforestation for wood, growing crops, ranch land, burning for energy (biomass), and building roads/mines

A. Ecosystem Structure• Terrestrial Biomes – Major Threats

– Chaparral• Invasive plants, fires, encroaching development, and

pollution in air and water

– Coniferous Forest• Monoculture trees, soil erosion, and habitat

destruction

– Tundra• Melting permafrost, ozone depletion, and

deforestation

– Desert• Global warming leading to droughts/wildfires and

monoculture of fast growing grass

SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICSFeedback Loops- explain and give an example

– Positive (enhance flow)• Increase in a variable results in an increase (and

decrease → decrease• Melting ice → methane released → melting ice

– Negative (inhibit flow) (regulatory)

• Increase in a variable results in a decrease (and decrease → increase

• CO2 in atmosphere → ocean warms → Algae increases → CO2 decreases

B. Energy Flow

• What is the initial source(s) of all energy?Solar energy (and in some cases geothermal)

• Relationship between Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration (include equations)– Photosynthesis:

H2O + CO2 + solar energy → C6H12O6+ O2

– Cellular Respiration:C6H12O2 + O2 → H2O + CO2 + energy (ATP)

B. Energy Flow Ecological Pyramids/Trophic Levels (label for

each) 10% Rule

C. Ecosystem Diversity• What is Biomass?

– Total dry mass of organisms in an area

• What is Productivity?

– Rate of incorporation of energy by plants over

a period of time, rate energy is stored as

biomass by plants

• How is it measured?

– NPP=GPP-R (respiration)

– The total amount of biomass that is produced

C. Ecosystem Diversity

• What is Biodiversity?– Species Diversity– Genetic Diversity– Biome Diversity

• How is it measured?

– Number of species → species richness– Proportion of species → relative abundance– Simpson’s Diversity Index: factors total

number of organisms and “evenness”


• Relationship between Evolution & Natural

Selection (provide an example)

– Evolution: change in allele frequencies over time

– Natural Selection: one method of evolution.

Overproduction results in competition → some

traits are favored → those traits are passed on

• What is artificial selection?

– Another form of evolution, humans select and

breed for specific traits


• What is extinction?– All individuals of a population are dead

• Extirpation: extinction in one area

• What characteristics make species vulnerable

to extinction?– Low genetic diversity (extinction vortex)

– Habitat destruction

– Invasive species

– Low range of tolerance (specialist species)


• What services do ecosystems provide?

– Provisioning: food, water, wood, fuel

– Supporting: nutrient cycle, soil

formation, primary production, habitat

– Cultural: spiritual, aesthetic, education,

recreation

– Regulatory: climate, flood, water

D. Natural Ecosystem Change

• How can climate shifts impact ecosystems?– Range shifts– Food web disruption– Buffer/threshold effects (such as coral)

• Factors that influence species movement

– Competition, predation

– Weather, flooding, drought, fire

D. Natural Ecosystem ChangeEcological Succession

– Primary Succession:

• No soil• Pioneer organisms convert rock or parent material

to soil• Eg. Volcanic eruptions, smooth pavement (no

cracks/exposed soil)

– Secondary Succession:

• Soil already present

• Eg. Landslide, forest fires

D. Natural Ecosystem Change

Ecological Succession

– Facilitation

• Where organisms make the species that follow

more suitable for them

– Tolerance

• Environment is suitable for organisms that can

adapt to change

– Inhibition

• Species prevent other species to establish

D. Natural Ecosystem Change• Characteristics of succession within plant

communities-– structure: less to more complex

– diversity: Limited to high diversity

– net primary productivity: Low to High NPP

– nutrient cycling by decomposers: Nutrient sinks have not yet

developed means high cycling → nutrient sinks develop, meaning

lower cycling

– photosynthesis efficiency: low to high

E. Biogeochemical Cycle

• Explain the statement: “Energy Flows, Matter Cycles”

– When organisms use matter, it is transformed into other

types of matter (through processes such as photosynthesis

and cellular respiration). Energy enters the system in the

form of sunlight and most of it leaves as heat.

• What is a reservoir?

– A place where resources, materials, or nutrients are kept

for an extended period of time

E. Biogeochemical Cycle• Explain the role of each in the human body

– Water

• We are aqueous organisms

• Homeostasis - solute concentration regulation

– Carbon: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic

acids

– Nitrogen: nucleic acids, proteins

– Phosphorus: nucleic acids

– Sulfur: proteins

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: WATER

Include-

• Precipitation, Condensation, Evaporation,

Transpiration, Infiltration, Percolation, Runoff,

Surface Water, Groundwater

• Human impact on the water cycle

– withdrawing from lakes, aquifers, and rivers,

– clearing land for agriculture and urbanization

– destruction of wetlands, pollution of water

– resources, sewage runoff, building of industry

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: WATER

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: CARBON

Include-

• Release of carbon back into the atmosphere

• Carbon sink

• Trapping carbon

• Releasing carbon

• Human impact on the carbon cycle

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: CARBON

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: NITROGENInclude-

**FNAAD → ANPAN**

• Nitrogen Fixation

• Nitrification

• Assimilation

• Ammonification

• Denitrification

• Impacts of excess nitrogen in water and in the air

• Human impact on the nitrogen cycle

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: NITROGEN

PROCESS → PRODUCT(S)

Fixation Ammonia

Nitrification Nitrates, Nitrites

Assimilation Proteins and nucleic acids

Ammonification Ammonia

Denitrification Nitrogen gas

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: NITROGEN

*Excess nitrogen in the air can impair our ability to breathe, limit visibility and alter plant growth.

**Humans are disrupting the nitrogen cycle by altering the amount of nitrogen that is stored in the biosphere, mostly from fossil fuels, which release nitric oxides into the air that can form smog and acid rain.

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: PHOSPHORUS• How does the absence/presence affect productivity in an

ecosystem?

– More productivity comes from more phosphates (more DNA replication allowed)

– Phosphates often serve as a limiting factor• ONLY cycle WITHOUT a GAS phase

• Human impact on the phosphorus cycle

– Mine phosphate salts for fertilizers and applied to

agricultural fields

– Runoff → eutrophication

– clearing rainforests leads to phosphate runoff

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: PHOSPHOROS

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: SULFUR• Include- Sulfur, Sulfates, & Sulfur Dioxide

• Sulfur release/trapping

• Human impacts on the sulfur cycle

E. Biogeochemical Cycle: SULFUR

III. Population • A. Population Biology Concepts

Population ecology; carrying capacity; reproductive strategies; survivorship• B. Human Population

1. Human population dynamicsHistorical population sizes; distribution; fertility rates; growth rates and doubling times; demographic

transition; age-structure diagrams2. Population sizeStrategies for sustainability; case studies; national

policies3. Impacts of population growthHunger; disease; economic effects; resource use;

habitat destruction

• J curve vs. S curve– J Curve→ exponential growth– S Curve→ logistic growth

• Boom/Bust Cycles- Overshoot & Dieback

– overshoot→ going over carrying capacity• dieback→ subsequent population crash

A. Population Biology Concepts

A. Population Biology Concepts

• What is carrying capacity (K) and what

factors affect it?– Carrying Capacity→ maximum population a

given habitat can sustain without damage• factors:

– food availability– water supply– environmental conditions– living space

• Reproductive strategies

K- adapted r-adaptedfewer/larger offspring many small offspring

later reproductive age high population growth rate

lower population growth rate

low ability to compete

late successional species small adults

larger adults early reproductive age

specialist niche many offspring die

A. POPULATION GROWTH

• Survivorship Curves-

• plot of the # or proportion of individuals in a cohort of 1,000 individuals still alive at each age

• type 1: late loss

– humans, large mammals

• type 2: constant loss

– birds, squirrels

• type 3: early loss

– plants, fish, frogs


• Factors regulate population growth– Measures of Birth Rate:

• Natality

• Fecundity

• Fertility

– Immigration

– Emigration

– Measures Longevity:

• Mortality

• Survivorship


• Factors regulate population growth

– Abiotic Factors: water, air, rocks, heat, solar energy– Biotic Factors: living and dead

• plants,animals, fungi, etc– Density Dependent Factors: depends on population

size• predation, parasitism, infectious disease,

competition– Density Independent Factors

• weather, climate, seasonal cycles


• The Theory of Island Biogeography

• rate of new species immigration should balance with the rate of species extinction

• island size and distance from the mainland need to be considered


• Historical Population Growth

– very slow pop growth until industrial revolution– some prior growth with the agricultural revolution– natural population controls

• bubonic plague• AIDS• potato famine

• Human Demography

Total population= 7.6 billion people US Population = 325.7 million people

B. HUMAN POPULATION

DEVELOPED DEVELOPING

high GDP per capita low GDP per capita

low infant mortality rate high infant mortality rate

low rate of infectious disease high rate of infectious disease

high ecological footprint low ecological footprint

high degree of industrialization low degree of industrialization

stable population growth rapid population growth

B. HUMAN POPULATION

URBAN RURAL

younger older

high household income low household income

better educated/college degree

less educated

smaller size family big size family

approx. 70% of US pop. live in Urban center

approx. 30% of US pop. live in urban center

unmarried married

B. HUMAN POPULATION

B. HUMAN POPULATION

• Population Momentum– High-fertility then dramatic drop to replacement

fertility • Replacement Fertility- average # of children a couple must have to replace

themselves- 2.1 in developed, 2.5 in developing • Zero Population Growth- population is no longer increasing - br=dr

• Doubling Times

• Calculate Growth Rate (r) –provide equation

• Crude Birth/Death Rate (per thousand)

B. HUMAN POPULATION

• Demographic Transition- Graph & explain 4

stages

– Pre-industrial: high birth rate, fluctuating death rate

– Transitional: decreasing birthrate and death rate

– Industrial: birth rate approaching replacement

– Post-industrial: low birth rate, very low death rate

B. HUMAN POPULATION

• Draw Age Structure Diagrams- 4 types

B. HUMAN POPULATION

• Population size

– Strategies for Sustainability● education (women) ● family planning● paying jobs ● ability to control fertility

○ birth control

– Case Studies/National Policies

• China: One child policy → increase in male bachelors

• India: family planning efforts (48% use)

– benefits: financial, increase health and education cost

B. HUMAN POPULATION

● Impacts of population growth

○ Hunger/disease■ disease/hunger leads to decline in pop. growth because

people are dying off

○ Economic effects

■ more impoverished have more kids

● no birth control

■ this increases population growth

○ Resource use/habitat destruction

■ The use of resources (too much) and habitat

destruction leads to less pop. growth because there is

nowhere for them to live

B. HUMAN POPULATION

IV. Land and Water Use• A. Agriculture

1. Feeding a growing populationHuman nutritional requirements; types of agriculture; Green Revolution; genetic engineering and crop production;

deforestation; irrigation; sustainable agriculture2. Controlling pestsTypes of pesticides; costs and benefits of pesticide use;

integrated pest management; relevant lawsB. Forestry

Tree plantations; old growth forests; forest fires; forest management; national forestsC. Rangelands

Overgrazing; deforestation; desertification; rangeland management; federal rangelands

IV. Land and Water Use• D. Other Land Use

1. Urban land developmentPlanned development; suburban sprawl; urbanization2. Transportation infrastructureFederal highway system; canals and channels; roadless areas; ecosystem impacts3. Public and federal landsManagement; wilderness areas; national parks; wildlife refuges; forests; wetlands4. Land conservation optionsPreservation; remediation; mitigation; restoration5. Sustainable land-use strategies

• E. MiningMineral formation; extraction; global reserves; relevant laws and treaties

• F. FishingFishing techniques; overfishing; aquaculture; relevant laws and treaties

• G. Global EconomicsGlobalization; World Bank; Tragedy of the Commons; relevant laws & treaties

A. Food & Agriculture• Human Nutritional Requirements

- carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, fiber, and

water

• Undernutrition vs Malnutrition vs Overnutrition

- undernutrition: nutrient deficiencies (not enough)

- malnutrition: not the right types of nutrients

- overnutrition: too many nutrients

• Kwashiorkor & Marasmus

- K: malnutrition produced by a severely inadequate amount

of protein in the diet; common in areas of famine

- M: severe undernourishment causing low weight

A. Food & Agriculture

• Types of agriculture- – Alley cropping: rows of trees with crops in between

– Crop rotation: growing different crops at different seasons

– Intercropping: rows of different kinds of crops

– Low-till/No-till: don’t till the soil to increase water and nutrient retention

– Monoculture: cultivation of one crop in one area

– Polyculture: cultivation of several crops

– Subsistence agriculture: farmers grow enough to feed themselves and their family

A. Food & Agriculture• First Green Revolution- increase crop yields- higher yielding strains of plants and new

fertilizers and pesticides, more about feeding locally just lots more food

• Second Green Revolution- increased food production in agriculture to feed world, new

technology, more about feeding the world

• Genetic engineering (GMOs) & Crop production

Pros vs Cons

Pros: increased yield, drought tolerance, reduced pesticide use, efficient fertilizer use

Cons: unexpected harmful effects, pesticide resistance, destruction of native species, ethics (altering foods), monopoly for companies that patent seeds

A. Food & Agriculture• Fertilizers-

• Organic vs. inorganic fertilizers

- organic: contain only plant or animal based materials- inorganic: contains chemicals

• Common forms

- manure- organic compost- nitrogen soution- anhydroesammonia

• Advantages

- increases crop yield- helps ranches for animals- recycles nutrients- optimize growth

• Disadvantages

- inorganic fertilizers are made from nonrenewable resources- over-fertilization causes eutrophication

A. Food & Agriculture

• Deforestation

- removal of a forest or area of trees

- often for farms or urban use

• Irrigation

- using controlled amounts of water for plants

- grows crops, maintains landscapes, and revegetates

disturbed soils

• Methods of sustainable agriculture

- crop rotation, planting cover crops, reducing or

eliminating tillage, integrated pest management

A. Pest Control

• Pests & Types of Pesticides

- insecticides: insects- neonicotinoids- herbicides: plants- atrazine- rodenticides: rodents- anticoagulants- bacteriacides: bacteria- sorbates and

benzoate compounds- fungicides: fungi- hexachlorobenzene- larvicides: larvi (ex: mosquitoes)- Bti

A. Pest Control

Pesticide Use

PROS/BENEFITS CONS/COSTS

increased food production persistent in environment

increased profits for farmers pesticide treadmill

prevention of diseases toxic to humans and wildlife

stop pesky weeds some kill more than the targeted organism

some kill specific pests contaminates water resources

decrease crop loss expensive to use

A. Pest Control• Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

- coordinate: cultivation, biological controls, and chemical tools to

reduce crop damage to an economically tolerable level

- IPM= problem identification + monitoring + treatment

• Relevant laws

– Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Control Act (FIFRA)

- regulates pesticide sale, distribution, and use

– Federal Environmental Pesticides Control Act

- classifies pesticides as general or restricted

– Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA)

- sets and maintains strict food safety standards. protects

infants from pesticide exposure in food, water, and indoor

resources

B. FORESTRY/LAND USE• Old Growth Forests vs. Second Growth Forests

old growth- attained great age without significant disturbance

second growth- regrown after a timber harvest

• Forest fires- crown vs. ground vs surface fires, ecological importance and

methods to control fires

- Crown Fire: occur in forests that have not had surface fires for a long time. Super hot, kill wildlife, increase soil erosion, and destroy structures.

- get rid of trees that require fires to spread seeds; do controlled fires

- Ground Fire: fires that occur underground, burn partially decayed leaves,

and are common in peat bogs

- firebreaks, get rid of dry leaves

- Surface Fire: burn undergrowth and leaf litter. Kill seedlings and small

trees

- get rid of dead leaves and plants

B. FORESTRY/LAND USE• Methods of Tree Harvesting & Pros/Cons

– Clear-Cutting

- take all trees and leave nothing standing

- pros: lots of trees ($$$) and con: habitat destruction

– High Grading- removes only the most profitable species of trees in a forest- pro: money and con: reduces biodiversity

– Strip Cutting- cut profitable trees but in different strips- pros: good at maintaining biodiversity and cons: habitat

fragmentation, soil erosion

– Tree Plantation

• like a tree farm that is managed so that the trees can be cut but regenerate fast enough so that the farm maintains a healthy number of trees

C. Rangelands• What are Rangelands?

- large expanses of undeveloped land containing primarily low vegetation such as grasses

and shrubs, and are suitable for grazing of livestock

• Major Impacts – Consequences & Mitigations

– Overgrazing

• soil erosion

• soil compaction

• proliferation of invasive species

• reduction in biodiversity and native vegetation

• economic loss

• mitigation: rotating crops, moving cows from one field to the other

– desertification

• loss of vegetation and available water

• erosion

• mitigation: prevent salinization of soils, keep vegetation

D. Other Land Use

• Urban land development

– Urbanization

• new jobs, technology, and lots more people in one central, urban

(city) location

– Suburban Sprawl• expansion of human populations away from central urban areas

into low-density and car-dependent communities– Smart Growth

• planned economic and community development that attempts to curb urban sprawl and worsen environmental conditions

– New Urbanism• urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly

habits by creating walkable neighborhoods and varying house and job options

Urbanization

PROS/BENEFITS CONS/COSTS

Residents have better lives increased land use

preserve biodiversity in rural areas environmental and economic problems

multicultural centers big ecological footprints

better access to healthcare pollution concentrated

easier access to resources alters climate

more job opportunities habitat destruction

D. Other Land Use

D. Other Land Use• Transportation Infrastructure– Federal Highway System

• increased ease of interstate travel• also has increased habitat fragmentation

– Canals and Channels• alter the flow of natural waterways• removes vegetation• increases erosion• leads to habitat fragmentation

– Roadless Rule - Roadless Areas & Ecosystem Impacts• no roads can go here• haven for wildlife• prevents habitat fragmentation & protects about 2% of

US lands

D. Other Land Use• Public and Federal Lands

– Wilderness Areas• wild primitive portions of wildlife forests, parks, and refugees• no timbering, commercial activity, motor vehicles, & human-made

structures– National Parks

• Approximately 84 million acres of US land• threatened by large # of visitors, off-road vehicles, invasive species,

& commercial activities– National Forests

• used by public for commercial use, including logging– Wildlife Refuges

• seeks to maintain ecosystem balance• protects wildlife, fish, & vegetation

– What organizations manages public & federal lands?• US Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, US Fish and

Wildlife, & National Park System

D. Other Land Use

• Land conservation options– Preservation

• approach to no land usage by attempting to eliminate human impacts

– Remediation

• reversing the damage done to environment– Mitigation

• moderating & alleviating what’s happening to environment

– Restoration

• restore environment to former state

E. Mining• Four Major Steps of Mining– Site Development

• economic decision made to determine site• factors include current and projected costs and

profits– Extraction

• removing minerals and ores from the Earth– Processing

• metal obtained from ore by chemical processes– Reclamation

• restore the land• steps

– recontouring the land to former condition– adding new topsoil/soil nutrients if needed– replanting area with fast growing vegetation

E. Mining• Methods of Extraction– Surface Mining

• Open-pit mining - extracting rocks and minerals from open pit

• Strip mining - mining seam of minerals by removing strip of overburdened

• Mountaintop removal - rock at top removed and then ore mined

• Dredging - bringing up minerals from underwater– Underground Mining

• large shafts dug into the ground– less surface destruction & waste rock produced

– In situ Leaching• small holes drilled into site and water-based chemical

solvents used to extract resources – less expensive, shorter production time, requires less

ground surface disturbances

E. Mining• Acid Mine Draining / Acid Rock Drainage

– flow of acidic water from mines• mine acts as collector of groundwater• dumps located at surface• water in contact with high grade ore• production can happen long after mine

abandoned

• Include Formulas:2FeS2(s) + 7O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2+(aq) + 4SO4

2-(aq) + 4H+(aq)

E. Mining• Location & Supply (%) Global reserves-

– Oil reserves• Venezuela - 20%, Saudi Arabia - 18%, & Canada - 13%

– Coal reserves• USA - 12%, Russia - 18%, & China - 13%

– Natural gas reserves• Russia, Iran, & Qatar

– Global mineral reserves• Russia, USA, & Saudi Arabia

Relevant Laws and Treaties• General Mining Law (1872)• Mineral Leasing Act (1920)• Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act (1977)

F. Fishing• Fishing techniques- – Bottom Trawling

• net drags ocean floor for shrimp, cod, flounder, and scallops

– Drift Net• long nets that hang down in water and trap turtles,

seabirds, and marine mammals

– Long Line• long lines with thousands of baited hooks for

swordfish, tuna, sharks, halibut, and cod

– Purse Seine• surrounding large schools of tuna, mackerel, anchovies,

and herring with a large net

• Bycatch – Unwanted fish that are caught along with the targeted species

F. Fishing• Overfishing- Remediation Techniques

– regulating locations and # of fish & monitoring pollution– setting catch limits far below maximum sustainable yields– banning throwing back of bycatch

• Aquaculture- Pros vs. Cons– pros

• source of food & income, flexibility, helps waste problems– cons

• invasive species, threat to coastal ecosystems, contaminates water, affects wildfish populations

• Relevant Laws and Treaties– Anadromous Fish Conservation Act (1965)– Marine Sanctuaries Act (1977)– Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act (1976)– United Nations Treaty on the Law of the Sea (1987)

G. Global Economics• Significance-– Globalization

• Allows for sharing of resources for economic profit globally

– World Bank• Source of financial & technical assistance to developing

countries to promote social & economic process

– International Monetary Fund• Aid global growth and economic stability by providing

financial and to member countries

– World Trade Organization• Helps countries negotiate trade deals so producers,

exporters, and importers can conduct their business efficiently on global scale

G. Global Economics

• Tragedy of the Commons – summary &

examples– The Earth’s resources are the commons and are

for human use. People who exploit them become

rich and the price of depletion is paid by everyone

– Examples• Overpopulation

• Air Pollution

• Wasting Water

• Habitat destruction & Poaching

• Overfishing

V. Energy Resources & Consumption

• A. Energy ConceptsEnergy forms; power; units; conversions; Laws of

Thermodynamics• B. Energy Consumption

1. HistoryIndustrial Revolution; exponential growth; energy crisis)2. Present global energy use3. Future energy needs

• C. Fossil Fuel Resources and UseFormation of coal, oil, and natural gas; extraction/purification

methods; world reserves and global demand; synfuels; environmental advantages/disadvantages of sources)

V. Energy Resources & Consumption • D. Nuclear Energy

Nuclear fission process; nuclear fuel; electricity production; nuclear reactor types; environmental

advantages/disadvantages; safety issues; radiation and human health; radioactive wastes; nuclear fusion• E. Hydroelectric Power

Dams; flood control; salmon; silting; other impacts• F. Energy Conservation

Energy efficiency; CAFE standards; hybrid electric vehicles; mass transit

• G. Renewable EnergySolar energy; solar electricity; hydrogen fuel cells; biomass; wind energy; small-scale hydroelectric; ocean waves and

tidal energy; geothermal; environmental advantages/disadvantages

A. ENERGY CONCEPTSLaws of Thermodynamics– 1st Law: The total amount of energy in

the universe is constant, energy cannot be created nor destroyed, only transferred or transfered.

–2nd Law: The principle stating that every energy transfer of transformation increases the entropy of the universe.

A. ENERGY CONCEPTS• Potential vs. Kinetic Energy

– Potential is stored energy and kinetic is the energy of motion

• Give an example of each energy form: – Mechanical - a baseball flying through air– Thermal - an ice cube melting in a hand– Chemical - batteries– Electrical - lightning– Nuclear - fission energy– Electromagnetic - radiation of the sun

A. ENERGY CONCEPTS• Units of Energy/Conversions-

• Power- the ability to do something– BTU- British Thermal Unit→ amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degrees F.

– Horsepower → a unit of power equal to 550 foot pounds per second (745.7 watts)

– Watt → SI unit of power equivalent to one joule per second

– Calorie→ The energy needed to raise the temperatures of one gram of water by 1 degrees C. Equal to 4.1858 joules.

B. ENERGY CONSUMPTION• Present U.S. & Global Energy Use

– Currently about 40% of the world’s energy is consumed in the Asia pacific region (mostly China), 25% is consumed by Europe, 20% is consumed by North America, and 15% by the rest of the world.

• Future Energy Needs– Projected to increase greatly by 2035 due to

increasing population and demands of other regions in the world like the Middle East.

C. Fossil Fuel Resources & Use: COAL• Formation of CoalOrganic remains forming layers at the bottoms of swampy regions

• Extraction methodsSurface/Underground Mining

• Environmental advantages/disadvantages -Abundant with high net energy yields-Increased CO2 emissions / dangerous to mine

• World reserves and global demandUS: Largest untapped reserves (300+ years) Largest use globally for electrical generation

C. Fossil Fuel Resources & Use: COAL• Methods to Reduce Pollutants from Coal

– Beneficiation→ Process that improves the economic value of the ore by removing the gangue materials.

– Filters→ fabric filters that can be used to reduce particulates.

– Scrubbers→ systems that inject chemicals into a dirty exhaust system to “wash out” acid gases

– Electrostatic Precipitators→ a filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from flowing gas using an electrostatic charge.

C. Fossil Fuel Resources & Use: OIL• Formation of Oil→ Dead organic material from the

ocean gets covered and compacted with layers of sediments over millions of years, the heat and pressure form crude oil.

• Extraction methods→ well drilling in oil reservoirs. • Environmental advantages/disadvantages

– Disadvantages→ habitat destruction when building wells, oil can leak into water supplies, and oil spills can happen hurting wildlife.

– Advantages→ easier to fix then a nuclear meltdown

• World reserves and global demand→ Largest reserves in Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, and Canada.

C. Fossil Fuel Resources & Use: Natural Gas

• Formation of Natural GasForms between non-porous layer at bottom and tops of oil resevoirs

• Extraction methodsHydrofracking- water, chemicals, and sand are shot into the ground at

high pressures, fracturing rock to allow gas and oil to escape.

• Environmental advantages/disadvantages -Inexpensive/easy to transport- least polluting of current fossil fuels-H2S, SO2 released → leakage of CH4 (lower net energy yield compared

to other fossil fuels)

• World reserves and global demandMiddle East, Russia, Kazakhstan have largest supplies (US has 3% - enough to last ~75 years)

D. NUCLEAR ENERGY• Nuclear Fission process→ nucleus is split

spontaneously or on impact with another particle and releases energy.

• Fertile vs Fissile– Fissile materials can sustain a chain reaction with

materials of any energy. – Fertile materials are materials that can be

transformed into fissile material by the bombardment of neutrons inside a reactor.

• Nuclear Fuel → U-235,U-238, Pu-239– U-235→ nuclear power plants and weapons– U-238→ fuel in fission reactors– Pu-239→ fission power plants

D. NUCLEAR ENERGY

• Uranium Fuel Cycle1. Mining- In Situ Leach mining for raw uranium (abundant but dispersed)

2. Milling-Crushing/Grinding into powder material (yellow cake)

3. Conversion- converted to uranium hexafluoride

4. Enrichment- separated into two gaseous streams of low-enriched uranium and “tails”

depleted uranium

5. Fuel Fabrication- uranium oxide is pressed and backed into smaller pellets

6. Nuclear Reactor- pellets are held in casings, separated by control rods allowing reactions

to occur. Heats water in a cycle to cause steam for turbine spinning and electrical generation.

7. Spent Fuel Reprocessing- Either is buried to reduce contamination, or re-enriched since

there is much more potential energy remaining (often in France).

• Electricity production processSplitting a heavy nuclei (like uranium) into two smaller nuclei. This process releases energy to heat water that creates steam to spin a turbine. The turbine spins

the generator, producing electricity.

D. NUCLEAR ENERGY

• Environmental Advantages/Disadvantages– Advantages: Doesn’t release greenhouse gases– Disadvantages: Habitat destruction building the plant,

byproducts are radioactive and must be properly disposed

• Safety Issues

– radioactive waste must be discarded properly– Run the risk of a meltdown

• Case Studies:– Chernobyl→ 1986, Ukrainian power plant had a

meltdown due to a flawed Soviet reactor. – Fukushima Daiichi→ Tsunami and earthquake in 2011

caused a meltdown of this plant.

D. NUCLEAR ENERGY

* Other Nonrenewable Energy Sources

• Methane HydratesTrapped in ice/permafrost with hydrate deposits 100 m thick in the

ocean floor

• Oil ShaleRocky material containing kerogen, used to heat and convert into oil (3

trillion barrels of oil could be possibly made)

• Oil Sands / Tar SandsSands containing semi-solid oil “bitumen.” Can be condensed and

transformed to oil. Gathered through strip mining (Canada)

• SynfuelsFuels produced from coal, natural gas, and biomass through chemical

conversion processes

E. HYDROELECTRIC POWER

• Energy Generation ProcessWater flows through a turbine, spinning it, causing a generator to spin and generate electricity.

• Advantages/Disadvantages to Dams– Advantages→ doesn’t emit greenhouse gases, its

efficient when storing energy– Disadvantages→ habitat destruction, expensive

to building, water flow is messed up, fish deaths, and sediments get caught behind the dam and build up.

E. HYDROELECTRIC POWER

• Flood Control Methods– Channelization

-Straightening/ deepening of streams and rivers to reduce overflow likelihood (can increase water velocity and rate of erosion)

– Dams-Structures meant to hold back large quantities of waters in reservoirs. Can increased deposition of sediments and cause flooding in habitats up river.

– Levees or Floodwalls– Raised embankments meant to prevent overflow- can cause major

flooding if broken.

F. ENERGY CONSERVATION

• List 5 conservation methods-

1. Electric Cars

2. Carpooling

3. Energy saving light bulbs

4. Passive solar energy

5. Mass transit

F. ENERGY CONSERVATION

• Smart Grids-Electrical supply network that uses digital communication to detect

and react to local changes

• CAFÉ Standards- Standards for commercial shipping or car fleets average fuel

economies

• Environmental Advantages of Mass Transit

- Mass transit: rail, bus services, subways, airlines, and ferries- Fewer emissions compared to a private car transportation system,

reducing total power/fuel needed for population commutes

G. RENEWABLE ENERGY• Describe & Provide Advantages/Disadvantages

– Passive Solar→ manipulate a house or building in a way it saves energy by trapping in and maximizing heat. It can be expensive to build but will save energy and money in the long run.

– Active Solar→ mechanical heating devices and functions that save energy. These devices are very expensive but again save money and energy for the owner in the long run.

– Photovoltaic Cells→ Electric device that converts light energy directly into electricity. It is available anywhere on Earth and is very clean (no emissions), but can be very expensive and can’t be used at night.

G. RENEWABLE ENERGY

• Describe & Provide Advantages/Disadvantages– Biogas (Ethanol & Biodiesel)– Gaseous fuel, especially methane, produced by the fermentation of organic

matter. (Low cost and a truly renewable energy source/ land necessary for biomass growth and competes with food production)

– Biomass– organisms/plant life total mass in a given area- can be grown and chemically

converted to fuels or burned for energy (wood)/ can lead to deforestation

– Biofuel– Fuel from living matter- can be used renewably as long as material is grown

sustainably/ can raise food crop prices and requires exuberant amount of water and fertilizers.

G. RENEWABLE ENERGY

• Describe & Provide Advantages/Disadvantages

– Geothermal→ heat generate from the Earth is used to heat water to create steam to spin a turbine that spins a generator and creates electricity.

• Advantages→ sustainable, renewable, environmentally friendly, cost effective, reduces fossil fuel dependence, etc.

• Disadvantages→ Geographical limitations, large start up costs, seismic instability, can hurt water quality, etc.

– Wind→ wind turbines spin generators and create electricity. • Advantages→ cost effective, renewable, sustainable, and

creates jobs• Disadvantages→ loud, ruin aesthetic, kills birds, limitations

on where they can be built

G. RENEWABLE ENERGY• Describe & Provide Advantages/Disadvantages

– Ocean Waves & Tidal Energy

– Finned Turbines placed on beaches and mouths of harbors to draw energy from flow of changing tides

• No emissions, natural/clean, take up little space.

• Only works 4 times a day with the change of tides, provides less energy than needed *Wave energy can supply more on especially windy stretches of coast where waves are powerful/constant

– Small-Scale Hydroelectric

– Small turbines submerged in local rivers and streams

• Little disruption/ clean power for little startup cost/maintenance

• Dependant on consistent flow of water- cannot supply large scale electricity needs

VI. Pollution• A. Pollution Types

1. Air pollutionSources — primary and secondary; major air pollutants; measurement units; smog; acid deposition — causes and effects; heat islands and temperature inversions; indoor air pollution; remediation and reduction strategies; Clean Air Act and other relevant laws2. Noise pollutionSources; effects; control measures3. Water pollutionTypes; sources, causes, and effects; cultural eutrophication; groundwater pollution; maintaining water quality; water purification; sewage treatment/septic systems; Clean Water Act and other relevant laws

VI. Pollution4. Solid wasteTypes; disposal; reduction

• B. Impacts on the Environment and Human Health1. Hazards to human healthEnvironmental risk analysis; acute and chronic effects; dose-response relationships; air pollutants; smoking & other risks2. Hazardous chemicals in the environmentTypes of hazardous waste; treatment/disposal of hazardous

waste; cleanup of contaminated sites; biomagnification; relevant laws• C. Economic Impacts

Cost-benefit analysis; externalities; marginal costs; sustainability

A. POLLUTION

• Indicator Species –- An organism whose presence or abundance or

absence affects specific environmental conditions

– Songbirds - Air Pollution

– Amphibians - Toxic chemicals in Water and Air

– Lichens - Air pollution

– Aquatic Invertebrates - Water pollution

A. POLLUTION TYPES: AIR• Primary Sources - Cause & Effects• CO - Incomplete combustion often from cars. Aids in global

warming and can cause death in concentrations

• CO2

- Caused by combustion. Aids in global warming and can cause ocean acidification

• SO2 - Byproducts of burning fossil fuels. can because acid

rain

• NO - Another byproduct of reaction between nitrogen and 02. caused by high heat often fossil fuel burning

• NO2- Is technically a secondary pollutant and can form into

nitric acid but is a poisonous brown gas in this state.

A. POLLUTION TYPES: AIR

• What is a criteria pollutant?

Common pollutants that are a cause of concern- specifically

the 6 air pollutants w/ national air quality standards that

define allowable concentrations of these substances in

ambient air

• What are the six criteria air pollutants

recognized by the EPA?

Ground-level ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead,

sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide


• Primary Sources - Cause & Effects

• VOCs - come from car exhaust, solvents, industrial processes, household chemicals and can contribute to climate change and ground level ozone

• PMX (PM

10) - Soot from coal combustion. Breathing in can

because asthma and respiratory issues.

• Lead (Pb) - Metal smelting and leaded gas can release into atmosphere. Toxic to nerve cells

• Mercury (Hg) - Caused by combustion of coal and is toxic to nerve cells. Vulnerable to bioaccumulation and biomagnification


• Secondary Sources - Cause & Effects• SO

3 - Caused by combustion of coal and gas. Reacts with

water to form sulfuric acid.

• H2SO

4 - Sulfuric acid comes from SO

3 and causes

acidification.

• HNO3 - Nitric acid from NO

X and causes a lower PH along

with leaching nutrients.

• PANs - Photochemical smog is a respiratory irritant.

• Tropospheric O3 - Reaction of NO

2 with sunlight.

Damages plants and animals by breathing it in.


• Industrial vs Photochemical Smog Formation & Health Effects-

– Industrial

• factories burn fossil fuels (coal), create smoke + SO2 that

mix with fog droplets

• Sulfur dioxide & particulates

• coughing, throat/chest irritation, difficulty breathing

– Photochemical

• increased usage of fossil fuels (gas) & trees & organic waste,

emissions combine in the presence of sunlight

• Nitrogen Oxides and VOCs create ozone

• secondary pollutants cause harm; ozone, sulfur dioxide, etc

• lung tissue damage, low immune system, breathing

problems, skin irritation


• Indoor air pollution: sources of contaminants- Tobacco smoke

- Radon

- Asbestos

- Formaldehyde

• Remediation and reduction strategies for

indoor/outdoor air pollution- Don’t smoke and keep well ventilated homes especially in

basements. Pass stricter laws on materials.

A. POLLUTION TYPES: AIR• Catalytic Converters

- Helps take out carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and

hydrocarbons so as to minimize the impact cars have on the

environment

• Thermal Inversion- Hot air gets trapped under colder air above. This traps

pollution down low. Can be caused by weather fronts.

• Clean Air Act and other relevant laws- Regulates air pollutants so as to prevent excessive quantities

in the atmosphere. Passed in 1963 and major amendments

were added in 1970 and 1990.

A. POLLUTION TYPES: NOISE

• Sources & Effects

– Cars, Machinery, Man-made things/ man

– Harder for animals to hunt by sound, hearing

issues (deafness), sleep disorders

A. POLLUTION TYPES: WATER

• Sources & Effects

– Sewage, Agricultural, Oil, Dumping, Acid

Deposition

– kills/hurts organisms- exposure to chemicals and

general damage by pollution


• Cultural Eutrophication- Artificial enrichment of shallow lakes or slow moving water

and can cause excess plant life, often from agricultural

fertilizer

• Groundwater Pollution- Toxic chemicals and runoff leak into groundwater aquifers

• Urban Runoff

- Surface runoff from streets in urban areas that can lead to

lakes and drinkable water.


• Water quality and purification processes

• Clean Water Act and other relevant laws-

– Clean Water Act (1972)- Established basic structure for

regulating discharges of pollutants into water of US and

regulating quality standards for surface waters

– Safe Drinking Water Act (1974)- public drinking water to

be tested regularly for different contaminants, make sure

it does not exceed “Maximum Contaminant Levels”


• Sewage treatment/septic systems-

• Primary treatment

• Secondary treatment

• Tertiary treatment


Water Quality TestsTest Impact

TemperatureLowers the amount of dissolved oxygen. Increases organism's metabolism

pHincrease or decrease can cause increase in mortality of eggs and decalcification of shells.

Hardness

Dissolved Oxygen

Biological Oxygen Demand

Fecal Coliform

Turbidity

Nitrate, Nitrite, & Phosphates

A. POLLUTION TYPES: SOLID WASTE• Types & Disposal

– Organic- kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, etc; 10 to 15 years to decompose

– Radioactive- spent fuel rods and smoke detectors; hundreds of thousands of years

– Soiled- hospital wastes (cotton, cloth); can take hundreds of years

– Toxic- paints, chemicals, pesticides; hundreds of years

– Recyclable- glass, metals, paper, plastics; hundreds of years

• Reduction

– collection, transportation, and disposal of municipal solid waste

A. POLLUTION TYPES: SOLID WASTEReduction Strategies - Pros vs Cons

Composting

P: nutrient-rich soil additive, water retention aid, slows down soil erosion, no major toxic issues

C: odor, vermin, insects, NIMBY

Remanufacturing

P: recovery of materials to be discarded, material available, and jobs needed (beneficial to inner cities)

C: toxic materials may be present (CFCs, heavy metals, etc)

Detoxifying

P: reduce impact on environment

C: expensive

Exporting

P: get rid of problem immediately, source of income for poor countries

C: garbage imperialism/environmental racism, long term effects not known, expensive to transport

Anaerobic Digestion

P: consistent power, GHG reduction, improved water quality, renewable

C: Expensive, only feasible for large farms, time consuming, highland use

A. POLLUTION TYPES: SOLID WASTE

• Reduction Strategies - Pros vs Cons

• Land-disposal- (sanitary landfills & open

dumping)

• Ocean dumping

• Recycling & Reuse

• Incineration

A. POLLUTION TYPES: SOLID WASTE• Relevant Laws :

• RCRA

– Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976)- Gives EPA authority

to control hazardous waste from the “cradle-to-grave,” includes

generation, transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous

waste

• CERCLA

– Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation Liability Act

(1980)- commonly referred to as “Superfund”; federal fund to clean up

abandoned areas that release chemicals and pollutants into the

environment; also in charge of uncontrolled releases

• Case Study – Love Canal Housing Development

– (1978) Love Canal (Near Niagara Falls) sat atop 21,000 tons of toxic

industrial waste, waste began to bubble into backyards and cellars and

hundreds of families had to sell their homes to the federal

government and evacuate (lead to the formation of the super fund)

B. IMPACTS ON ENVIROMENT & HUMAN HEALTH

• Environmental Risk Analysis

• Acute vs. Chronic Effects

• Dose-response relationships- TD-50 vs LD-50

• Hazardous chemicals in the environment

– Corrosive

– Ignitable

– Toxic

– Radioactive

– Mutagen

– Carcinogen

– Teratogen


• Brownfield – – term used in urban planning to describe land that was previously used for

industrial or commercial use

• Cleanup of contaminated sites-

– Bioremediation

• use of naturally occurring or deliberately introduced microorganisms or other forms of life to consume and break down environmental pollutants

– Phytoremediation

• direct use of living green plants for in situ removal, degradation, or containment of contaminants in soils, sludges, sediments, surface water, and groundwater

– Incineration

• combustion of organic substances

– Storage – Surface Impoundments & Deep Well Injection

• surface impoundments- natural topographic depressions, man-made excavations, or diked areas formed primarily of earthen materials that are used for temporary storage and/or treatment of liquid hazardous waste

• deep well injection- stores fluid deep underground in geologically stable, porous rock formations, such as sandstone or limestone, or into below the shallow soil layer


• Persistent Organic Pollutants– toxic chemicals: persist long time in the environment, can

pass through and hurt food chain, birth defects,

carcinogen

• Bioaccumulation vs. Biomagnification

– Bioaccumulation: how pollutants enter a food chain

– Biomagnification: tendency of pollutants to concentrate as

they move from one trophic level to the next

• Case Study – Stockholm Convention - aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of

persistent organic pollutants


• Case Study – Minamata, Japan- (1950) people noticed strange occurrences in cats, people

begun to have symptoms (shaking, nervousness, shouting

uncontrollably)

- Minamata disease- heavy metal poisoned fish (organic

mercury from Chisso plant’s acetaldehyde waste water)

• Case Study – Endocrine Disruptors

- Children exposed to fire retardants

- personal care products

- BPA


• Cost-benefit Analysis

Comparison of the costs of an action compared with consideration of environmental benefits

• Externalities: Positive (external benefits) and Negative (external costs)

Economic concept of uncompensated environmental effects of production and consumption

• Marginal Costs

Provide relevant measurements of costs + benefits at a specific level or production and consumption

• Sustainability: common threads, EPA

EPA has broken down into four sections- urban sustainability and the built environment, water and ecosystem services, energy, biofuel, and climate change, and material management/human health

B. IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENT & HUMAN HEALTH

VII. Global Change • A. Stratospheric Ozone

Formation of stratospheric ozone; ultraviolet radiation; causes of ozone depletion; effects of ozone depletion; strategies for reducing ozone depletion; relevant laws and treaties

• B. Global WarmingGreenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect; impacts and

consequences of global warming; reducing climate change; relevant laws and treaties)

• C. Loss of Biodiversity1. Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species;

endangered and extinct species

2. Maintenance through conservation

3. Relevant laws and treaties

A. STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

• Formation of stratospheric ozone

Formed as a result of a chemical reaction involving solar UV radiation and oxygen molecules

• Ultraviolet radiation-– UVA Long Wave Ultraviolet A– UVB Short Wave Ultraviolet B– UVC Ultraviolet C

Most UVC is absorbed by the ozone layer and does not reach the earth


• Cause & Effects of Ozone Depletion– Production and emissions of chlorofluorocarbons which

accounts for 80% of total depletion – Volatile organic compounds and chlorine monoxide– Causes health effects for humans, plants, and animals

Include Equations →CCI3F+UV light -> CCI2F + CI followed by

CI+O3 -> CIO+O2 followed by

CIO + O -> CI + O2 followed by

CI+O3 -> CIO + O2 followed by

CIO + O -> CI + O2 + repeat


• Strategies for Reducing Ozone Depletion

Limit vehicle emissions

Eco Friendly cleaning products

Avoid pesticides

• Relevant laws and treaties:

Montreal Protocol- global agreement to protect stratospheric

ozone layer by phasing ot consumption of ozone depleting

substances

B. GLOBAL WARMING

• What is the Greenhouse Effect?Occurs when radiation from a planet’s atmosphere warms the

planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be

without its atmosphere

• Identify & Describe the Sources of the Major

GHGs

Fossil fuel use, deforestation, livestock farming, use of

synthetic fertilizers and industrial processes

B. GLOBAL WARMING

• List Impacts & Consequences of Global

Warming

More frequent and severe weather, higher wildlife

extinction rates, more acidic oceans, higher sea levels,

worse air pollution

• Case Study: Thawing Permafrost

Melting permafrost in the arctic is unlocking diseases and

warping the landscape

Retreating ice is exposing frozen plants that haven’t seen the

sun in thousands of years

B. GLOBAL WARMING

• Mitigating Factors for Climate Change

Reductions in human emissions of greenhouse gases

May also be a result of increasing capacity of carbon sinks

• Relevant laws and treatiesKyoto Protocol- Extends United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change that commits state parties

to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

Paris Agreement- brings all nations into common cuase to

undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change

BENEFITS TO BIODIVERSITY

-Protection from disease

-Protection from changing conditions, such as climate

change (greater diversity means more resistant to

disturbances)

-Various medicines and food sources

-Avoid monoculture, which is very susceptible to disease

and insect attack

- Overall, diversity typically reflects the health of an

ecosystem

C. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY• Identify the factor and describe how it is harming biodiversity

1. H- Habitat Destruction Number one reason species go extinct

2. I- Invasive SpeciesDisrupt ecology of natural ecosystems by displacing native plants and animals

3. P- Population GrowthAlmost all human activities cause alterations to the natural environment

4. P- PollutionLeads to nutrient loading, eutrophication, health issues

5. C- Climate ChangeLeads to structural changes, plant and animal habitats are changing

6. O- Overexploitation

Harvesting species from wild at rates faster than natural populations can recover

C. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY

• Define & Provide examples

– Endemic Species –

Species that is unique to a defined geographic location

Ex: asiatic lion, nilgiri langur, lion tailed macaque

– Threatened Species –

Any species that are vulnerable to extinction

Ex: Pacific walrus, bluefin tuna, giant panda

– Endangered Species –Categorized as very likely to go extinct

Ex: mountain gorilla, the amur leopard, northern right whale

• What is the extinction vortex?

Forces affecting small populations that can cause them to

spiral into a vortex of increasing smaller populations and

endanger their long term survival

• What methods can be used to escape this?

Prevent habitat destruction, support laws that protect

endangered species



• What is a biodiversity hotspot?Biodiversity hotspots are regions that contain large amounts of biodiversity

• Identify & Describe the Major Methods to Maintain Biodiversity● Regulation to penalize and dissuade those hunting species● In Situ conservation focuses on restoring damaged ecosystems to

prevent biodiversity loss● Ex Situ conservation focuses on preserving and stabilizing species

out of their environment before reintroduction

C. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY• Introduced Species/Invasive Species:

definition, types, consequences, examplesIntroduced species are species that are, surprisingly, introduced into a

non-native environment where they outcompete native species due to a lack of natural predators. i.e. Zebra mussels


Relevant Laws and Treaties: • CITES Banned International trade of endangered species, signed by 172 countries in 1975

• Endangered Species Act Signed in 1973, established a list of species considered endangered and granted them legal protection

ADDITIONAL: Key People in APES

• Garrett Hardin – “Tragedy of the Commons”

• Aldo Leopold – “Land Ethic”

• John Muir – Sierra Club founder

• Rachel Carson – “Silent Spring”

• Rowland & Molina – Discovered the ozone hole and CFC damage

• Wangari Maathai – Green Belt Movement founder

• Thomas Malthus – Populations are inherently limited

• Theodore Roosevelt – Created the US Forest Service and established

parks and reserves

ADDITIONAL: Graphing– Scale-Use up all the space

– Units-Use proper units

– Labels-Label your stuff (DRY MIX)

– Titles-Should include independent and

dependent variables

– Accuracy-Be right

– Neatness-Be neat

ADDITIONAL: Key Organizations in APES

• OPEC – Ensures economic stability of the oil market

• EPA – Protects the environment and its resources

• IWC – Restricts whaling practices

• IUCN – Conservation and sustainable resource use

• UN IPCC – Informs on climate change and its effects

• WWF – Reduces human consumption and increases conservation

• NRDC – Sues companies harming the environment

• Sierra Club – Promotes responsible use of resources

apes study guide test date: may 10th @...

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