APA StyleResearch Methods

RCS 6740/PHC 6700

January 24, 2006

Why Use APA Style? Allows readers to cross-

reference your sources easily

Provides consistent format within a discipline

Gives you credibility as a writer

Protects you from plagiarism

Cross-Referencing Your SourcesCross-referencing allows readers to locate the

publication information of source material. This is of great value for researchers who may want to locate your sources for their own research projects.

“Because one purpose of listing references is to enable readers to retrieve and use the sources, reference data must be correct and complete. …” (APA, 2001, p. 216).

Using a Consistent FormatUsing a consistent format helps

your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on.

It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments.

32 APA primary journals; as many as 1000 more in social sciences and psychology use APA as their style guide.

Establishing CredibilityThe proper use of APA style shows the

credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material.

“[Because] authors are responsible for all information in their reference lists. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher” (APA, 2001, p. 216).

Avoiding Plagiarism Academic honesty and integrity!

Proper citation of your sources in APA style can help you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious offense. It may result in anything from failure of the assignment to expulsion from school.

You are academically dishonest if: Someone writes your paper for you You purchase a paper You copy a paper from online You fail to cite your sources Your present someone else’s ideas as your own

Quick Background of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 1928: Meeting of editors of anthropological and

psychological journals. February 1929: 7 page article in Psychological

Bulletin. Just recommended a standard procedure – did not dictate

the style to authors. 1952: 1st edition – 60 page supplement to

Psychological Bulletin. 1974: 2nd edition – 136 pages 2001: 5th edition - 439 pages

APA Style Content & Organization of a Manuscript Expressing Ideas & Reducing Bias in

Language Editorial Style Reference List

Content & Organization Parts of a Manuscript

Title Page Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion Multiple Experiments References Appendix Author Note

Title Page Title (centered, upper ½ of page, ds) Author’s name (1 ds below title) Institutional affiliation or course identification

(ds below author’s name) Manuscript page header (upper right corner,

1st 2 or 3 words of title, 5 spaces, then page #) Running head

Disability Attitudes 1

Running head: DISABILITY ATTITUDES IMPLICIT ASSOCIATION TEST

The Development and Psychometric Validation of

the Disability Attitudes Implicit Association Test

Steven R. Pruett

University of Florida

Running Head Abbreviated title Maximum 50 characters including letters,

punctuation, and spaces Left-justified below manuscript page header Example:

Running head: GENERATION X

Abstract Brief comprehensive summary 75-120 words Concise Self-contained Non-evaluative Coherent Readable

Note: Manual has specific guidelines for empirical studies, reviewsand theoretical pieces, methodological works, and case studies.

ExampleAbstract

Objectives: Develop and validate the Disability Attitude Implicit Association Test (DA-IAT). Participants: Two hundred twenty three

rehabilitation counseling students. Outcome Measures: DA-IAT, Attitude Toward Disabled Persons Scale (ATDP), Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale, Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale, Internal and External Motivation to Respond without Prejudice Toward

People with Disabilities Scales, Contact with Disabled Persons Scale, and Demographics. Results: DA-IAT congruent associations

(disability+negative/non-disabled+positive) occurred more frequently than incongruent associations (disability+positive/non-

disabled+negative). DA-IAT had no relationship with ATDP, an explicit attitude measure. Demographics did not predict DA-IAT scores.

Contact with Disabled Persons Scale was the dominant predictor for the DA-IAT. Conclusions: The DA-IAT has potential of becoming

a useful measure of implicit group disability attitudes based on experience versus belief.

[Abstract=117 words]

Keywords: Attitudes Measurement, Disabled (Attitude Towards), Psychosocial Factors, Demographics, Student Attitudes

First Page of Text Includes manuscript page header Full title is centered on the top line of the

page DS, only, between title and first line of text

Note. Double space, only, throughout the entire document.

Headings The levels of heading are established by format or

appearance The hierarchy of sections help orient the reader to

the structure of the manuscript – they function as an outline

Topics of equal importance have the same level of heading throughout the manuscript.

Start each section with the highest level of heading, even if one section may have fewer levels of subheading than another section

Headings - ContinuedCENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING

(Level 5) Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

(Level 1) Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

(Level 2)Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading

(Level 3)Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending

with a period.(Level 4)

One Level HeadingCentered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

(Level 1)

Engagement

Assessment

Planning

Implementation

Evaluation

Two levels (use level 1 & 3)Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

(Level 1)Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading

(Level 3) 

Engagement

Techniques

Orientation of Client

Three levels (Use level 1, 3 and 4)Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

(Level 1)Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading

(Level 3)  Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. (Level 4)

Assessment

Development

Early childhood.

Adolescent.

Handling Quotes in Your Text If directly quoted from another

author’s work should be reproduced word for word

Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are incorporated into the text, enclosed with double quotation marks.

Must be accompanied by a reference citation with a page number

Example of a Short QuotationMatkin (1985) stated “the compensation principle

and accident prevention form an intertwined relationship whereby one enhances the other” (p. 29).

At end of sentence – close quoted passage with quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses after marks, and end with the period or other punctuation outside the final parenthesis.

Example of Mid-Sentence QuoteHe found “Assessment or decision-making

interviews are generally more focused” (Zastrow, 1998, p. 86) than other types of interview formats.

In midsentence - End the passage with quotation marks, cite source in parentheses immediately after the quotation marks, and continue the sentence.

Use no other punctuation unless meaning of sentence requires it.

Example of Long QuoteWang, Thomas, Chan, and Cheing (2003) stated the following: Conjoint analysis has the potential to augment the study of attitudes

toward disabilities in rehabilitation psychology research. Specifically, as an indirect measurement, conjoint analysis is less prone to social desirability effects. The trade-off method used in conjoint analysis to study people’s attitudes toward disability closely approximates human decision making in real life. Hence both conjoint measurements and conjoint analysis could increase the ability of rehabilitation psychology researchers to understand factors contributing to the formation of attitudes/preferences in multiple social contexts. (p. 200-201)

At end of block quote – Cite the quoted source in parentheses after the final punctuation mark

Do not single space long quotes. Indent 5-7 spaces from the left margin without the usual paragraph indent.

Numbers General rule is to use figures to express numbers

10 and above  The client is 25 years old

Mr. Roberts has had 12 arrests

   Use words to express numbers below 10  Nora Edwards has had three previous

marriages.

ExceptionsAlways as numerals: Dates, Ages, Exact sums of

money, scores and points on a scale, numbers and precise measurements Each item on the Beck Depression Index is scored on a 5-

point scale The client receives $8 per completed hour.

Always as words: Any number that begins a sentence, common fractions Twelve participants were involved in the focus groups 

Parenthetical (Within-Text) Citations Author’s(s’) last name Year of publication Page number (if quoting) Example:

(Chan, 2000, p. 17)

Parenthetical CitationsMultiple Authors 2 authors – cite both names separated by &

Example: (Rubin & Roessler, 2002, p. 127)

3-5 authors – cite all authors first time; after first time, use et al. Example: (Chan et al., 2000)

6 or more authors – cite first author’s name and et al.Example: (Rosenthal et al., 1992)

Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations Multiple sources from same author –

chronological order, separated by comma.

Example: (Shaw, 1998, 1999, in press)

Within same year: Example: (Corrigan, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)

Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations Continued Multiple sources – separated by semicolon,

alphabetical order Example: (Chan, 1998; Pruett, 2001; Thomas, 1992)

Handling Parenthetical Citations If the source has no

known author, then use an abbreviated version of the title:

Full Title: “California Cigarette Tax Deters Smokers”

Citation: (“California,” 1999)

Handling Parenthetical Citations A reference to a personal

communication:Source: email message from Hanoch LivnehCitation: (H. Livneh, personal communication, November 22, 2002)

A general reference to a web siteSource: University of FloridaCitation: (http://www.ufl.edu)

Reference Citations in Text If author(s) name is part of narrative, cite only year of

publication in parentheses 

Hess, Marwitz and Kreutzer (2003) report treatment planning following a spinal cord injury should include methods for identifying cognitive deficits.

On rare occasions you may have the year and author with no parentheses.

In 2000 Walker compared reaction times

Keys to Parenthetical Citations

Readability Keep references brief Give only information

needed to identify the source on your reference page

Do not repeat unnecessary information

Handling Quotes in Your TextThere are many different

combinations and variations within APA citation format.

If you run into something unusual, look it up!

                                  

Tables and Figures Tables are used for efficient presentation of a large amount of data in a

small amount of space. Figures should augment vs. duplicate text, convey only essential facts, and

be clean and easy to read and understand. Any type of illustration other than a table is called a figure.

Graphs (scatter, line, bar, pictorial or circle/pie) Charts Dot maps Drawings Photographs

Tables and Figures should be referred to in the text. There are sample tables and figures in the APA text.

Next couple of slides Sample ANOVA table from p. 162 of APA Manual Sample Regression table from Pruett and Chan (in press)

Table X

Analysis of Variance for Classical Conditioning

Source df F η p

Between subjects

Anxiety (A) 2 0.76 .22 .48

Shock (S) 1 0.01 .02 .92

A X S 2 0.18 .11 .84

S within-group error 30 (16.48)

Within subjects

Blocks (B) 4 3.27** .31 .01

B X A 8 0.93 .24 .49

B X S 4 2.64* .28 .04

B X A X S 8 0.58 .19 .79

B X S within group error 120 (1.31)

Table X

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for Psychosocial Variables Predicting ATDP - A scores (N = 223)

Variable B SE B β

Step 1

MCSDS Short Form 0.17 0.43 0.03

Step 2

MCSDS Short Form -0.04 0.44 -0.01

Fear of Death -0.01 0.05 -0.07

IMS 0.14 0.27 0.04

EMS -0.59 0.19 -0.23*

CDPS 0.12 0.09 0.10

Note. Step 1: R2 = .001 (p = ns), adjusted R2 = -.004; Step 2: ΔR2 = .089 (p < .01), adjusted R2 = .069. MCSDS = Marlowe-Crowne

Social Desirability Scale; IMS = Internal Motivation to Respond without Prejudice toward People with Disabilities scale; EMS =

External Motivation to Respond without Prejudice toward People with Disabilities scale; CDPS = Contact with Disabled Persons

Scale. *p < .01.

Reference List – General Guidelines On a separate page References (the title) is centered on

top line Alphabetical list of works cited If same author cited more than once,

chronologically listed Double spaced Hanging indent Titles of works and volume number

in italics

Reference List – Journal Article Garske, G. G. (2000). The significance of

rehabilitation counselor job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 31(3), 10-13.

Shaw, L. R., & Tarvydas, V. M. (2001). The use of professional disclosure in rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 45, 40-47.

Miller, L. J., & Donders, J. (in press). Prediction of educational outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Rehabilitation Psychology.

Reference List – Book Smart, J. (2001). Disability, Society, and the

Individual. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen. Parker, R. M., & Szymanski, E. M. (Eds.). (1998).

Rehabilitation Counseling: Basics and Beyond. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Reference List – Book Chapter Jaet, D. N., & McMahon, B.T. (1999).

Implications of disability legislation for case managers. In F. Chan & M. J. Leahy (Eds.), Health Care and Disability Case Management (pp. 213 – 238). Lake Zurich, IL: Vocational Consultants Press.

Reference List: Electronic Media

Internet articles based on a print source (exact replicate – usually a pdf file)Smith, S., & Jones, T. (2001). The impact of authoritative

supervisors on job retention {Electronic version}. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling,

12(2), 110-112.

Internet articles that are not exactly as the printed article (i.e., htlm, doc, or txt files)Smith, S., & Jones, T. (2001). The impact of authoritative

supervisors on job retention. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 12(2), 110-112.

Retrieved October 13, 2001, from http://jarc.org/articles

Reference List: Electronic MediaArticles in an Internet only journal

James, T. (2001, March 7). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention &

Treatment, 3, Article 01a. Retrieved November 20, 2000, from http://journals.apa.org/articles

Stand alone document, no author identified, no date.Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (n.d.). Retrieved

August 8, 2000, from http://www.ahrq.gov

APA Writing Style Rules: Abbreviations Avoid abbreviations except for long familiar

terms (MMPI). Explain what the abbreviation means at the first

occurrence: American Psychological Association (APA).

If an abbreviation is commonly used as a word, it does not require explanation (IQ, LSD, RAM).

Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state names.

Language Exerts a Powerful Influence

Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language Be more specific, not less

Use age ranges rather than broad categories Use the phrase Men and women – rather than generic

“mankind” Avoid the generic “he” Specific ethnic or racial labeling

Mention differences only when relevant

Be Sensitive to Labels Use person-first

language when describing and individual or group of people with a disability. Example: people over the

age of 65, people with learning disabilities

Standards of Comparison Be aware of hidden standards that compare

the study group to an invisible (standard) group.Example: “culturally deprived” (by what standard?)

Unparallel nouns

Example: man and wife - Instead: husband and wife

Acknowledge Participation Replace the impersonal term “subjects” with

- participants

- individuals

- college students

- children

Where Do I Find APA Style and Format?

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed. http://www.apastyle.org

Some other good links: http://www.docstyles.com/apacrib.htm

http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/index.aspx?doc_id=2415

Software for APA Style APA Style Helper 5 (available at APAStyle.org)

Walks you through a paper as you create it Helps format references, headings etc Includes a reference builder Works with most word processors From APA – costs $40

APAStyle.info (not an APA website) MS Word Template for APA format Headings and Format in APA style (no help with

references) Free, only good with Microsoft Word.

http://www.apastyle.info/template.shtml

Software for APA Style Other Word Templates for purchase:

EazyPaper: http://www.eazypaper.com/ Reference point software: http://www.refpt.net/

Word referencing macros Southern Ocean Software: http://

www.southernoceansoftware.com/apamacros/index.html

Software for APA Style Citation Software

EndNote 9.0 (endnote.com) ProCite 5.0 (procite.com) Software Reference Manager 11.01 (refman.com) Biblioscape 6.0 (biblioscape.com)

All have versions for Mac (OS X) as well as Windows (98 – XP) & support a variety of word processors (except Biblioscape – Windows only)

Cost: $110 – $200 (Education prices)

A Word (or two) on Purchases NOTE: I am not recommending you purchase

ANY of these software products. I do not use any of them and do not know how well they work. The purpose of this list is to let you know what is out there, but you should practice the maxim “let the buyer beware.”

I would recommend you purchase the APA Publication Manual (5th ed.).