AP250 Sustainable orchard pest management

Geoff Gurr University of New England

AP250

This report is published by the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation to pass on information concerning horticultural research and development undertaken for the Apple industry.

The research contained in this report was funded by the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation with the financial support of the Rohm & Haas Australia Pty Ltd.

All expressions of opinion are not to be regarded as expressing the opinion of the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation or any authority of the Australian Government.

The Corporation and the Australian Government accept no responsibility for any of the opinions or the accuracy of the information contained in this Report and readers should rely upon their own inquiries in making decisions concerning their own interests.

Cover Price $20.00

HRDC ISBN 1 86423 182 3

Published and Distributed by:

Horticultural Research and Development Corporation Level 6 7 Merriwa Street Gordon NSW 2072

Telephone: (02) 418 2200 Fax: (02) 418 1352

© Copyright 1996

1. Summary

(a) Industry summary

Two insect growth regulator (IGR) insecticide products, fenoxycarb and tebufenozide were

evaluated as an alternative to azinphos-methyl for control of codling moth and lightbrown apple

moth. The former compound is currently available as Insegar11 and the latter is likely to be

registered in Australia in 1996 as MimicR. The trial, which contained the varieties Granny Smith,

Bonza and Red Delicious, took place in a young block of apples (planted in August 1989) in the

Orange district of New South Wales over the 1992/93 and 1993/94 production seasons. In both

years sex pheromone trapping showed there to be moderate pest pressure from codling moth and

lightbrown apple moth. IGR treatments were applied using a conventional air blast sprayer with

similar programs as for the industry standard azinphos-methyl spray program.

Both IGR products gave good control of both moth pests. Numbers of fruit damaged at

harvest, plus windfalls, were maintained below one percent in both years by both IGR treatments

and this was comparable with the level of damage under azinphos-methyl. Tebufenozide gave

significantly better control'of lightbrown apple moth in one year. Numbers of two-spotted mite

and European red mite were lower under IGR treatments in both years. The explanation for this

is thought to be the greater numbers of predatory insects and spiders which developed in plots

where the broad spectrum effects of azinphos-methyl were replaced by more target specific

(butterfly and moth) IGR products.

The adoption of IGR products is likely to give acceptable levels of codling moth and

lightbrown apple moth control provided that application dates are well coordinated to periods of

maximum pest activity, by use of sex pheromone traps, and so long as good coverage of leaves

and fruits is achieved. The latter is particularly important during the period of rapid leaf

expansion early in the season and for large, mature trees where sprayer performance must be

carefully monitored. This factor may be slightly less important with the use of tebufenozide as it

is active on young larvae which may encounter spray deposits whilst moving. In contrast

fenoxycarb is active only on young eggs so there is no opportunity for the pest to encounter spray

deposits during a vulnerable period if poor coverage had meant the egg was not previously

contacted. Lower spider mite populations may be expected, even in the first season of use, and

the action of enhanced populations of natural enemies may progressively reduce the incidence and

severity of other secondary pests such as San Jose scale and woolly aphid.

Though the use of IGRs is likely to mean as many applications as conventional

azinphos-methyl use, benefits of this new practice include: lower environmental impact and

occupational exposure to potentially toxic organophosphate compounds, enhanced consumer

acceptability of fruit, reduced spider mite damage and a commensurate reduction in the need for

miticide applications. The latter has scope for slowing the development of resistance to currently

available miticides and maintaining their useful lives. Overall the use of IGRs as a new tool for

integrated pest management may significantly improve the sustainability of production and

enhance the 'clean and green' market image of apples, particularly for export markets.

(b) Technical summary

The Australian Apple and Pear Growers' Association is a signatory to the Pesticides

Charter (Anon, 1992) which seeks to reduce pesticide use to just 25% of 1991 levels by the year

2000. One of the major threats to Australian apple crops requiring pesticide application is the

tortricids, codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) and lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana

(Walker)) which are typically managed by a program of six to eight applications of the

organophosphate, azinphos-methyl. Penrose, Thwaite and Bower (1994) make the case for

considering the relative impacts of pesticides applied rather than absolute quantities used alone.

Thus, the replacement of a compound with a large impact (such as azinphos-methyl with its broac

spectrum invertebrate activity and mammalian toxicity) by a compound with a lower impact may

be valuable, even if the latter needs to be applied as many times.

This project has demonstrated, in a replicated field trial, that two insect growth regulators

(IGRs), fenoxycarb and tebufenozide, can control tortricids to the extent of maintaining crop

losses due to each below one percent, a level generally considered acceptable by industry and

comparable with that suffered under azinphos-methyl treatment. In addition to the benefits

accrued by the use of IGRs, which have a narrower activity including low mammalian toxicity,

there is likely to be significant scope for reducing inputs of pesticides required for pests other

than tortricids. In this study lower numbers of two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch) and

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi (Koch)) were apparent in both years in IGR treatments.

This is considered to be due to predatory insects and spiders which were significantly more

numerous under IGR treatment. Stethorus sp. beetle adults and larvae, apple dimpling bug,

Campylomma liebknechti (Girault) nymphs and spiders, Aranae, were all significantly less

numerous under azinphos-methyl treatment. This biological control value of enhancing

populations of natural enemies is unlikely to be confined to spider mite control alone and it is

anticipated that other pests also may be better controlled under IGR programs as was found in an

unreplicated evaluation of fenoxycarb in the Australian Capital Territory (Readshaw and

Cambourne, 1992). Because other insecticides and carbaryl crop regulation were not practiced in

the present study, the full benefits of enhanced biological control from IGR use may only be

realised where applications of these are minimised by pest monitoring and use of less toxic

alternative compounds.

Close observations of mite dynamics in the course of this project have revealed a separate

phenomenon which may prove of some practical significance. Relatively large numbers of

predatory phytoseiid mites, Typhlodromus spp. have been observed in the calyx of fruits after

harvest, with the mean for cv. Granny Smith exceeding four per fruit in both seasons. If the

levels of removal seen on this experimental site are duplicated on a commercial scale this

represents large numbers of predators being removed from the orchard ecosystem each autumn

and this could compromise the establishment of biological control the following season.

Consideration should be given to researching ways to enhance the retention and survival of

beneficial mites in situ.

This project has been successful in evaluating two novel pesticides and demonstrating their

important potential role in maintaining the economic and environmental sustainability of

Australian apple production.

References

Anon (1991). Pesticides Charter. Australian Consumers' Association. Marrickville, NSW,

Australia.

Penrose, L. J., Thwaite, W. G. and Bower, C. (1994) Rating index as a basis for decision

making on pesticide reduction and for accreditation of fruit produced under integrated pest

management. Crop Protection 13, 146-152.

Readshaw, J. L. and Cambourne, B. (1991). Fenoxycarb (Insegar*): a potential breakthrough for

integrated pest management in Australian apple orchards. In: Proceedings, 1st National

Conference of Horticultural Science, Sydney, 30 September-3 October. (A. Clift and M.

Daniels Eds.) pp. 455-466.

2. Recommendations

(a) Extension/adoption by industry

To date, dissemination of results from this project has focused primarily on

communication with the scientific community and industry as part of a process of peer review

and verification. This has comprised the following:

Gurr, G.M.; Valentine, B.J. & Thwaite, W.G. (1994) Sustainable orchard pest management.

Interim research report to Rohm and Haas Pty Ltd.

Gurr, G.M., Valentine, B.J., Azam, M.N.G. and Thwaite, W.G. (1995). Evolution of arthropod

pest management in apples. In: Agricultural Zoology Reviews. (Ed. K.Evans), Andover:

Intercept 8 (in press).

Valentine, B. J. (1993). Research Summary, Meeting of Pome Fruit Entomologists, 18 May 1993,

Orange.

Valentine, B.J., Gurr, G.M. and Thwaite, W.G.. (1994) Insect growth regulators and biological

control for apple IPM. In: Proceedings of the Australian Entomological Society 25th

AGM and Scientific Conference. 24-28 September, Adelaide, South Australia, p 63.

In addition to these activities, however, findings have been more broadly extended via

features in the 1992/93 and 1993/94 HRDC Research Report and articles in Good Fruit and

Vegetables (1993), University of Sydney News (26/10/1994) and Radio National World Today •

(27/10/94) and ABC Radio 2CR (28/10/94)

It is also planned to present findings at the International Plant Protection Congress (The

Hague, The Netherlands - July 1995) and the International Symposium of Population Dynamics c

Plant Inhabiting Mites (Gilleleje, Denmark - June 1995). The former will focus on the general

applicability of results and the latter the mite specific findings. The Proceedings of each

conference will include abstracts of these papers and a refereed paper relating to the latter

conference would appear in Experimental and Applied Acarology. This trip will be at the

expense of Orange Agricultural College, The University of Sydney and the Principal Investigator.

It is considered that the most appropriate means of now extending these findings to

industry would be via publicity and marketing initiatives of the respective companies involved

since both compounds are commercial products. This would make good use of the existing

infrastructure within these organisations and minimise expense to the Corporation and growers.

The promotion of Insegar11 to date has involved evening growers' meetings and demonstrations

(eg Australian National Field Days). It is likely that the launch of MimicR in 1996 will be

supported by commercial marketing and publicity monies. It is therefore proposed to make

findings from this research available to Rohm and Haas, as a significant voluntary contributor, foi

use as technical results to incorporate into the MimicR registration submission. The information

will then flow on to industry through product promotional activities.

Please note, a copies of a selection of the above publications are appended.

(b) Directions for future research

The success of this project in establishing the efficacy and biocontrol compatibility of

IGRs has led to this two year project being continued for a third year at the expense of the

voluntary contributor, with in kind contributions from NSW Agriculture and Orange Agricultural

College, The University of Sydney. This will provide information on the longer term effects of

IGR use in apple production. Results from these three production seasons of research are likely

to be sufficient to help ensure that IGRs will be adopted to a significant extent by industry.

Additional research will be required to determine the optimum timing and rate for MimicR but it

is considered that this should be carried out by Rohm and Haas.

One unexpected outcome of this project is the observation of removal of predatory mites

inside fruit. Further research, to determine whether or not this represents a significant depletion

of the total population of overwintering predators, would be valuable. If this phenomenon was

shown to be responsible for compromising predatory mite numbers the possibility of providing

artificial domatia for predatory mites on trees could be investigated. Such an approach would

aim to maximise the efficacy of phytoseiids by ensuring that large numbers overwintered in the

orchard rather than being removed inside fruits. This would favour the rapid establishment of

effective biocontrol of spider mites each spring. Suitable domatia may take the form of a "spray

on and set" type polymer which would adhere loosely to the bark of trees leaving crevices large

enough for phytoseiids but small enough to exclude overwintering pests such as codling moth.

Such an investigation would take the form of an interdisciplinary project between materials

scientists and pome pest management scientists. An indication that such an approach may be

effective is the observation of T. occidentalis overwintering under old armoured scale

coverings on trees (McMurtry, 1981).

(c) Financial/ commercial benefits

The financial benefits of project AP 250 are difficult to quantify since they should be

viewed as the intellectual 'ammunition' to persuade growers to adopt IGR products. The

commercial benefits identified by this project of such a change would include:

1) efficacy against codling moth and lightbrown apple moth,

2) good control of spider mites and reduced need for acaricidal applications,

3) enhanced populations of natural enemies in the orchard.

It is likely that more general benefits of IGR use would include:

1) fewer outbreaks of secondary pests, such as woolly aphid (as a result of 3 above),

2) cost savings on total pesticide and application expenditure

3) reduced occupational exposure to organophosphate pesticides

4) potentially exploitable marketing advantage of fruit produced under low pesticide (IPM)

conditions,

5) prolonging of the useful life of azinphos-methyl and acaricides (such as propargite) before

resistance in pest populations negated their use.

Overall the adoption of IGRs should not be viewed as a panacea but a useful additional

tool to be used strategically for the management of pome fruit pests in an integrated fashion along

with other techniques such as pest monitoring, biological control and good husbandry.

3. Technical Report

Efficacy of insect growth regulators (IGRs),

tebufenozide and fenoxycarb, for lepidopteran pest

control in apples and their biological control

compatibility for integrated pest management.

B. J. Valentine11, G. M. Gurr* and W. G. Thwaiteb.

a Orange Agricultural College, the University of Sydney, Orange,

NSW, 2800.

b Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre, Forest Road, Orange,

NSW, 2800.

Summary. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) tebufenozide and

fenoxycarb were evaluated in comparison to the industry standard

organophosphate, azinphos-methyl, in a replicated field trial. In both

the 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons IGRs maintained damage levels to

fruit at harvest (including windfalls) below 1% for both codling

moth Cydia pomonella (L.) and lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas

postvittana (Walker). This was despite considerable pest pressure as

confirmed by sex pheromone trap catches of both species.

Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E. postvittana

and this was statistically significant in one season. Damage due to

early season caterpillars (predominantly Helicoverpa punctigera

(Wallengren)) was kept below 1% by both azinphos-methyl and

tebufenozide but damage under fenoxycarb treatment exceeded this

level in both seasons. Populations of two-spotted mite, Tetranychus

urticae Koch, and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), were

higher in plots under azinphos-methyl treatment than in IGR

treatments in both seasons. Neither IGR appeared to be toxic to the

phytoseiids Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten and T. occidentalis Nesbitt.

Limb tapping in the second season showed there to be statistically

significant differences in populations of other predators which may

have contributed to the biological control of phytophagous mites in

IGR treated plots. Numbers of spiders, Stethorus sp. adults and

larvae, and apple dimpling bug, Campylomma liebknechti (Girault)

nymphs were all lower in azinphos-methyl treated trees. Results are

discussed in relation to the goal of reducing dependence on

conventional pesticides by use of more target specific compounds

which may be more compatible with biological control.

Introduction

The apple, Malus x domestica Borkh., is a fruit crop of

worldwide significance attacked by a wide spectrum of arthropod

pests (Solomon, 1987). In Australia production is dependent on

intensive pesticide use which has led to concern, particularly from

the perspective of product contamination (Anon, 1994) and meeting

maximum residue limits for important overseas markets which may

be ten times more stringent that domestic limits (Bates and Medwell,

1994). The Australian Apple and Pear Growers Association are

signatories of the Pesticides Charter (Anon, 1992) which seeks to

reduce pesticide use to 25% of 1991 levels by the year 2000. One

of the major threats to Australian apple crops requiring pesticide

application are the tortricids, codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) and

lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)) which are

typically managed by a program of six to eight applications of the

organophosphate, azinphos-methyl. Penrose, Thwaite and Bower

(1994) make the case for considering the relative impacts of

pesticides applied rather than absolute quantities used alone. Thus,

the replacement of a compound with a large impact (such as

azinphos-methyl with its broad spectrum invertebrate activity and

mammalian toxicity) by a compound with a lower impact may be

valuable, even if the latter needs to be applied as many times. One

particularly important reason for this is that use of broad spectrum

insecticides had been shown to adversely affect biological control in

apples (eg, Ohira and Oku, 1993), so the development and use of

narrow spectrum compounds could alleviate this problem and, along

with more strategic use of broad spectrum pesticides, is the main

approach of 'second stage' integrated pest management for apples

(Prokopy et ai, 1990).

This study aimed to investigate two narrow spectrum

compounds, the insect growth regulators (IGRs) fenoxycarb and

tebufenozide, in comparison with the industry standard

azinphos-methyl program, for control of lepidopteran pests of apple

and the effects of using such compounds on indirect pests and

natural enemies.

Methods

A randomised block trial comprising three replicates was

established in a young apple block (planted in August 1989) in a

research orchard in the Orange district of New South Wales. Plots

consisted of 35 trees of which only the centre nine were used for

monitoring in order to minimise the influence of edge effects. Plots,

including the central nine trees, were split for cultivar and contained

cvs Granny Smith, Bonza and Red Delicious. Insecticide

treatments were applied using a conventional air blast sprayer

between November and February over the 1992/93 and 1993/94

production seasons. GusathionR (350g/kg azinphos-methyl wp)

applications were made at the rate of 140 g/lOOL, applications of

Insegar* (250g/kg fenoxycarb wp) at the rate of 20g/100L for the

initial three applications and 40g/100L on three further occasions

and applications of MimicR (230g/L tebufenozide) were made on

eight occasions at the rate of 62.5 mL/lOOL. Sex pheromone

trapping was used in both seasons to establish the presence of C.

pomonella and in the second season for E. postvittana and H.

punctigera. In both seasons tree searches to determine presence of

larvae and/or damage to fruits attributable to each species was

conducted during the growing season. Damage was also assessed by

inspection of fruits (including windfalls) at harvest. Leaf samples

were taken at two week intervals in the first year and at three week

intervals in the second and these leaves were inspected for

phytophagous and predatory mites using a binocular microscope.

Mite populations were expressed as mite days, a concept employed

by Hardman et al. (1985) to represent P. ulmi pest pressure over

time. In this context mite days are expressed per leaf, thus a value of

200 may, for example, represent the presence of an average of two

mites per leaf for one hundred days. Limb jarring was employed to

sample other arthropods in the second season.

Results

Insect growth regulators tebufenozide and fenoxycarb

performed as well as azinphos-methyl treatment for the control of C.

pomonella and E. postvittana, all treatments maintaining end of

season fruit losses due to each below one percent (Table 1).

Tebufenozide gave significantly better control than fenoxycarb of E.

postvittana in the 1992/93 season. Tebufenozide also afforded the

best control of early fruit caterpillars in both years though treatment

means did not differ to a statistically significant extent.

The dominant indirect pest present in the trial was T. urticae

though P. ulmi was also present (Fig. 1). The populations of both

species, expressed as mite days (Hardman et al. 1985) meaned over

all three cultivars, did not differ to a statistically significant extent

though there was a consistent trend apparent in which mite densities

were greatest under azinphos-methyl treatment and lower under IGR

treatment, particularly under tebufenozide treatment. Within

cultivars the same treatment effect was apparent on individual

sample occasions and this was statistically significant for cv. Granny

Smith in the 1993/94 season (Fig. 2).

The most numerous predatory mite observed was T. pyri

though T. occidentalis was present (Fig. 3). In IGR treated plots the

latter species was less numerous in both seasons but not to a

significant extent. Numbers of T. pyri were consistent over

treatments. There were statistically significant differences between

cultivars in the numbers of predatory mites detected inside fruits

following harvest with the highest numbers being in cv. Granny

Smith which was harvested latest (Table 2).

Limb jarring showed statistically significant treatment effects

on natural enemies with such taxa as spiders, Stethorus spp. and C.

liebknechti being least common under azinphos-methyl treatment

(Table 3).

Discussion

IGRs have previously been evaluated for use in managing

apple pests in a variety of ways including as a quarantine tieatment

for control of C. pomonella (Yokoyama and Miller, 1991), as a

barrier treatment to protect orchards in which mating disruption was

being used (Boscheri, Rizzolli and Paoli, 1992) and as a

replacement of organophosphate blanket sprays (Bailey, 1991; Ebert

and Henderson, 1991; Readshaw and Cambourne, 1991). The results

of the present study indicate that the insect growth regulators

fenoxycarb and tebufenozide are capable of giving good control of

tortricid pests of apples when used in the latter mode.

Though this trial did not include an unsprayed control

treatment, both IGRs kept fruit damage due to C. pomonella and E.

postvittana below one percent, a level generally considered

acceptable by growers (Hoyt et ai, 1983) and comparable with the

damage level recorded under azinphos-methyl treatment in this

study. It is considered that the use of an unsprayed control in a trial

using plots of the size used in this study would have led to

unacceptable edge effects from migration of pests from such plots,

particularly during the second production season.

Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E.

postvittana and this may be because it is an example of what is

considered to be a new class of IGRs, non-steroidal ecdysone

agonists (Silhacek, Oberlander and Porcheron, 1990). Consequently

it has activity on neonate larvae (Chandler, Pair and Harrison, 1992;

Heller and Mattioda, 1992) which are likely to encounter spray

deposits during locomotion and feeding. In contrast fenoxycarb, a

juvenile hormone mimic, is active on eggs and 5th instar larvae

(Ebert and Henderson, 1991; Readshaw and Cambourne, 1991),

hence, if applications of this compound fail to provide good

coverage or are not well timed to pest phenology, neonates will

escape the lethal effects of deposits and not become susceptible

again until after feeding has led to fruit damage. Such an

advantage of tebufenozide is less applicable for control of C.

pomonella since neonates of this species rapidly enter fruit on

hatching so are less likely to encounter spray deposits during

locomotion. Though fenoxycarb gave poorer control than

tebufenozide of early season caterpillars in the present study, under

normal production conditions control of these by either IGR would

be augmented by the applications of endosulfan made for control of

thrips (Thrips imaginis Bagnall) and C. liebknechti. Such

applications were not made in this trial in order to determine the

effects of IGRs under conditions of minimal pesticide use.

The consistently lower populations of phytophagous mites in

plots under IGR treatment indicate a potentially important advantage

of these new compounds. Management of spider mites normally

requires the application of synthetic acaricides, an approach which is

unsustainable due to the rapid development of resistance in both T.

urticae and P. ulmi. The spider mite control achieved under IGR

treatments in the present study is similar to that previously observed

under fenoxycarb treatment (Ebert and Henderson 1991, Readshaw

and Cambourne 1991). In both these studies the mite control was

considered to be due to enhanced biological control rather than

direct toxicity of the IGR on mites. A number of mite growth

regulators have been described (Dakeyser et al. 1993, Raizer et al.

1988) but neither fenoxycarb or tebufenozide are claimed to have

such properties (Anon n.d. a, Anon, n.d. b respectively). The

observation of significantly greater numbers of natural enemies

under IGR treatment in the present study suggests that biological

control was at least largely responsible for spider mite control.

Survival of phytoseiids under the IGR treatments reinforces this

notion by indicating low toxicity to mites and demonstrates that IGR

use- will be compatible with integrated mite control (Bower and

Thwaite, 1986).

The effects of IGRs on beneficial organisms has been an

aspect of many previous studies and these have been reviewed by

Gurr et al. (in press). Though adverse effects on some natural

enemies are likely under IGR treatment the present study found that

in the second year of use spiders and beetles of the genus Stethorus

were favoured by IGR use. The relative abundance of C.

liebknechti under IGR treatment, though valuable from a biological

control perspective, may present a problem if enhanced populations

persist from season to season. This species is also an economically

significant early season pest of apples in Australia (Bower, Nicol

and Valentine, 1993).

The biological control value of enhanced populations of

natural enemies, especially polyphagous predators such as spiders, is

unlikely to be confined to spider mite control alone and it is

anticipated that other pests also may be better controlled under IGR

programs as was found in an unreplicated evaluation of fenoxycarb

in the Australian Capital Territory (Readshaw and Cambourne,

1992).

The observation of phytoseiids inside fruit after harvest

represents potentially large numbers of predators being removed

from the orchard ecosystem each autumn and could compromise the

reestablishment of biological control the following season. The fact

that numbers tended to increase in the later harvested cultivars

indicated that these mites were seeking overwintering refuge. T.

occidentalis has previously been recorded overwintering under old

armoured scale coverings on trees (McMurtry, 1981) and it may be

feasible to provide similar artificial domatia, particularly for young

trees with smooth bark, by applications of 'spray-on' solidifying

synthetic materials. However, characteristics of these would need to

be such that refuge was not provided for pest species.

Since IGRs represent a new class of pesticides, they are

likely to be useful for slowing the development of resistance in pest

populations by offering an alternative for rotational use in resistance

management programs. However, they are likely to select resistance

themselves if used intensively and some cross resistance may be

encountered. Resistance to diflubenzuron has been detected in C.

pomonella despite the fact that the population had not previously

been exposed to this IGR or other related compounds (Moffitt et

ah, 1988). If used strategically IGRs constitute a valuable

alternative to organophosphates for integrated pest management in

apples which are more compatible with biological control and so

may aid in the reduction of pesticide related disadvantages for

sustainable production and marketing.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Helen Nicol for assistance with trial design

and statistical analysis, Anne Hately, Marion Eslick and Bill Cole

for technical assistance. Financial support of the Horticultural

Research and Development Corporation and Rohm and Haas

Australia Pty Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.

References

Anon. (1994). Chemical Residue Monitoring of Horticultural

Products, Options for Industry Action - A Discussion Paper.

> Horticultural Policy Council.

Anon. (1992). Pesticides Charter. Australian Consumers' Association,

Marrickville, NSW, Australia.

Anon (n. d., a). Your passport to the world of IPM, Insegar* product

literature. Ciba Geigy Limited, Basel, Switzerland.

Anon (n. d., b). Pip fruit. MimicR product literature. Rohm and Haas

New Zealand Ltd, Otahuhu, Auckland, New Zealand.

Bailey, P. (1991). Insect growth regulators: alternatives to broad-

spectrum pesticides. In 'Proceedings, 1st National Conference

of the Australian Society of Horticultural Science', Sydney,

Australia, 30 September-3 October, 1991. (Eds, A. Clift and

M. Daniels), pp. 415-421. (Australian Society of Horticultural

Science, Sydney, Australia.)

Bates, V. and Medwell, W. (1994). Minimising the risk of excessive

chemical residues on pears. In 'Proceedings, Second

Horticultual Industry Technical Conference, Gaining the

Competitive Edge', Wentworth NSW, Australian Society of

Horticultural Science.

Boscheri, S., Rizzolli, W. AND Paoli, N. (1992). Experience with

mating disruption for control of the codling moth and

leafrollers at the Laimburg experiment. In 'Proceedings

Working Group Meeting, Working Group Use of Pheromones

and other Semiochemicals in Integrated Control', 31 August-3

September 1992, Italy, pp. 81-87, IOBC/WPRS Bulletin.

Bower, C. C. and Thwaite, W. G. (1986) Integrated Control of Mite

Pests of Apples. Agfact H4.AE.4, second edition.

Department of Agriculture New South Wales.

Bower, C.C., Nicol, H. I. and Valentine, B. J. (1993). Variable

spray threshold for apple dimpling bug, Campylomma

liebknechti Girault (Hemiptera: Miridae) on apple. In 'Pest

Control and Sustainable Agriculture' (Eds S. A. Corey, D. J.

Dall and W. M. Milne), pp. 142-145 (CSIRO, Melbourne,

Australia.)

Chandler, L. D., Pair, S. D. and Harrison, W. E. (1992). RH-5992, a

new insect growth regulator active against corn earworm and

fall army worm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Journal of

Economic Entomology 85, 1100-1103.

Dekeyser, M. A., Mc Donald, P. T., Angle, G. W. and Downer, R.

G. H. (1993). Synthesis and miticidal and insecticidal

activities of 4-(2-fluoroethyl)-5,6-dihydro-4H-l,3,4-oxidases.

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 41, 1329-1331.

Ebert, M. A. and Henderson, L. J. (1991). Insegar* 250WP - a

breakthrough for integrated pest management in Australian

orchards. In 'Proceedings, 1st National Conference of the

Australian Society of Horticultural Science', Sydney,

Australia, 30 September-3 October 1991. (Eds A. Clift and

M. Daniels) pp. 489-496 (Australian Society of Horticultural

Science, Sydney, Australia.)

Gurr, G. M, Valentine, B. J., Azam, M. N. G. and Thwaite, W. G.

(in press). Evolution of arthropod pest management in apples.

In 'Agricultural Zoology Reviews' (Ed K. Evans) (Intercept:

Andover, U. K.)

Hardman, J. M., Herbert, H. J. and Sanford, K. H. (1985). Effect of

populations of the European red mite, Panonychus ulmi, on

the apple variety Red Delicious in Nova Scotia. The

Canadian Entomologist, 117, 1257-1265.

Heller, J. J. and Mattioda, H. (1992). Field evaluation of RH 5992

on lepidopterous pests in Europe. In 'Proceedings of Brighton

Crop Protection Conference - Pests and Diseases' pp. 59-65.

Hoyt, S. C, Leeper, J. R., Brown, C. G. and Croft, B. A. (1983).

Basic biology and management components for insect IPM.

In 'Integrated Management of Insect Pests of Pome and

Stone Fruits' (Eds B. A. Croft and S. C. Hoyt), pp. 93-152.

(Wiley, New York.)

McMurtry, J. A. (1981). The use of phytoseiids for biological

control: progress and future prospects. In 'Proceedings of

Formal Conference of the Acarology Society of America,

Entomological Society of America Meeting', December 1991,

. San Diego, (Ed M. A. Hoy), pp. 23-48.

Moffitt H. R., Westigard, P. H., Mantey, K. D. and van de Baan, H.

E. (1988). Resistance to diflubenzuron in the codling moth

(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Journal of Economic Entomology

81, 1511-1515.

Ohia, Y. and Oku, T. (1993). A trial to promote the effect of

natural control agents, especially of Trichogramma sp., on the

apple tortrix, Archips fuscocupreanus Walsingham, by

disrupting the mating of the pest. In 'Proceedings

International Symposium on the Use of Biological Control

Agents Under Integrated Pest Management' Fukuoka, Japan,

4-10 October, 1993, 251-265.

Penrose, L. J., Thwaite, W. G. and Bower, C. C. (1994). Rating

index as a basis for decision making on pesticide use

reduction and for accreditation of fruit produced under

integrated pest management. Crop Protection 13, 146-152.

Prokopy, R. J., Christie, M., Johnson, S. A. and O'Brien, M. T.

(1990). Transitional step toward second-stage integrated

management of arthropod pests of apple in Massachusetts

orchards. Journal of Economic Entomology 83, 2405-2410.

Razier, A. J., Motta, R., Sugahara, C. A., Silva, J. M., Arashiro, F.

Y. and Mariconi, F. A. M. (1988). Control of the leprosis

mite Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes, 1939) on citrus, with

chemical acaricides, including chitin synthesis inhibitors.

Anais da Sociedade Entomologica do Brasil 17, 271-281.

Readshaw, L. and Cambourne, B. (1991). Fenoxycarb (Insegar*): a

potential breakthrough for integrated pest management in

Australian apple orchards. In 'Proceedings, 1st National

Conference of Horticultural Science' Sydney, Australia 30

September-3 October 1991. (Eds A. Clift and M. Daniels)

pp. 455-466. (Australian Society of Horticultural Science,

Sydney, Australia.)

Silhacek, D. L., Oberlander, H. and Porcheron, P. (1990). Action of

RH 5849, a non-steroidal ecdysteroid mimic, on Plodia

interpunctella (Hiibner) in vivo and in vitro. Archives of

Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 15, 201-212.

Solomon, M. G. (1987). Fruit and hops. In 'Integrated Pest

Management' (Eds A. J. Burn, T. H. Coaker and P. C.

Jepson) pp. 329-348. (Academic Press, London.)

Yokoyama, V. Y., Miller, G. T. and DoweU, R. V. (1991).

Response of codling moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) to high

temperature, a potential quarantine treatment for exported

commodities. Journal of Economic Entomology 84, 528-531.

Table 1. Fruit damage by lepldopteran pests under azinphos-methyl and Ins

Treatment Fruit Damage at Harvest (%) *

Codling moth Lightbrown apple moth Ea

1992/93 1993/94 1992/93 1993/94 19

Azinphos-methyl 0.28a 0.11a 0.23ab 0.10a 0.

Fenoxycarb 0.61a 0.44a 0.47b 0.09a 1.

Tebufenozide . 0.42a 0.70a 0.00a 0.00a 0.

* Means of three replicates and three cultivars.

Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0.05)

Table 2. Numbers of predatory mites (Typhlodromus spp) Inside apples at ti

Cultlvar Motile8 per fruit *

1992/93 1993/94

Bonza no data 0.42a

Red Delicious 0.97 1.21a

Granny Smith 4.18 4.12b

NS LSD = 2.50

(P=0.07) (P=0.001)

* Means of three replicates, >40 fruits per plot examined.

Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0.05)

Table 3. Numbers of natural enemies in apple trees under azinphos-methyl a

treatment.

Treatment Arthropod count *

Stethorus Stethorus Apple dimpling Spiders

adults larvae bug nymphs

Azinphos-methyl 0 01a 0 01a 0 00a 0.46a

Fenoxycarb 0.13b 0.13b 0.03b 2.77b

Tebufenozide 0.08ab 0.08a 0.04b 2.48b

P< 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.001

* Total catch from limb jarring on 4 dates during summer. Retransformed (from square root) means of three r

Values within a column followed by the same letter not significantly different (P= 0 05)

Figure 1. Levels of phytophagous mitest In plots under azinphos-methyl and

treatment.

Twospotted mite (Tetranychus uriicae) 1992/93

AzinphosHTiethyl Fenoxycatb Tebufenozide Azinptios-metliyl F

European red mite (Panonychus ulmi) 1992/93

3 T

?••

1 -

0 Azkipho&fnethyl Fenoxycarb Tebufenozide

3 T

2

H

0 Azinp!ios-nietlr/l F

t Values on y axes are log base 10 "Mite-days" per leaf for the entire season derived from regular counts of m

Figure 2. Population dynamics of twospotted mite (Tetranychus urtlcae) In

azinphos-methyl and Insect growth regulator treatment In 1993/94 season.

9

Motllea/leaf

2 ••

.L^^MMfeMMttt

6 Nov 1 Dec 15 Dec 5 Jan 26 Jan 16 Feb 9 Mar 30 Mar

Azi

Fen

Teb

Date

LSD (P=0.05) = 0.733

Figure 3. Levels of predatory mitest in plots under azinphos-methyl and Inse

Typhlodromus occidentalis 1992/93

Typhlodromus pyri

1992/93

t Values on y axes are log base 10 "Mite-days" per leaf for the entire season derived from regular counts of

Appendix 1. Selected Publicity and Publications Associated with Project.

Valentine, B. J. (1993). Apple pest control results promising.

Good Fruit and Vegetables, 4, p. 4.

Article featuring the research.

Anon (1994). Strategies for reducing chemical use. HRDC Research Report for 1993/94, p. 14.

Article extending preliminary results to industry.

Valentine, B.J., Gurr, G.M. and Thwaite, W.G.. (1994) Insect growth regulators and biological control for apple IPM. Proceedings of the Australian Entomological Society 25th AGM and Scientific Conference. 24-28 September, Adelaide, South Australia, p 63.

Conference oral paper and published abstract reporting results to research peers.

Gurr, G. M., Valentine, B. J., Azam, M. N. G. and Thwaite, W. G. (1995). Evolution of arthropod pest management in apples. In Agricultural Zoology Reviews. (Ed. K. Evans), Andover: Intercept, 8, (in press).

Refereed review article including research findings in the broad context of apple pest management.

APPLES/AVOCADOS PEST & CROP MANAGEMENT

Apple pest control results promising By BRUCE VALENTINE

Promising results were achieved in the fust year of a research project in Orange, NSW, aimed at eliminating broad spectrum insecticides from the spray pro­gram for apples.

The joint project, by Orange Agricultural College and NSW Agriculture, is assessing the im­portance of two insect growth icgulators (IGRs) for codling moth control and comparing them with the standard organophos-pliale insecticide, a/inphos methyl.

A possible benefit of switching to the "softer" IGRs is the potential build-up of beneficial insects that will aid in the control of many of the other pests apple growers have to deal with.

A successful production system for apple's that involves the use of a specific chemical control of codling moth and the action of predators and parasites for other pests will be a major contributor to the apple industry's drive for Integrated Pest Management.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM), where apple growers can combine biological, cultural and monitoring techniques to reduce their reliance on chemicals, will help the apple and pear industry

50 per cent by 1996 and by 7Spc by the year 2000.

The Orange project, which Ills into the research and development component of the apple industry's strategy for pesticide use, is being conducted in a young block of trees at the Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre and is being supported by funds from Rohm and Haas Australia and the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation.

Dr Geoff Gurr from Orange Agricultural College and Graham Thwaite from NSW Agriculture are supervising a postgraduate research student to conduct the research program, to be run over at least two seasons. The scholar­ship grant is mainly funded by the college.

Codling moth was successfully controlled in the 1992/93 growing season by the IGRs. Secondary pests such as woolly apple aphid and San Jose scale did not emerge as a problem. Two spotted and European red mite popula­tions were kept in check by predatory miles and late in the season beneficial Slellwrus beetles aided mile control.

Detailed observations of the changes in population levels of pest and beneficial species under

the research trees are only four years-old, the project is similar to a situation where an apple grower decides to start on IPM in a new block or trees this may give 1PM the best chance of success.

Unforeseen pest problems are a major concern of apple growers who wish to reduce their reliance on broad spectrum pesticides by using "soft" pesticides such as IGRs and developing IPM.

The research will monitor the levels of all pests but the project has already provided an unex­pected benefit. Detailed examin­ation of the 1992/93 harvest showed a significant infestation of mealy bug in the research trees, so the project presents an ideal opportunity to study the effects of new spray programs on the levels of ibis potential pest.

If one or both of the IGRs cause mealy bugs to be a problem this knowledge will be useful.

Afler the 1993/94 season's re­sults have been analysed there should be a clear indication of the efficacy of the IGR, relative to the standard organophosphate treatment, and whether one of these new products has an advan­tage in the development of a "clean green" IPM apple orchard.

1 4 HRDC RESEARCH REPORT PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMEN

Strategies for reducing chemical use ommunity concern on pesticides

[i (he environment and food is ncreasing. and ;i National Pesticide "hailer has heen drawn with the litn of reducing prolicide use by >(>"'.. in five \ears and h\ 75% by lie year 2<W«"i

I'hc Australian Apple and Tear ndnstry lias si cued this charter. "or' apples the most important I i sense is apple scab \'enturin nncqu;tlis and the sinulc iarcest isc of fnnuicides in the industry is or the conltol of ihis .(incase. A -Mevions llorticnllutal Research and Development Corporation (IIUIH ) ;ludy by the Tasmanian Department >f 1'rimary Industry showed that ipplicnlions of slaked ltrne lo the irees can control scab effectively.

In a new Tasmanian Department :tf Primary Industry co-ordinated project, the neu approach of con­trolling black spot of apples based on increasing the pH on leaf and fruit surface has been investigated in Tasmania. Victoria. NSW. .South Australia and Queensland. Al­though the trials arc still in progress. assessments of leaf and sub-sample fntii infections to date indicate that Until (hydrntcd lime) is still the hesi and must economical pi I maierial for controlling black spot. I 'nder low disease pressure. Limil

APPLES AND PEARS where XO'% (if the Australian crop is produced in the Goislburu Valley, including export fruit valued at about %}Q million annually.

A Victorian Department of Agri­culture project has started with the aim of improving pear scab control and minimising fungicide usage. Field sites have been established at Tallin* and Strathcwen, where leaf wetness, temperature and other relevant parameters are being moni­tored.

Ascospore discharge is being monitored and peak discharges occurred from green tip to early petal fall. Field trials to assess the efficacy of calcium hydroxide sprays, and to compute them with conventional fungicide sprays, are in progress. Preliminary results indi­cate that calcium hydroxide sprays give some control, although not as good as conventional fungicides. especially under conditions of high disease pressure.

• Powdery mildew is also a major cause of disease in apples. When unchecked it can reduce vigour and productivity. Vegetative shoots and flower buds may be killed and infected fruits can be downgraded because of skin russet.

Technical assistant, Datiri Jennings, assesses apples for colour and firmness as part of a Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries project on the use of gihbercllic acid for russet control in red Fuji.

used alone gave good control. At high disease pressure. Limil should be integrated with two sprays of benornyl (Hcnlate) or hexaconazole (Anvil) to give reliable and satisfac­tory black spot control.

A new method of reducing black spot inoculum has been discovered. based on applying a copper fungi­cide plus oil mixture to trees at about one week before green lip. Using this pre-gteen tip spray, subsequent Limit treatments appear­ed to be a hie to control black spot more reliably. When Limil was further integrated with two sprays of benornyl (Henlale) or hexacon­azole (Anvil) applied at the pink and full-bloom stages, there was good to excellent black spot control.

Reducing the experimental rate of Limil by 50% (from two kilo­grams to 1kg/100 litres) did not appear lo significantly reduce its effectiveness when it was integrated with licnomyt or hexaconazole. Adding a reduced amount of sulphur or copper fungicide lo Limil gen­erally gave better black spot control than when each of the materials was used on its own; also the incidence of copper-induced russet was reduced

• Pear scab is the most important Held: disease of pears in Victoria

cide. phosphorous acid, has given promising results against infections when applied as a foliar spray.

Results from a glasshouse pre-inoculalion spraying trial confirmed that phosphorous acid at 250 miliiltres in 100 litres of water prevented new infections. There were no advantages in using 500ml rates of phosphorous acid.

Field applications were scheduled to evaluate the glasshouse fundings.

• Codling moth {(\di:i pomonellu L.) is a major pest problem in the pome fruit industry and the Horticultural Research and Development Corporation is sup­porting a number of projects dealing with its control.

There are signs that the moth may be developing resistance to azinphos-methyl, and (here is an urgent need for a management package which reduces the depend­ence on a single chemical. Azinphos-methyl may be used up to 12 limes per season in some orchards to achieve acceptably low levels of fruit damage.

Studies to develop an integrated management package are being co­ordinated hy the CSIRO Division of fintomofogy with co-operation from Department of Agriculture researchers in New South Wales, Queensland. Victoria and South Australia.

Strategies being used in develop­ing the package include mating disruption with pheromones. entomopalhogenic nematodes. granulosis virus. Bacillus thunngiensis and environmentally friendly insecticides, such as the insect growth regulator, fenoxycarb (Insegar).

Early season results were promis­ing when codling moth granulosis virus (CMCJV) formulations -Carpovirusine and Granupoin — were compared with azinphos-methyl applications at the Granite Beit Horticultural Research Station in Queensland.

Virus formulations were applied in five and seven-day schedules while azinphos-methyl was applied fortnightly.

Total codling moth damage was about 1.5% in un-replicated trials

Disease control relies on regular fungicide applications at 14-21 day intervals throughout the tree growth period. —, ••- _.. v r ; . _ _ - - - --

A Queensland Department of ^ w " h early apple varieties. This was Primary Industries project at t h e £ ' " a season where moth numbers in Granite Belt Horticultural Resea rch r ' phc romone traps were moderate to Station is testing a biological a g e n t ^ b i g h and weather conditions were (MIO) for field control of r — » « - ~ ^ h n i nnd drv mildew to replace or substantially A project at Orange Agricultural reduce the number of fungicide College is investigating sustainable sprays required

Preliminary results indicate that, when MIO is applied regularly under ideal conditions or combined in a spray program where MIO is

orchard pest management and has a component of codling moth

t studies. I Pheromone trapping indicated i that population levels of the pest

substituted for' hair the fungicide * * < « no higher with insect growth sprav applications, powdery mildew * regulator treatments — fenoxycarb

.' i •_ _ _rr _. _ _- _ i-_ - f lneoonrt ft nit Ir-hniVnriTtrli" / M i m i c l control is as effective as a regular fungicide program alone.

These preliminary results indicate that powdery mildew fungicide ap­plications could be reduced by at

-, (Insegar) and lebufenozidc (Mimic) » — than with traditional azinphos-' methyl treatments (Figure 1). | Fruit damage was absent with " azinphos-methyl and tebufenozide

least 50% where M IO is included J treatments and only minimal when in the spray program ! fenoxycarb was used.

• Research scientists at the Insti- { Populations of pest mites — tute of Sustainable Agriculture, f two-spotted mite and European red Tatura are investigatine the control | mite — were greater with azinphos-of root and collar rot of pome and • methyl while those of predatory stone fruit which are caused by the « miles {Typhlodromus pyri and T. fungus, rhilophlhrra cactom'm. I occidental!*) were similar under all

Recent studies have revealed a I treatments, indicating that insect severe, though less obvious, form '! growth regulators did not eliminate of infection in autumn/winter. The '--the beneficial species new. low-toxicity. systemic fungi- • A concluding project at the

Azinphos - methyl (Gusathlon) at 140g/100L

» i t n i t t o« I I i » U J3.ll MVl! OfrOI l&Ol 7O0I 77 01 OKtt l<M» 1?*?

Fenoxycarb | Insegar)

l 75 11 tl?II a*-!* I H * 7317 30-17 OMl 10-01 ?<WJ1 11 01 0307 l&O? !>03

Tebufenozide (Mimic) at 65g/10OL

CL 1 0

| OS

5 „„ MJ-H M M « U M-l ! tft-ll ? M I XM] Ot-41 10-01 IO-0I JMJt *WH 10-01 IT02

Institute for Sustainable Agricul­ture. Tatura, Victoria, has success­fully developed economic damage thresholds for two-spotted miles on Williams' Bon Chretien pears.

The main outcome has been a practical procedure for the monitor­ing of two-spotted mite infestation which allows the need for chemical control to be accurately predicted. The complete method has been compiled into a model named Mite Master which is available either for computer or pencil and paper. In tests on 30 commercial blocks over two seasons the model successfully predicted spray requirements on each occasion. Overall the number of sprays applied were reduced compared with recommendations from commercial scouting pro­cedures.

In the project it was shown that leaf scorch, which is the major visible damage caused by two-spotted mite in Williams* pears, could be directly related to reduced fruit set and yield in the following season. As in other monitoring systems for two-spotted mite, spray prediction is based on mite counts from weekly leaf samples.

Presence/absence counts gave similar results to the much more laborious total count method. It

- was shown that, by calculating a I cumulative mite index, the precision I of predictions was significantly im-t proved over other methods. At a - -iven mile index, leaf scorch was

Pheromone trap* are checked regu­larly for numbers of codling moth.

higher when orchards were wale: stressed compared with irrigated

• The role of lesion nematode" (Pratylcnchus penetrans and P jordanesis), a number o rhizosphcre-inhabiling bacteria am­ine root-infecting fungi Fusuriuii sp.. Cylindrocarpon sp. a n<-Pythium sp. in apple replant disea.se is being investigated by researcher at the Granite Belt Horlicultura Research Station in Queensland.

Glasshouse experiments h u v shown thai when apple seedling are grown in soil from appi orchards, their growth is general!-improved if sod is pasteurised o treated with the ncmaucidi fenamiphos (Nemacur). However the responses vary from one soil t the next, suggesting that the cans,! agents of apple replant discas differ from field to field.

Both species of lesion ncmaiod appear to be involved in replan disease in the Granite Belt, Queens land, while Cylindrocarpon sp. wa consistently associated with disco! oured roots. Other fungi and bac teria have not been implicated i the disease complex.

Results of a field trial a Applethorpe, Queensland ha\ shown that one of the lesio nematodes (P. jordanesis) can \r kept under control in replanie apple orchards without the nee for nematicides. The successful mai agement strategy involves: • Removal of trees at least

i months prior to replanting. j •Pre-plani management practic

which reduce nematode population •a suitable rotation crop incorpo ated into soil with urea, ba fallow, application of animal m nure + or - urea, •choice of an appropriate rootsto< •maintenance of a layer of orgar mulch around trees.

Mulching is an important comp nent of this strategy. Results of t field trial showed that four-ye: old apple irees mulched with sa dust produced as much fruit methyl bromide-treated trees a had fewer lesion nematodes arou their roots.

Fungicide resistance being studied Research at the QDPI Plant Protection Division at Indooroopllly It seeking to Ident­ify Instances of fungicide resis­tance In AustraKan horticultural production areas through sys­tematic surveys and analysis ot samples where resistance Is suspected.

Sample* wer*e taken from cucurbit crops In several pro­ducing areas of Queensland and screened for sensitivity to

GENERAL HORTICULTURE the lour groups of fungicides used to control cucurbit powdery mildew.

The retults showed that resis­tance to the Benztmldazolea and Sterol Inhibitors Is still high ( 4 1 % , and 45V.) while resistance to fungicides In the Hydroxypyrlmldlnes and Organophosphate groups Is comparatively low (5% and

16%). There were also differ­ences In the level of resistance found In the four main regions probably reflecting the fungicide cholcee.

H the Mareeba district all Isolates were sensitive to benzlmldazoles and hydroxy-pyrlmfrilnes.

In the Burdekln, resistance to benztmldazolea and Sterol In­hibitors was higher than aver­age.

METALAXYL CONCENTRATION (ppm)

0 01 <*-T^S9£} 0 1 ~ £*S

Screening aa Isolate of /VaUuyHouusnors cabeods for phtnylamide lungfctdn — metaiaxyt (RlooraU) In this instance.

•ensUrriry

100? 93

Australian Entomological Society 25th AGM and Scientific Conference

reducing the number of azinphos-methyl applications by using pheromone trap monitoring to improve timing.

INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL FOR APPLE IPM

Bruce Valentine1, Geoff Gurr1 and Graham Thwaite 1 Orange Agricultural College, the University of Sydney, Orange, NSW, 2800 2 Agricultural Research and Veterinary Centre, Forest Road, Orange, NSW, 2800

Insect growth regulators (IGRs) tebufenozide and fenoxycarb were evaluated in comparison to the industry standard organophosphate, azinphosmethyl, in a replicated field trial. In both the 1992/93 and 1993/94 seasons IGRs maintained damage levels to fruit at harvest (including windfalls) below 1% for both codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.) and lightbrown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). This was despite considerable pest pressure as confirmed by sex pheromone trap catches of both species. Tebufenozide gave better control than fenoxycarb of E. postvittana and this was statistically significant in the second season of the trial. Populations of two-spotted mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, and European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch), were higher in plots under azinphosmethyl treatment than in !GR treatments. Neither IGR appeared to be toxic to the phytoseiids Typhlodromus pyri Scheuten and T. occidentalis Nesbitt. Limb tapping in the second season showed there to be statistically significant differences in populations of other predators which may have contributed to the biological control of phytophagous mites in IGR treated plots. Numbers of spiders, Stethorus sp. adults and larvae, and apple dimpling bug, Campylomma liebknechti (Girault) nymphs were all lower in azinphosmethyl treated trees. Results are discussed in relation to the goal of reducing dependence on conventional pesticides by use of more target specific compounds which may be more compatible with biological control.

BIOCONTROL OF INSECTS: BUSINESS, BIODIVERSITY AND BLUE SKIES

Jeff Waage International Institute of Biological Control, Silwood Park, UK

After years in the wings, biological control of insect pests sits today at the centre of many new initiatives in integrated pest management around the world. This has brought more interests and players into the discipline, and has raised some interesting challenges. As the biocontrol business commercialises natural enemies, ppemiums are placed on impact and not persistence - is this the best way to use them? Persistence itself is a growing issue in the environmental arena. The introduction of exotic natural enemies - even as biopesticides - needs to be rethought in terms of safety and the rights of countries to own their biodiversity. Finally, the biotechnology boom has selected insect control as one of its first commercial targets, with both commercial and environmental implications - how can we ensure that biological control is best used in this context?

63

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this crop in an holistic sense.

Pest Management Categories

A number of conceptual frameworks have been developed for

considering general approaches to pest management (I ig. I). Zadoks

(1993) considered the period of 1940 to 1990 as the 'chemism'

paradigm era. The latter date, somewhat arbitrarily set, marks the

start of the 'environmentalist!!' era. Hill (1984) gives what may be

viewed as a series of steps in methodology by which such a transition

may be made: (I) 'efficiency', in which pest monitoring and

application technology refinements allow conventional pesticides to be

better used, (2) 'substitution', which makes use of alternative methods

such as biological control and (3) 'redesign', which aims to identify

and confront the root causes of pest problems rather than simply

dealing with their symptoms. The latter makes use of cultural

techniques such as habitat modification to maximise natural mortality

factors and prevent problems arising. More recently Tail (1987) used

'routine pest management' to describe prophylactic pesticide use. and

the terms: 'rational pest management', 'integrated pest management'

and 'biological systems' to describe substantially the same categories as

Hill (1984). Hach of these authors indicate, either explicitly or

implicitly, the desirability of such transitions for such reasons as

avoiding the 'pesticide treadmill', or more general agricultural

sustainability.

3

lor

of terms ha

the UK thi

the USA 'fi

Pasqualini

control'.

'advanced'

pesticides

microbial i

not constit

either Hill

(Prokopy e

it includes

defined for

Jacobsen,

plant resist

be conside

this catego

Hill (1984)

Apple Pes

The domin

1965 was.

This took

codling moth Cydia pomonclla (I.) and other key pests, employing

lead arsenate prior to. and DDT after, the second world war (Whalon

and Croft, 1984). During this period the major problem encountered

was the development of pesticide resistance and this was countered by

development of new compounds rather than the development of non-

chemical approaches. There were exceptions, however, most notably

the use of 'harmonised' control in Nova Scotia as outlined by Mint

and Van den Bosch (1981) but even this episode may be viewed as a

temporary aberration of the contemporary philosophy, largely

induced by the imperative of reducing pesticide inputs during the

second world war (Whalon and Croft, 1984).

More widespread rationalisation of pesticide use occurred

during the late 1960s and early 1970s when the increasing problem of

resistance, especially in mites (Hoyt and Caltagirone. 1971), was

complemented by growing awareness of the environmental effects of

overuse of pesticide as initiated by Carson (1963). Such rationalisation

was achieved by an improved knowledge of pest biology and by

monitoring schemes. More recently there has been growing consumer

pressure for agricultural produce with a lower perceived pesticide

residue risk and this has been particularly apparent in apples as a

result of the Alar® affair (Auld, 1992). Though there is debate about

the relative risk posed by residues from conventional pesticide use.

compared to that constituted by compounds such as inhibitins and

phytoalexins which may occur naturally in plant tissue (e.g. Ames and

5

(iold. 1989

response in

this has led

Charter' wh

1991 levels

background

agriculture,

and Sweden

The

the world is

on convent

four decad

effective o

during this

approach b

pressure an

been attemp

adverse im

monitoring

phenology

from 'routin

In

predators (

as phytoph

'integrated'

e.g. Typhlodromus occidcntalis Ncsbitt (Croft and Jcppson. 1970) and

Stethorus punctum (l.cConte) (Asquith et iiL 1980). Such predators

have been employed in 'integrated mite control' (Bower and Thwaile,

1986; Page et ai., 1991). Thus, the use of pesticide tolerant biological

control agents has enabled a 'two-tiered' evolution of pest management

systems in a single crop, in which primary pests arc essentially

managed by 'rational' pesticide use and other pests by 'integrated'

management. However, in an holistic view of apple pest management it

is important to consider the effects of action against any one pest on

other pests and beneficial organisms. Most natural enemies, especially

those native to specific regions, do not have pesticide tolerance so are

prevented from contributing to biological control of pests. The

development and use of narrow spectrum compounds could alleviate

this problem and, along with more strategic use of broad spectrum

pesticides, is the main approach of 'second stage IPM' (Prokopy et al.,

1990).

Current research on new techniques for control of the

spectrum of pests which attack apples offers considerable scope for

the further evolution of pest management. If, for example, such a

further shift in management can be achieved for primary pests, in

which broad spectrum pesticides are replaced by technologies which

have a minimal effect on natural enemies, then this may have a 'knock-

on' effect such that for a greater proportion of other pests the

'biological' approach is possible, in which cultural practices maintain

natural enemies at effective levels. In the following sections,

7

techniques

pest manage

Recent Ad

RATIONAL

The .disadva

residue risk

relatively m

small comp

percent (So

generally h

environmen

recent year

(Kovach et

information

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Panonychus tilmi (Koch) (Nyrop and Minns, 1992).

An indication of the adoption rates of monitoring which can

be achieved is given in Travis ct ah (1992). where the proportion of

growers monitoring P. ulmi during the summer months in

Pennsylvania, USA. exceeded 60 percent in 1989/1990. Shaw.

Cruickshank and Suckling (1993) estimated that 25 percent of pome-

fruit growers in the Nelson area of New Zealand used pheromone

trap monitoring for leafroller pests, particularly lightbrown apple

moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker). Since 91 percent of these

growers were able to reduce insecticide costs in the 1992-93 season,

prospects for wider adoption in this area appear good.

Examples will serve to illustrate the complexities involved in

developing and using thresholds. The economic threshold for C

pomonella is generally considered to be in the region of 0.5-1 percent

of fruits damaged at harvest (Uoyt et al., 1983) though this is difficult

to determine in an holistic fashion since certain costs such as

environmental impact, occupational health and safety and development

of resistance are hard to quantify (Pimentel e i ah, 1980).

Furthermore, control measures used against this pest may have a

direct and desirable effect on other pests. Penrose, Thwaitc and

Bower, (1994) give the example of chlorpyrifos, which as well as

affecting C. pomonella wi l l also control San Jose scale,

Quadraspidiotus pcrniciosus (Comstock), E. postvittana and E.

lanigerum. However, conventional pesticides also have undesirable

effects on natural enemies. For example, Hardman. Rogers and

11

Macl.ellan

multiple ap

years for th

correlated w

rust mite, A

and more f

the toxicity

Scheuten.

Th

monitoring

enemies.

monitoring

predatory m

have been

etal., 1993

En

to integra

dynamics a

the automa

and Walk

based exp

application

number of

been used

and one is

However, this task is complicated by the lad Ilia! systems will need to

be custom designed for particular production conditions because ol

factors such as variability between local strains of a given species:

for example, in response to prey density for T. pyri (Hardman and

Rogers, 1991). A major barrier to a greater shift in this direction is

considered by Wearing (1988) to be the constraints of presently

available monitoring methods. The development of superior

monitoring techniques is likely to be important in achieving greater

sustainability of pest management.

Resistance Management

The development of pesticide resistance within populations of various

pest species has been an important factor in driving the evolution of

pest management in apples and a comprehensive listing of this

phenomenon in North America is given in Croft and Bode (1983).

This puts the earliest reports of lead arsenate resistance in C.

pomonclla well before the advent of organic pesticides. DDT

resistance was recorded five to fifteen years after its widespread use in

the USA (Madsen and Morgan, 1970). Resistance to the currently

most widely used pesticide for this pest, azinphosmcthyl, has recently

been reported from the USA (Varela et a[., 1993) and Australia

(Thwaile, Williams and Hately, 1993). The development of resistance

to this organophosphate presents serious problems, for its replacement

with an alternative compound may adversely affect the common

13

practice o

a/.inphosme

Markwick.

which had

which reta

evaluated in

afforded go

pyrethroid

lepidoptera

organophos

applications

(Pseudoco

organophos

synthetic p

advantage o

pressure for

Res

important f

managemen

resistance i

pressure o

approaches

has recentl

(Thwaite, 1

Pes

such as to chlorpyrifos in the mealybugs Pscudococcus al'finis

(Maskell) (Walker, White and Charles. 1993) and I', longispinus

(Targioni Tozzctti) (Charles, Walker and White, 1993) and to K.

postvittana (Suckling and Khoo, 1993) in New Zealand. Resistance to

azinphosmcthyl in tufted apple bud moth, Platynota idacusalis

(Walker) has been reported in the USA (Meagher and Hull. 1986;

Knight et al-, 1990; Bush et al., 1993).

As pesticide use comes under closer scrutiny, the

deregistration of products may lead to a greater reliance on remaining

compounds which may in turn hasten the development of resistance to

these (Kazmierczak etaf, 1993). Pheromonc trapping has been used

to identify and monitor pesticide resistance levels in some pests and

this is discussed under scmiochemicals below.

15

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Novel Pestic

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e i a].., 199

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Bower (199

may not be

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Despite this

research a

sustainability

Microbial I

control of C

Vaal, 1992;

failed fully

has suggest

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modes of action (either on moulting or metamorphosis, which have no

equivalent in vertebrates) means that they have low mammalian

toxicity. Because the mode of action differs radically from most

conventional pesticides, insect growth regulators (IGRs) tend to cause

mortality over several days in contrast to neurotoxins which act more

immediately. However, they may cause cessation of feeding within

hours of exposure, thus preventing further plant damage (Chandler,

Pair and Harrison, !992).

Krysan (1991) recognises three classes of IGRs: chitin

synthesis inhibitors, anti-juvenile hormone agents and juvenile

hormone analogues and mimics. Methoprene, an example of the

latter, was the first insect growth regulator registered for practical use

(Graham-Bryce, 1987) and since then a number of others, including

pyriproxyfen, fenoxycarb and tebufenozide, have been developed.

The latter is an example of what is considered to be a new class of

IGRs, non-steroidal ecdysone agonists (Silhacek, Oberlander and

Porcheron, 1990; Heller and Mattioda, 1992).

IGRs have been evaluated for use in managing apple pests in a

variety of ways. Yokoyama and Miller (1991) investigated the

potential of pyriproxyfen as a quarantine treatment for control of C.

pomonclla and found it to have ovicidal effects, particularly against

young eggs. Boschcri. Rizzolli and Paoli (1992) used two applications

of fenoxycarb, 0.015 percent, as a barrier treatment to protect

orchards in which mating disruption was being used from pest

migration from packing sheds.

19

In A

demonstrate

(Bailey, I99

199I; Vale

found tebufe

agreement w

in a series o

has also bee

(Hull, Barre

activity 3-4

comparable

An

on natural

species. Hel

laboratory c

and 'some p

assessing th

arthropods w

testing prot

pesticides.

1991; Vale

found that u

of natural e

been indica

significant a

The effects of (riHiimuron and lenoxycarb on I'hytosciulus

persimilis Athias-llcnriot have been investigated by Mansour (1989)

and found to include reductions in fecundity whilst increasing the

fecundity of the pyhytophagous species Tclranychus cinnabarinus

(Boisduval). Rumpf and Penman (1993) found lenoxycarb to be

harmful to larvae of the green and brown lacewing species

Chrvsoperla carnea (Stephens) and Micromus tasmaniae (Walker) in

laboratory and field experiments which indicated adverse effects on

metamorphosis that prevented successful pupation. An early study of

diflubenzuron use in Australian apple orchards indicated toxicity to

Stethorus spp (Bower, 1980). Peleg (1983) reported that when

armoured scales were treated with this IGR at 250 ppm. subsequent

feeding by the coccinellid Chilocorus bipustulatus L. resulted in

complete mortality of first instar larvae. Treatment with methoprene

and fenoxycarb did not affect larval development but inhibited

pupation. All three IGRs completely inhibited egg hatch. Niemczyk

et aj.. (1990) investigated the effect of diflubenzuron, teflubenzuron

and trifiumuron on five predatory species and one parasitoid wasp in

Polish orchard trials. The developmental stage at which exposure

occurred was found to be important, with young larvae generally

being most susceptible, and they concluded that IGRs exert only partial

selectivity on the majority of natural enemies.

It appears that although IGR use in apples will give more

selective control of lepidopteran pests, the effects on natural enemies

may not be negligible. Combined with the significant expense of such

21

compounds

minimise c

represent an

pest popula

compounds

intensively.

by laborato

(Cahill and

detected in

particular co

laboratory s

previously b

Oth

compounds

action (whic

developmen

ordinated w

Bryce, 1987

early juveno

more recent

more stable

further enha

Petroleum

agricultural

1993) and have been reviewed by Johnson (19X5) and Ik-attic (1991).

They have become an increasingly important component of

contemporary management of phytophagous mites as a result of the

erosion of numbers of useful acaricides by deregistration and

development of resistance in T. urticae and P. ulmi. They arc also

useful for other pests such as Q. pemiciosus, and currently comprise

part of the recommended management of this pest and of P. ulmi in

New South Wales as 'winter oils' (with >25 carbons) aimed at

destroying the sedentary overwintering stages of these organisms

(Thwaite e_! a].., 1993). A similar programme is used in North

America against the same pest species and rosy apple aphid, Dvsaphis

plantaginea Passerini, though control of the latter is enhanced by the

addition of organophosphates such as chlorpyrifos to oil sprays applied

at the green tip stage of plant growth (Horton, Pfeiffer and Hendrix,

1991). A major factor which has limited the use of oils is

phytotoxicity and this has confined their use to the winter in order to

avoid damage to foliage or fruits. Hodgkinson (1994) stated that the

ideal carbon chain length for pcsticidal oils was C2I-C23. Heavier

oils were phytotoxic whilst lighter ones, though less damaging, were

less effective pesticides. 'Summer oils' have now been developed

which allow use when pests are active on foliage. Bower (1992)

reported encouraging preliminary field results for control of P. ulmi

by a summer oil which, applied as two sprays 10 - 14 days apart, was

able to reduce pest numbers by more than 90 percent. I^awson and

Weires (1991), in a more comprehensive study, reported good

23

control of s

plantaginea.

American f

phytotoxicit

bloom appli

loss of fruit

rate of use.

which caus

performanc

improvemen

Botanical D

antibiosis re

these and

employed as

means of p

Munetsi, 19

confined to

rainfastness

cotton sugg

and soybean

1985). Cot

control of

y^Jutinana (

oil was less

eggs and adult females of of I*. ulmi and of eggs of the other species

when compared to water controls. However, under field conditions

control of P. ulmi motilcs was poor and phytotoxicity was observed in

one of the two cultivars tested. A commercial blend of vegetable oils

(Naturo i l®) performed in a similar manner against eggs of E^

postvittana (Tomkins and Thomson, 1992) giving potentially useful

ovicidal effects if applied to kiwifruit leaves post-oviposition but not

pre-oviposition. Toxic effects of a canola (rapeseed) oil formulation

(Syner t ro l® Oil) on eggs and motiles of T. urticae have been

demonstrated in the laboratory (G. Herron, pers. comm).

One probable mode of action for vegetable oils is suffocation

following the coating of the organism, though behavioural disruption

of motiles may also occur on previously treated substrates. In

contrast to this, non-oil plant derivatives operate via a chemical mode

of action. Of these, pyrethrum has been described as the most reliable

but a 'last resort option' because of its effect on non-target arthropods

(Van Epenhuijsen, Wright and De Silva, 1992). Ryania is more

selective and has been widely researched for use in apples as reviewed

by Wearing (1991). This author lists 19 natural enemy genera or

species which have been recorded from New Zealand orchards under

regular treatment with ryania. This suggests its high degree of

compatibility with IPM systems. However, adequate control of C.

pomonella was only achieved by relatively frequent applications since

ryania is readily washed from plant surfaces. Hence, when used alone

25

it may not

with Ht. C

As well a

control of

unspecifie

reportedly

less well

neriifolin a

(Euphorbi

C.pomone

wider rang

Susceptibil

been demo

significantl

to be the m

Semiochem

category ar

most exten

and Rothsc

use of the

monitoring

a practical

used. One

manageme

example, in New South Wales, Austral ia, sex phcromone mating

disruption systems stil l require registration even (hough monitoring

devices have recently been exempted (W. ( i . Thwai te pcrs.

observation).

Other scmiochcmicals to have been researched for apple pest

management are antipheromones such as (L .E) -8, 10-dodecadicn-l-ol

acetate (Hathaway, Mo f f i t t and George, 1985), and oviposi t ion

deterring pheromones as reviewed by Roitberg and Angeri l l i (1986).

Kairomones have been less wel l explored but there would appear to be

scope for using these to enhance eff icacy of biological contro l .

Tuml inson, Lewis and Vet (1993) outl ine a number of approaches

such as 'programming' parasitoid wasps to search for certain host

species and keeping them in predefined areas, which could greatly

improve inundative biological control of less apparent pests such as

C.pomonella.

Moni tor ing wi th sex pheromones has two chief applications:

( I ) monitoring pest population dynamics as a decision aid for short

term pest management action and (2) monitoring levels of resistance to

pesticides wi th in pest populations for longer term management. The

potential of phcromone trap monitoring to reduce insecticide use has

been investigated in New Zealand by McLaren and Suckling (1993)

and Suckling, Walker and Shaw (1990). In the latter study, trapping

was able to identify orchards in which numbers of lcafroller pests

(part icular ly E. postvittana) were low, and thereby to achieve

reductions in insecticide applications of up to 25 percent. Shaw,

27

Cruickshank

Nelson area

moni tor ing

insecticide u

damage.

How

not operate w

relationship

(Suckl ing, 1

Suckling and

pest species

stage (Roi tb

al low identi

therefore, th

example, T h

South Wale

pesticide app

require pesti

by other info

sampling for

give more

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trap perform

density, trap

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months (Suckling nnd Shaw. 1992) is an indication that disruption may

be economically attractive as well as technically viable, at least under

certain conditions. In Japan. Ohira and Oku (1993) employed mating

disruption against the apple tortrix, Archips fuscocupreanus

Walsingham, and succeeded in keeping damage below the economic

injury level, largely because withholding of broad spectrum

insecticides induced high levels of parasitism by Triehogramma sp.

The chief challenge faced by researchers in this field is the

optimal formulation of pheromones and their incorporation into

dispensing structures for consistent, effective action over prolonged

periods under field conditions. Howell el a[. (1992) cite a number of

studies which indicate that the blend of pheromone components used is

important. The pheromones codlemone, dodecanol and tetradecanol

have been employed together for the effective control of C. pomonclla

in Asian pear (Barnes et aL, 1992). However, it is not likely that

growers will be prepared to deploy multiple sets of dispensers to

manage different pest species in this manner, so a major objective will

be to achieve a broad spectrum effect by formulating several

pheromones together or developing a widely active compound.

Brown et a[. (1992) investigated emission characteristics of

pheromone dispensers and found solar radiation to be a significant

factor affecting dispenser performance. Brown and McDonough

(1986) also recognised the importance of minimising exposure to

sunlight to minimise isomerization of pheromones. This raises the

possibility of using radiation protectants (as discussed under Microbial

31

Pesticides

field life.

improved

behavioura

Ma

Zealand (T

females. M

pomonclla

attributed f

males. Roi

strategy de

success, e

Rothschild

reports for

giving ade

the most c

Peters (197

without ins

apple orch

caught in a

in this area

Biological

Classical

introduction of I. occidentals from ('alil'ornia (o Australia in 1972

(Rcadshaw, 1975) led to good establishment and control of mites.

T. urticac in particular, and is an excellent example. The later

introduction of '['. pvri from New Zealand to enhance control of R.

ulmi has met with similar success (Thwaite and Bower, 1980).

Generally, biological control of phytophagous mites has been far more

successful than for most other apple pests. Hoyt (1981) gave the

estimate of US $5 million per annum saved on pesticide and

application costs in Washington state alone due to the use of T.

occidental is during the preceding 14 years. A large number of other

predatory mite species are known and at least eight have developed

some tolerance to insecticides (Croft and Strickler, 1983). Croft and

MacRae (1992) studied the interactions between the predatory mite

species T. pvri, T. occidentalis and Z. mali and considered that

interspecific competition may lead to both positive and negative effects

on biological control. The use of such a guild of predators may be

considered advantageous where the population of any one is disrupted

by a pesticide application or adverse environmental conditions, since

the aggregate characteristics give greater flexibility in response to pest

outbreaks (Croft and MacRae, 1993). Compounds applied as fruit

thinners may also have an adverse effect on predatory mites with

carbaryl being particularly harmful (Thistlewood and Hlfving, 1992).

In this study, the alternative compounds naphthalencacetic acid (NAA)

and benzyladenine were found to be less disruptive to the predatory

mites Z. mali. Amblvseius fallacis (Garman), and Balaustium putmani

33

Smiley. Su

may aid the

Inu

apple pest

microbial p

review the

include nem

(1985) con

control age

habitats. H

biological

ultraviolet

foliage and

apple pest s

constraints

ai. (1992)

biological

broadcast

carpocapsa

achieved, p

bark crevic

feltiae for

mortality w

percent kil

direct resu

Nachligall and Dicklcr (1992) found S. bibioms (o cause 75 percent

mortality of larvae of Synanlhedon myopaeformis Borkh though

Hetcrorhahditis spp. had no effect. They noted that levels of parasitism

observed after applications were very dependent upon humidity. The

sensitivity of nematodes to environmental conditions may be reduced

by formulation with antidesiccants (e.g. MacVcan, Brewer and

Capinera, 1982) and radiation protectants (e.g. Gaugler and Boush,

1979), so nematodes constitute an attractive prospect for future

research, especially as they may be applied using conventional spray

equipment fitted with large nozzles (Kaya, 1985).

Sterile Male Release

This technique has been used for management of C. pomonella i n

North American apple orchards and demonstrated to be technically

feasible but not economically viable when compared to conventional

pesticide use (Hoyt and Burts, 1974). Roitberg and Angerilli (1986)

discuss factors which influence the success of this technique. They

state that a ratio of 40 sterile males to each wild male has to be

achieved in order to reduce populations to near extinction. Although

the flight range of most adults is said to be within 50 m of the orchard

of origin (Audemard, 1991), this author cites a number of studies in

which longer range dispersal has been noted. Thus, there is scope for

successful mating in areas where this method is being attempted

because of immigrant males, from unmanaged host trees for example.

For this reason the method is best suited to relatively isolated

35

regions.

Cultural an

Techniques

and the pl

pomonella

managed o

pomonella,

approach to

The

researched

effect (Tuli

from rain

characterise

physical en

mite popula

affect phyt

temperature

Burts (1974

overhead i

other pest s

beneficial v

otherwise

overhead i

as apple scab, incited by Venluria inaequalis (Ckc.) Winl.. and would

also erode any previously applied pesticide. Addition of surfactants to

achieve more thorough coverage by scheduled pesticides may have an

incidental benefit by increasing the water induced mortality in

phytophagous mites. Tulisalo (1974) observed elevated levels of

mortality in T. urticae when they were sprayed with water containing

a wetting agent.

Brandenburg and Kennedy (1987) cite a number of examples

of elevated humidity and free water favouring epizootics of pathogenic

fungi such as Neozygites spp. and, since the use of surfactants may

lead to more thorough wetting within webbing of T. urticae colonies.

such compounds may constitute a means of manipulating the

microclimate in such sites.

When growing fruit for export a particularly low tolerance of

pests is demanded in order to comply with quarantine restrictions.

This leads to high pesticide use since other methods of pest

management may not be able to guarantee pest freedom to the same

extent. However, controlled atmosphere storage for periods prior to

export may help disinfest fruit coming from low pesticide input

orchards. Soderstrom and Brandl (1985) investigated the separate

effects of high carbon dioxide (60 percent) and low oxygen (0.5

percent) for in vitro control of C. pomonella eggs and adults. Both

atmospheres gave 100 percent mortality of both life stages within 72

hours and eggs and adults were both killed more quickly at 60 percent

than at 95 percent relative humidity. Waddell, Dentener and

37

Batchelor (1

carbon dioxi

of three lep

Walker and

a, b) used t

different de

to temperatu

42 days. Th

as an alterna

storage for

limited to eg

directly ex

treatments.

investigate

temperature

apples but

nuts.

Host Plant R

Field obse

currently av

at least pa

liebknechti

and Pawar, 1991). (i. lohar/cwskii, I), plantaginca and I'. tilmi ((iral.

Ilopli and Hohn, 1992). (iooncwardcnc ct a[. (1975) investigated

resistance to C. pomonclla. plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar

(Herbst)), apple maggot (Rhagoletis pomonclla (Walsh)) and the

redbanded Icafrollcr ( A r g y r o t a e n i a vclut inana (Walker)) and

compared selections with cv. Jonathan. They found significantly less

damage from these four pests in 9.7, 22.9, 32.3 and 17.0 percent of

the selections respectively, compared with the the control cultivar.

Improving pest resistance in commercially acceptable cultivars is

dependent upon breeding programmes as discussed below.

Conventional Breeding. The apple belongs to a relatively large genus

with estimates of the number of Malus species as high as 122

(Ponomarenko, 1986). A number of polygenic and major gene disease

resistance sources have been identified in this genus and transferred to

the cultivated apple and these are reviewed by Korban and Chen

(1992). Many of these have successfully conferred disease resistance

and the use of such cultivars has implications for arthropod pest

management since they reduce the need for fungicides, which may

otherwise disrupt natural enemies of insect and mite pests (Walker et

a]., 1988; Sclby and White, 1993).

Resistance to some significant arthropod pest species has also

been identified. Korban (1986) cites a number of studies which

indicated resistance to C. pomonclla. P. ulmi, E. lanieerum and rosy

leaf curling aphid (Dysaphis devecta Walker) but commented that

39

breeding s

difficult. M

(Rat-Morris

Ap

expensive

generations

the long juv

Even using

30 years (H

relative lac

recent effor

Genetic En

resistance g

the germpl

rapidly. Li

u s i n g Agr

The biolisti

transfer (Br

engineering

reviewed by

affect rege

described b

such work

considered

(icnctic engineering has been used lor llie production ol apple

plants which express the insecticidal crystal protein of IM in an effort

to achieve C. pomonclla resistance (Dandckar et a]., 1992). However.

analysis of tissue from m vitro grown plants revealed only low levels

of gene expression, though higher levels of expression and subsequent

pest mortality were reportedly achieved in walnut using a synthetic

version of the crylA(c) gene in this study.

Despite the enormous potential of genetic engineering in this

crop, Raffa (1989) has pointed out that the persistence of tree crops in

agroecosystems may favour selection for resistance in pest

populations. Recent records of resistance to EU in field populations

of diamondback moth, Plutella xvlostella (E.), (Tabashnik et al., 1990)

following relatively transitory foliar applications, indicates that use of

transgenic apples expressing Bl genes over more prolonged periods

will need to be in an integrated fashion along with other control

measures to reduce selection pressure.

AGROECOSYSTEM REDESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE PEST

MANAGEMENT

Croft and Hull (1983) considered the orchard ecosystem and provided

an illustration of the complexity of trophic interactions which prevail

in North American orchards. From this it would appear reasonable to

consider that there was at least some scope for manipulating apple

agroecosystems in order to suppress phytophagous species. This has

41

been acc

agroecosy

Intensive

of tortric

ungrazed

The mech

not discus

removal o

M

predators

four grou

(Trifolium

pomi) and

other mor

consisted

grassed all

O

phytoseiid

numbers a

numbers u

increase.

a block of

means of

orchard in

mites fou

suggesting thai miles were seeking o\ cr-w intering rclugc. Such

deplet ions o f local populat ions ma\ compromise the rapid

establishment of biological contro l the fo l l ow ing season. T .

occidenlal is has been recorded overwintering under old armoured

scale coverings on trees (McMur t r y . 1981) and it may be feasible to

provide similar art i f icial domatia. particularly for young trees wi th

less scaly bark, by applications of 'spray-on' sol id i fy ing synthetic

materials. However, characteristics o f these would need to be such

that refuge was not provided for organisms such as C. pomonella pre-

pupae.

Habitat manipulation may aid phwoseiid survival during short

periods o f low prey numbers dur ing the growing season by the

provision o f alternative prey or other food such as pollen and fungi.

This may be important when populations of mites are increasing since

phytoseiid mites are susceptible to food shortages, particularly as

nymphs (Hardman and Rogers. 1991). Flaherty (1969) found that

Johnson grass, Sorghum halepense (1..), grown in vineyards served as

a host for T. urticae, an alternative prey for T . occidenlal is, so

stabi l ised populat ions o f this predator and the pest species

Eotetranvchus willamettei Hwing. Tydeid and eriophyid mites may be

of value in apples as an alternate source o f prey for phytoseiids,

though eriophyids may assume some significance as pests in their own

right i f biological control is insufficient!) effective.

The presence o f f lower ing plants in the understorey of

orchards is often avoided since it may prolong the period over which

43

bees are att

use. How

pesticide us

tanacctifolia

of pollen w

mites durin

could be m

provide a

wi th in the o

enhancing

(Cowgi l l , W

a_L (1990)

longevi ty a

availabil i ty

plants selec

pests such a

in New Zea

The incorp

diversifies

review by R

lead to redu

or interferin

diversity an

(1994) who

floral resou

management by incorporating critical characteristics ol habitat

diversity which would enhance natural enemy populations. A less

focused way of increasing natural enemies is simply to withhold

pesticides. Kelly and Scott (1990) found the winter soil surface

arthropod fauna in an apple orchard under 'organic' treatment had

consistently greater species number, species evenness and diversity

than in a conventionally managed orchard. In particular, predators

such as the harvestman, Phalangium opilio L., and rove beetle,

Thvroceophalus orthodoxus (Olliff), were more numerous in the

organic orchard, though an unidentified parasitoid was most common

in the conventional block. The latter may reflect greater mobility of

the organism such that it was able to recolonise previously sprayed

areas more readily than others with poorer powers of dispersal.

Regardless of the means by which natural enemy populations

are enhanced, their ability to maintain a given pest population below

the damage threshold will be affected by the characteristics of the pest

organisms. Pest species with K-strategist bionomic strategies

(MacArthur and Wilson, 1967; Pianka, 1970), such as C. pomonella,

may not be well controlled by natural enemies. The synoptic

population modelling of Southwood and Comins (1976) predicts that

for K-strategist organisms natural enemies will be relatively

ineffective because they have evolved defence strategies. In the case of

C. pomonella, the larval stage feeds within fruit so is largely protected

from natural enemies. During winter, pre-pupae may suffer predation

but this is largely confined to homeothcrmic predators, particularly

45

birds, whic

arthropod

key pest, (

univoltine,

economica

C. pomone

orchards re

of fruits a

Bosch, 198

study drop

remained a

control of

synoptic p

Phytophag

organisms

of increase

mechanism

vulnerable

perturbed

maintain e

for extreme

but it is im

relative rat

the relativ

extreme r-s

(he transient, uncertain conditions of annual cropping. Kvcn aphids

which, because of (heir greater powers of dispersal. Croft and Hull

(1983) classified as the most r-adapted of apple pests, arc likely to be

under some degree of biological control (especially if broad spectrum

pesticides are withheld) e.g. Asan(e and Danthanarayana (1993).

An additional reason why natural enemies may be sufficiently

effective in maintaining populations of mite and aphid pests below

damaging levels is because these are indirect pests, attacking plant

organs other than the harvested fruit. Consequently, a higher

tolerance of damage applies than for direct pests, such as C

pomonella. which cause intolerable damage even at relatively low

densities.

Conclusion

Tette and Jacobsen (1992) use the term 'biologically intensive' pest

management to describe use of host plant resistance, scmiochemicals.

biological and cultural controls but comment that 'pests were not being

totally eliminated with these methods, but were merely reduced in

damaging numbers'. We would argue that such a result is actually

quite valid since a key tenet of modern pest management is to maintain

pest numbers below damage thresholds rather than to eradicate them.

As the above sections on these respective techniques indicate, there is

considerable scope for the further development and application of

'biologically intensive' approaches. However, in the near future the

47

level of pes

sufficient (o

direct pest s

above will b

plant deriva

trap monito

phenologica

programmes

will be expe

for optimal

become mo

require som

coverage a

stage(s) of

fenoxycarb

than two da

co-ordinated

Henderson,

as Bt and gr

formulation

protectants.

require fur

before it ca

The

encouraged

Fruits with reduced levels of perceived residue risk wi l l he dif f icult to

achieve without some reduction in cosmetic quality of the fruit, which

runs counter to the desire for high cosmetic appeal (Anon, I WO). This

paradox is somewhat analogous to that exist ing for quarantine

purposes which demands freedom from pesticide residues and from

pest organisms.

Estimates of the y ie ld penalty which may be incurred by

'organic' growing of apples vary to as high as 50 percent (Barnes,

1991) and it is unlikely that consumers would be w i l l ing to pay a

suff ic ient ly high premium for such produce to make production

economically sustainable, regardless of the ecological sustainability

which may be attained. Mattedi (1991) recorded 11 percent of fruit

damaged by C. pomonella in plots treated with granulosis virus and

10.6 percent damage where ryania was used. Whilst these levels were

well below the untreated damage levels, they would not be acceptable

to most growers and serve as a good i l lustration of the need to

integrate several techniques rather than relying upon only one. Wi th

current technology, 'organic' production w i l l not be viable under most

conditions but, in field trials conducted in Italy, pesticide reductions of

90-100 percent and the use of codling moth granulosis virus were able

to keep fruit damage below six percent (Pasqualini et a j \ , 1992).

These authors termed this an 'advanced' strategy to distinguish it

from an 'intermediate' strategy employing insect growth regulators

and Bt which, like conventional management, gave four percent fruit

damage. An additional problem associated wi th the switch to such

49

compound

quarantine

controlled

Ul

quarantine

priced fru

manageme

ecological

Acknowle

T w o of us

f rom the

(Australia)

LEVEL OF PESTICIDE USE Prophylactic Fleduced Low /Nil

GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS

Zadoks(1993)

Hill (1984)

Tail (1987)

Chemism

Efficiency

Environmentalism —-

Substitution Redesign

Routine Rational Integrated Biological pest pest pest systems management management management

TREE FRUIT / APPLE CLASSIFICATIONS

Carden(1987)

Prokopy et a! (1990)

Pasqualini et al (1992)

Tette and Jacobsen (1992)

Low

Supervised control

First-stage IPM

Classic integrated control

Second-stage -IPM

Intermediate Advanced integrated integrated control

SUSTAINABILITY

control

Biologically intensive IPM

High

Fig. 1 Classification Schemes for Pest Management

51

References

AMI 'S , B. N. A N D

757.

A N O N . (1990). Fru

8-9.

ANON. (1991). Pes

Australia.

ASANTE, S. K. AN

(Hald) as a

(Hausm.) in

Sustainable

CSIRO, Aus

ASQUITH, D., CR

systems app

and stone fr

144, Wiley,

AUDEMARD, II. (

Their Biolo

Evenhuis, E

AULD, M. E. (1992). Food risk communication: lessons from the Alar controversy. Health

Education Research 5, 535-543.

BAILEY, P. (1991). Insect growth regulators: alternatives to broad spectrum pesticides. In:

Proceedings, 1st National Conference of the Australian Society of Horticultural

Science, Sydney. Australia. 30 September-3 October, 1991. (A. Clift and M. Daniels,

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